Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03255-z

Do adolescents addict to internet games after being phubbed

by parents? The roles of maladaptive cognition and self‑esteem
Xinyuan Shen1,2 · Xiaochun Xie1,2 · Siqi Wu1,2

Accepted: 18 May 2022 / Published online: 31 May 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Phubbing is a social exclusion, which indicates a person being phubbed can feel neglected during a face-to-face conversation.
The present study examined how parental phubbing is related to adolescent Internet gaming disorder (IGD), and the role of
self-esteem and maladaptive cognition. We recruited 813 Chinese adolescents to participate in the current study. Participants
completed measures of parental phubbing, self-esteem, maladaptive cognitions, and IGD. Results indicated that maladaptive
cognition mediated the relationship between parental phubbing and IGD. Our studies also found out the sequential media-
tion effect of self-esteem and maladaptive cognition on the relationship between parental phubbing and IGD. Surprisingly,
unlike what was predicted, our findings didn’t support the moderator role of self-esteem. This unanticipated orientation and
other results are discussed. The findings contributed to the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of adolescent IGD
and its possible association with parental phubbing.

Keywords Parental phubbing · Internet Gaming Disorder · Maladaptive cognition · Self-esteem

Introduction ranges from 1.2% to 8.5% in adolescents and young adults

Social life has changed dramatically since the emergence
and development of the Internet. Internet games have been
integrated into adolescents’ lives, and bring immediate posi-
tive experiences to users (Yu et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2015).
Nonetheless, long-time Internet games involvement will lead
to several negative consequences, such as Internet gaming
disorder (IGD). IGD is described as persistent and excessive
use of Internet games (Lemmens et al., 2009), leading to
prominent impairment or distress (Feng et al., 2017). The
American Psychiatric Association (APA) has included IGD
in the 5th Edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (DSM-5) in 2013, and the World Health
Organization included gaming disorder in the 11th revision
of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) in
2018 (Darvesh et al., 2020). The prevalence rates for IGD
* Xiaochun Xie
psyxiexc@163.com
1
School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University,
Changchun 130024, China
2
Jilin Provincial Experimental Teaching Demonstration
Center of Psychology, Northeast Normal University,
Changchun 130024, China
(Fam, 2018; Moudiab & Spada, 2019). In China, the num-
ber of online game users reached 553.54 million (CNNIC,
2022). Consequently, the juvenile protection law prescribed
that network products and service providers should not pro-
vide products and services to adolescents to induce them
to indulge. Adolescents participate in Internet gaming for
typically 8 to 10 h or more per day, for at least 30 h per
week, typically in Internet-based group games (Paulus et al.,
2018). Excessive Internet gaming may lead to the neglect of
“normal” relationships, school-related duties, and significant
impairment of personal and social functioning (Paulus et al.,
2018). The above evidence suggests that concerns related
to IGD in adolescence are not specific to one culture but,
instead, a cross-cultural phenomenon.
IGD can lead to negative consequences regarding both
physical and psychological aspects (Li & Wang, 2013; Mills
& Allen, 2020). Physically, IGD can lead to sleep depri-
vation, drug addiction, and even self-harm (Altintas et al.,
2019; Mills & Allen, 2020; Strittmatter et al., 2015). Psycho-
logically, people with IGD experience substantial emotional
consequences, such as depression, and anxiety (Fam, 2018).
The growing presence of adolescents’ IGD raises certain
questions, such as what risk factors are associated with IGD.
From an individual perspective, adolescents with a tendency

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2256
to act impulsively have lower social competence and have
an increased risk of developing more IGD symptoms (Gen-
tile et al., 2017). From the external environment perspec-
tive, family is one of the most important environments in
the development of adolescents (Hyun et al., 2015; Mills &
Allen, 2020; Zhu et al., 2015).
The relationship between family and adolescents’ IGD
has been highly valued in recent years (Fam, 2018; Gentile
et al., 2017). In a longitudinal study, family violence and
poor parental care were identified as key risk factors of IGD
(Paulus et al., 2018). Moreover, parent–child attachment has
been shown to be related to teenagers’ IGD (Sung et al.,
2020). Parental phubbing, which refers to parents’ use of
their mobile phones while ignoring their children during
parent–child communication (Liu et al., 2020), can act as a
digital intrusion and, ultimately, trigger psychological and
behavioral problems in adolescents (Xie & Xie, 2020; Xie
et al., 2019). Furthermore, parental phubbing increases the
risk of depression (Bai et al., 2020; Xie & Xie, 2020) and
mobile phone addiction in adolescents (Fu et al., 2020; Xie
et al., 2019). Recent studies have confirmed that parental
phubbing is correlated with adolescents’ digital use (Jahng,
2019; Niu et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2019, 2021). However,
prior studies rarely focused on how parental phubbing relates
to adolescents’ IGD. Therefore, the present study aimed to
investigate the relationship and underlying mechanisms
between parental phubbing and adolescents’ IGD.
Literature review
Parental phubbing and adolescents’ IGD
Parental phubbing refers to parents using their mobile
phones and neglecting their children when interacting with
them. Previous studies indicated that phubbing is becom-
ing a kind of social norm (Chotpitayasunondh & Douglas,
2016). A recent study showed that 73% of parents used their
cell phones while having dinner with their children, and 35%
of parents used their cell phones while communicating with
their children (Zhao et al., 2022). This phenomenon has been
shown to have a negative effect on children (Xie & Xie,
2020; Xie et al., 2019).
Adolescence is a particularly vulnerable period (Eccles
et al., 1993). Individuals in adolescence are prone to be
influenced by others and develop negative behaviors. Some
studies have found that IGD is highly prevalent in adoles-
cents (Fam, 2018), and is harmful to their current and future
development (Baysak et al., 2018; Marino & Spada, 2017).
However, as there is a lack of evidence regarding the rela-
tionship between parental phubbing and IGD in adolescents,
our study sought to explore this relationship from both a
theoretical and a practical perspective. Theoretically, social
13
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267
learning theory indicates that children’s learning is heavily
reliant on observation and specific behaviors can be learned
and reinforced by observing others’ behaviors (Bandura,
1971). Similarly, adolescents learn behaviors by observing
their parents (Grusec, 1992), including cell phone use dur-
ing parent–child communication (Xie et al., 2019). Recent
studies have documented that parental mobile phone use is
positively correlated with Internet addiction in adolescents
(Niu et al., 2020).
Practically, previous research has indicated potential
associations between parental phubbing and adolescents’
problematic media use. Parental phubbing positively cor-
relates with adolescents’ mobile phone addiction (Xie et al.,
2019) and problematic mobile phone use (Niu et al., 2020).
A negative family environment can increase the risk of ado-
lescents’ problematic media use (Xie et al., 2019). In a fam-
ily system, parental phubbing can have a negative effect on
the parent–child relationship and contribute to problematic
outcomes in adolescents (Niu et al., 2020). Parental distrac-
tion with technology during conversation with adolescents
is significantly related to adolescents’ media use, cyberbul-
lying, and externalizing behavioral problems (McDaniel
& Radesky, 2018; Stockdale et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019).
Adolescents who experience neglect and indifference by par-
ents may, consequently, use media to compensate for their
unmet needs (David & Roberts, 2017; Xie et al., 2019) and
become addicted to Internet games. Experiencing parental
phubbing during adolescence may result in more problem-
atic outcomes than the exposure to risk factors later in life
(Peng et al., 2019). Therefore, parental phubbing may lead
to adolescent IGD (Li, Dang, et al., 2014; Li, Garland, et al.,
2014; Sung et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2015). Based on the
presence of theoretical and empirical evidence, we proposed
hypothesis 1: parental phubbing is positively correlated with
adolescents’ IGD.
The role of maladaptive cognition
The cognitive-behavioral model explains the relationship
between external stressors and pathological Internet use
(PIU), in which maladaptive cognition is a vital mediator
(Davis, 2001). Specifically, in this context, maladaptive cog-
nition refers to constantly thinking about problems associ-
ated with the individual’s Internet use (Davis, 2001). It can
increase individuals’ Internet dependence, and also intensify
or maintain excessive gaming behaviors (Caplan, 2002; Haa-
gsma et al., 2013; Moudiab & Spada, 2019). Maladaptive
cognition is correlated with a series of issues related with
problematic Internet use, including IGD (Caplan, 2002; Mai
et al., 2012) and can be seen as a risk factor and a leading
cause of IGD. In the following section, I will describe how
parental phubbing can lead to maladaptive cognition.
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267
Negative feelings and situations (parental phubbing) can
be related to maladaptive cognition. Individuals tend to have
negative feelings, and develop maladaptive cognition, in
the face of a negative real-life situation (Moudiab & Spada,
2019). The cognitive-behavioral model suggests that exter-
nal stress may make individuals prone to maladaptive cog-
nition (Caplan, 2002; Davis, 2001). Social exclusion as an
external stressor is a risk factor to adolescent development
(Xie & Xie, 2020). In a family system, adverse parenting is
associated with the development of maladaptive cognition in
adolescents (Young & Rogers, 1998). A negative experience
with parents is correlated with the development of mala-
daptive cognition in adolescents (Shute et al., 2019; Young,
1994), specifically in what concerns media use (Shute et al.,
2019; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020; Wang, Xu, et al., 2020). As
a form of social exclusion, parental phubbing can be seen
as an external stressor. In other words, adolescents experi-
ence parental phubbing and feel excluded; they might think
“Nobody loves me offline.” Therefore, they are more likely
to gradually become addicted to Internet games. Thus, we
put forward Hypothesis 2: maladaptive cognition mediates
the relationship between parental phubbing and adolescents’
IGD.
The effect of self‑esteem
Self-esteem refers to people’s appraisal of their value. It is
a subjective judgment that reflects one’s talents or accom-
plishments (Leary & Baumeister, 2000). Self-esteem is a
core component of individuals’ daily life (Kernis, 2003), and
plays a crucial role in adolescent psychological development
(Erikson & Erikson, 1998). On the one hand, self-esteem is
changeable and vulnerable in adolescence. Previous stud-
ies illustrated that adolescents who are exposed to a nega-
tive family environment are more likely to have low self-
esteem, which in turn increases the risk of a wide range of
problematic behaviors (Lim, 2020; Xie et al., 2020). On the
other hand, self-esteem is a protective factor for adolescents’
development (Bogenschneider, 1996). Compared to adoles-
cents with low self-esteem, those with high self-esteem tend
to be more satisfied with themselves and may not be as eas-
ily affected by parental phubbing (Wang, Gao, et al., 2020;
Wang, Xu, et al., 2020). Self-esteem is an important indi-
vidual factor and, therefore, it is necessary to focus on the
role it plays in the relationship between parental phubbing
and adolescents’ IGD. We would like to explore “how” and
“when” self-esteem functions between parental phubbing
and adolescents’ IGD. We anticipate seeing which functions
can better explain the complex nature of development pro-
cesses than a simple mediation model. However, research in
this area is still lacking and we need to investigate the role
of individual factors (Wang Xu, & He, 2020; Wang Zhao, &
Lei, 2019; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020). Thus,
2257
this study proposed to investigate both the mediator (how)
and moderator(when) role of self-esteem between parental
phubbing and adolescents’ IGD.
Self‑esteem as a mediator
Sociometer theory posits that self-esteem is an indicator of
interpersonal relationships, and individuals evaluate them-
selves according to how others evaluate them (Leary et al.,
1995). Moreover, the self-esteem system monitors others’
reactions and alerts individuals to the possibility of social
exclusion. The more rejection and exclusion people receive,
the lower their self-esteem tends to be (Leary & Baumeister,
2000). As a form of social exclusion, parental phubbing is
negatively correlated with self-esteem (Xie et al., 2020).
Therefore, adolescents’ self-esteem might decrease as a
consequence of being neglected by their parents.
Adolescents with low of self-esteem tend to make nega-
tive cognitive assessments about themselves (Lim, 2020).
Self-esteem is an evaluation of the self-concept, which is
a significant determinate factor of maladaptive cognition,
Internet gaming (Festl et al., 2013; Kim & Koh, 2018;
Mathew & Krishnan, 2020). Internet users with low self-
esteem tend to exhibit more maladaptive cognition (Shi
et al., 2017). Research suggests that adolescents with low
self-esteem are less satisfied with their life, and more likely
to develop symptoms of IGD (Lemmens et al., 2011; Yuan
et al., 2021). Adolescents’ self-esteem is negatively affected
by negative situational factors (Bai et al, 2016; Nuñez et al.,
2020), for instance, parental phubbing. A negative family
atmosphere may lower adolescents’ self-evaluation (Orth &
Luciano, 2015) and increase IGD (Throuvala et al., 2019). A
decrease in self-esteem is correlated with maladaptive cogni-
tion and IGD, as suggested by the abovementioned research.
Therefore, we put forward Hypothesis 3: self-esteem medi-
ates the relationship between parental phubbing and mala-
daptive cognition and IGD.
Self‑esteem as a moderator
The ecological risk and protective theory suggest that self-
esteem is a protective factor for adolescents (Bogenschnei-
der, 1996). The relationship between parental phubbing and
IGD may be different in adolescents with different self-eval-
uation levels. Adolescents with high self-esteem often have a
positive self-evaluation (Judge et al., 2009). For adolescents
living under an adverse family atmosphere, such as one with
parental abuse, high self-esteem can protect them from nega-
tive psychological consequences (Pinquart & Gerke, 2019).
The interaction between environment and individuals’ self-
esteem needs to be considered when investigating the factors
of development outcomes (Bronfenbrenner, 1992). Previous
studies have shown that parents’ behavior and adolescents’
13
2258
self-esteem, together have consequences for adolescents
internalized and externalized behavior (Lim, 2020; Pinquart
& Gerke, 2019). Neglectful parenting and low self-esteem
are associated with adolescents’ IGD (Throuvala et al.,
2019). In the face of negative experiences, individuals with
high self-esteem may protect themselves from the arise of
maladaptive cognition (Moudiab & Spada, 2019). Adoles-
cents with high self-esteem appear to buffer against nega-
tive feelings and enhance their ability to cope with nega-
tive situations (Greenberg et al., 1993; Wang, Gao, et al.,
2020; Wang, Xu, et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020). In addition,
individuals with high self-esteem are less affected by nega-
tive emotions than those with low self-esteem (Mahadevan
et al., 2016). For instance, adolescents with high self-esteem
are less sensitive to parental phubbing (Wang Xu, & He,
2020; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020). Hence, when exposed to
parental phubbing, adolescents with high self-esteem may
be less prone to maladaptive cognition than those with low
self-esteem. To sum up, we put forward Hypothesis 4: self-
esteem moderates the relationship between parental phub-
bing and maladaptive cognitions. Adolescents with high
self-esteem might produce less maladaptive cognition than
low self-esteem adolescents.
The present study
The present study aimed to examine the relationship between
parental phubbing, maladaptive cognitions, self-esteem, and
IGD. We tested a moderated mediation model (see Fig. 1)
and a sequence mediation model (see Fig. 2). We examined
the impact of contextual (parental phubbing) and personal
Fig. 1  Theoretical moderated
mediating model
self-esteem
parental phubbing
Fig. 2  Theoretical sequential
mediation model
self-esteem
parental
phubbing
13
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267
factors (self-esteem and maladaptive cognition) on IGD dur-
ing adolescence, an important developmental period. Thus,
the current study provides a new perspective on the relation-
ship between parental phubbing and adolescents’ IGD.
Method
Participants
In this study, we used a convenient sampling method to
conduct a questionnaire survey among junior high school
students in three middle schools in northeast China. We
used convenience sampling to select two or three classes
in each grade of each school. A total of 813 questionnaires
were issued, and 4 participants were deemed as invalid ques-
tionnaires due to their incomplete responses ranged from
18% to 37.5%. A total of 809 adolescents (girls = 395 and
boys = 394, 20 participants did not report their gender infor-
mation) participated in this study and their ages ranged from
11 to 16 years (mean age = 13.15 years, SD = 0.62).
Measures
Parent phubbing scale It was adapted from Roberts and
David (2016), was used to assess adolescents' perceived
parental phubbing (Xie et al., 2019). This scale includes
9 items, such as “My parent places his or her cell phone
where they can see it when we are together”. Participants
rated these items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from
1 = Never to 5 = Always. Responses across the nine items
maladaptive cognition
IGD
maladaptive
cognition
IGD
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267 2259

were averaged, with higher scores representing higher paren- Procedure

tal phubbing. In the present study, this scale had good reli-
ability (Cronbach's α = 0.82).
Internet gaming disorder scale We measured adolescents’
misuse of online games by this scale (Petry et al., 2014).
This scale includes 9 items. Participants rated the items on
a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Never to 5 = Always.
Items as “Do you continue to play games even though you
are aware of negative consequences, such as not getting
enough sleep, being late to school”. The total score of the
scale was averaged, with higher scores representing adoles-
cents with higher Internet gaming problems. In this study,
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84.
Maladaptive cognition scale It was developed by Davis
(2001) was used in the current study. The scale was revised
into a Chinese version by Peng and Liu (2010a, b) with good
reliability and validity. This scale consists of 4 items, such
as “The Internet games is my only friend”. Participants rated
the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Never
to 5 = Always. Higher scores represented higher levels of
adolescent’s maladaptive cognition. In the present study, this
scale had good reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.82).
Rosenberg’s self‑esteem scale This study used this scale
to measure adolescent self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965). The
10-item scale is widely used and has good validity in Chi-
nese samples (Wang et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2020). Items
such as “I feel that I have many good qualities”. Participants
rated the items on a 4-point scale from 1 = completely not
true to 4 = completely true. A higher score indicates a more
positive self-evaluation. In this study, the Cronbach's α of
the scale was 0.79.
The study was approved by the IRB the author’s affiliation.
The informed consent was gain from participants and their
legal guardians(teachers). All participants completed the
pencil-and-paper questionnaires in their classrooms follow-
ing guidance from trained research assistants.
Data analyses
The present study conducted structural equation modeling
to examine the theoretical sequential mediation model
and a moderated mediation model. Mplus 8.3 (Muthén &
Muthén, 2019) was used for analysis. We generated 5000
bootstrapped samples to estimate the confidence intervals
(CIs) of the indirect effect based on the sample. A 95% CIs
without zero indicates statistical significance. Previous stud-
ies have found that age and gender are the potential factors of
online game addiction and Internet gaming disorder (Beard
et al., 2017; Hyun et al., 2015). Thus, age and gender were
treated as control variables in this study. Besides, gender was
translated into a dummy variable where a male was coded as
0 and a female was coded as 1.
We performed a confirmatory factor analysis to test the
discriminant validity of Parent Phubbing Scale, Internet
Gaming Disorder Scale, Maladaptive Cognition Scale, and
Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale. Results showed that these
4 scales have good discriminant validity in our study. Thus,
they are not overlapping significantly.
Results
Preliminary analyses

Pearson’s correlations between variables prior were calcu-

lated and shown in Table 1. Parental phubbing positively
correlated with adolescents’ maladaptive cognition and

Table 1  Zero-order correlations M(SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6

between variables
1 Gender .50(.50) 1
2 Age 13.15(0.62) -.10** 1
3 Parents' phubbing 2.84(0.87) .07 .02 1
4 Maladaptive cognition 1.44(0.66) -.14*** .04 .25*** 1
5 Self-esteem 3.10(0.51) -.05 -.04 -.22*** -.33*** 1
6 Internet gaming disorder 1.74(0.70) -.26*** .10** .26*** .59*** -.24*** 1
Kurtosis .40 2.47 -.39 1.24
Skewness -.35 7.98 .03 1.78

For Gender, Boys = 0, Girls = 1

**
p < .01
***
p < .001

13
2260 Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267

Internet gaming disorder, but negatively correlated with self-
esteem. Maladaptive cognition negatively correlated with
self-esteem and positively correlated with Internet gaming
disorder. Self-esteem is negatively correlated with Internet
gaming disorder.
Mediating effect analyses
After testing the correlations, the current study conducted
tested the sequential mediating role of self-esteem and
maladaptive cognitions in the relationship between paren-
tal phubbing and adolescents’ IGD. Gender and age were
controlled in the regressions. First of all, we examined the
sequential mediation model, all the latent variables were
correlated with each other. In the second step, we tested the
theoretical model. After deleting non-significant paths, the
final sequential mediation model showed adequate model
fit (χ2/df = 5.25, CFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.07)
(Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). Figure 3 shows the final
sequential mediation model. Results as shown in Table 2,
the direct effect of parental phubbing on adolescents' Inter-
net game disorder was significant (β = 0.25, p < 0.001). This
result confirms Hypothesis 1. After self-esteem and mala-
daptive cognition were included in the regression equation,
the direct effect of parental phubbing on adolescents’ IGD
was still significant (β = 0.12, p < 0.05). Parental phubbing
positively predicted adolescents’ self-esteem (β = -0.21,
p < 0.001). Self-esteem negatively predicted maladaptive
cognition (β = -0.14, p < 0.001). Maladaptive cognition
positively predicted adolescents’ IGD (β = 0.52, p < 0.001).
In terms of indirect effects, we found two indirect paths
from parental phubbing to adolescents’ IGD. The first
was parental phubbing → self-esteem → maladaptive cog-
nition → Internet gaming disorder, the indirect effect was
0.02, 95% CI = [0.00, 0.02]. The second was parental phub-
bing → maladaptive cognition → Internet gaming disorder,
whose indirect effect was 0.09, 95% CI = [0.06, 0.12]. The
third was parental phubbing → self-esteem → Internet gam-
ing disorder, the indirect effect was 0.02, Bootstrap 95%
CI = [0.00, 0.03]. The total indirect effect was 0.12, 95%
CI = [0.07, 0.14], the direct effect was 0.12, 95% CI = [0.08,
0.19], and the total effect was 0.25, 95% CI = [0.18, 0.33].
The indirect effects explained 43.91% of the variance in the
total effect. These results demonstrate that parental phub-
bing could exacerbate adolescent IGD both directly and
indirectly. Therefore, the results above verified hypothesis 2.
Moderated mediating test
We also examined the moderating effect of self-esteem in
the final model. The moderated mediation model showed
adequate model fit (χ2/df = 5.10, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.94,

Fig. 3  The mediating roles of

self-esteem and maladaptive -0.14*** maladaptive
self-esteem
cognition between parental cognition
phubbing and IGD 0.52***
-0.21***
0.18*** -0.07*

parental
IGD
phubbing *
0.12

Table 2  The sequential Predictor Model 1 (Criterion = self- Model 2 (Criterion = mal- Model 3 (Crite-
mediating effect model esteem) adaptive cognition) rion = IGD)
β t β t β t
***
Gender -.10 -1.40 -.23 -4.23 -.39 -6.68***
Age -.06 -1.43 .02 .49 .12 2.43*
Parental phubbing -.21 -5.54*** .18 5.69*** .13 4.02***
Self-esteem -.14 -4.64*** -.07 -2.16*
Maladaptive cognition .52 12.40***
R2 .05 .12 .35
F 44.55*** 26.34*** 118.22***

For Gender, Boys = 0, Girls = 1

*
p < .05
***
p < .001

13
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267 2261

RMSEA = 0.07). The results as shown in Table 3, parental mediation model and sequence mediation model can better
phubbing positively correlated with maladaptive cognition effectively reflect the mechanisms and conditions through
(β = 0.18, 95% CI = [0.15, 0.29]), and Internet gaming dis- which parental phubbing increases adolescent IGD.
order (β = 0.13, 95% CI = [0.08, 0.21]). Maladaptive cogni-
tion also positively predicted IGD (β = 0.54, 95% CI = [0.40, Mediating role of maladaptive cognition
0.52]). The interaction between self-esteem and parental
phubbing could not significant correlated with maladap- Mediating analysis revealed that parental phubbing has
tive cognition (β = -0.05, 95% CI = [-0.13, 0.02]). Thus, the both a direct and an indirect effect on adolescents’ IGD.
results above suggested that Hypothesis 3 was not supported. Therefore, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported by this study.
Parental phubbing as a form of social exclusion, is nega-
tively correlated with adolescents’ IGD. The direct effect
Discussion could be explained by the social learning theory (Bandura,
1971). Previous studies have also found that parenting style
Although evidence suggests that parental phubbing is a risk affected adolescents’ problematic internet use through mala-
factor of adolescents’ addiction to media use, IGD and the daptive cognition (Li et al., 2013). A considerable number of
underlying mediation and moderation mechanisms are less studies have supported the view that parents’ media overuse
clear. Based on earlier research (Xie & Xie, 2020; Xie et al., and parents’ rejection could contribute to the development
2019) and theories (Bandura, 1971; Bogenschneider, 1996; of adolescents’ problems with Internet use (Li, Dang, et al.,
Davis, 2001; Leary et al., 1995), this study constructed a 2014; Li, Garland, et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2015). Adoles-
sequential mediation model and a moderated mediation cents’ perception of parental mobile phone use is associated
model to investigate the relationship between parental phub- to their own use, as adolescents learn from their models and
bing and adolescents’ IGD. First, our results showed that duplicated their parents’ behavior. Adolescents who experi-
parental phubbing could positively predict adolescents’ IGD. ence parental phubbing may think that they get more social
They are consistent with the hypothesis 1 and are similar to acceptance in the game virtual community rather than in the
those of previous studies (Fu et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2019). real world. In other words, the he over-reliance on gaming
Second, this study revealed that parental phubbing amplified can satisfy their needs (Marino & Spada, 2017). Adolescents
adolescents’ IGD via a sequential mediating model in which who experience more parental rejection and less parental
self-esteem and maladaptive cognition were the mediators. warmth are prone to addiction to the Internet (Xie & Xie,
Third, our results did not support our assumption that self- 2020). Adolescents turn into the world of online gaming
esteem protects adolescents from parental phubbing. Our and, consequently, increase their Internet usage (Lemmens
findings suggested that contextual and individual factors that et al., 2011).
impact IGD are not independent, but interrelated. Compared The indirect effect indicated that parental phubbing accel-
with single mediation or moderation models the moderated erates adolescents’ IGD through increased maladaptive cog-
nition, that is, maladaptive cognition is strongly related to
IGD. These results are in line with previous studies (Bodi
Table 3  Moderated mediation mode et al., 2020; Forrest et al., 2017; Haagsma et al., 2013). Our
Predictor Model 1(Crite- Model 2(Crite- findings revealed that adolescents’ experiences of parental
rion = Maladaptive rion = IGD) neglect could lead to maladaptive cognition, which can,
cognition) in turn, result in negative outcomes, such as IGD (Mou-
β t β t diab & Spada, 2019; Shute et al., 2019). Consistent with
previous studies, this study also revealed that maladaptive
Gender -.23 -4.20*** -.38 -6.57***
cognition relates to IGD. Individuals’ IGD-related cogni-
Age .02 .39 .11 2.54*
tion might involve thinking about gaming and planning the
Parents’ phubbing .18 5.64*** .13 4.43***
next gaming activity (Forrest et al., 2017). Our findings
Maladaptive cognition .54 13.30***
were consistent with previous results, in which maladap-
Self-esteem -.14 -4.68***
tive cognition is positively correlated with IGD (Forrest
Inta -.05 -1.34
et al., 2017; Peng & Liu, 2010a, b; Zhou et al., 2012). The
R2 .12 .34
present results support the cognitive-behavioral model of
F 29.49*** 89.81***
PIU. Maladaptive cognition is a proximal factor in causing
a
Int = Parents’ phubbing × self-esteem. For Gender, Boys = 0, Girls = 1 the set of symptoms associated with PIU. (Davis, 2001).
*
p < .05 Numerous empirical studies have revealed positive correla-
**
p < .01 tions between risk context factors (e.g., stressful life events)
***
p < .001 and individual negative consequences (e.g. IGD) (Li et al.,

13
2262
2010; Li, Dang, et al., 2014; Li, Garland, et al., 2014; Sung
et al., 2020; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020; Wang, Xu, et al., 2020).
Parental rejection increases adolescents’ vulnerability and
likelihood of developing maladaptive cognition (Shute et al.,
2019). Adolescents who frequently perceive parents’ com-
munication experiences as negative might believe that they
are unloved in the real-world (Davis, 2001; Wang Xu, &
He, 2020; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020). Our results suggested
that adolescents who experienced parental phubbing in face-
to-face conversations might feel socially isolated and more
prone to develop maladaptive cognitions. Therefore, nega-
tive parenting practices, such as parental phubbing, may be a
risk factor for adolescents’ maladaptive cognition and IGD.
The effect of self‑esteem
Similar to early studies, adolescents’ self-esteem played both
a mediator and a moderator role in the relationship between
contextual factors (parental phubbing) and individual behav-
ioral consequences (IGD) (Wang Zhao, & Lei, 2019; Wang,
Gao, et al., 2020; Wang, Xu, et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2020).
To estimate both the buffering and protective role of self-
esteem, we constructed the sequential mediation model and
the moderated mediation model. Our results suggested that
self-esteem and maladaptive cognition sequentially mediated
the association between parental phubbing and adolescents’
IGD. Self-esteem is a psychological mechanism to monitor
interpersonal relationships (Leary et al., 1995). Adolescents’
actions towards others are based on the meaning attributed
to significant others on the meanings of significant others,
such as parents (Halpern & Katz, 2017). The family environ-
ment is an important part of the ecosystem and significantly
affects the development of adolescent psychological charac-
teristics, such as self-esteem (Bronfenbrenner, 1992). Paren-
tal warmth is a protective factor that helps adolescents gain
social support and cope with problems (Xie & Xie, 2020). In
contrast, adverse family environments harm the development
of children’s self-concept and their self-evaluation ability
(Wang Xu, & He, 2020; Wang, Gao, et al., 2020). Similar to
previous studies (Wang et al., 2020a, b), our findings sug-
gested that self-esteem was negatively correlated with mala-
daptive cognition. As the core component of self-evaluation
(Judge & Bono, 2001), adolescents with low self-esteem are
more likely to make extreme, absolute judgments, which
can, in turn, make them lose the ability to control extreme
thinking (Wang et al., 2020a, b). Our findings are also in
accordance with those of previous studies that suggested that
parental neglect was positively correlated with lower self-
esteem (Lim, 2020; Pinquart & Gerke, 2019). Adolescents
who have experienced neglect tend to measure their value
by others, so they are likely to produce maladaptive cog-
nition. Self-esteem and maladaptive cognition sequentially
mediated the relationship between perceived interparental
13
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267
conflict and adolescents’ pathological social media usage
(Wang et al., 2020a, b). Adolescents with low self-esteem
are likely to use mobile phones to compensate for their
unsatisfied needs for face-to-face conversations. Despite a
lack of evidence on how the two mediating mechanisms of
self-esteem and maladaptive cognition affect IGD, existing
empirical research indirectly hinted at the existence of these
mechanisms.
Additionally, our results also suggested that adolescents’
self-esteem could not protect them from parental phubbing.
This may be inconsistent with our previous assumption. We
can interpret this result from these two perspectives. On the
one hand, adolescence is a period usually characterized by
low self-esteem (Leary, 1990). Self-esteem is vulnerable and
changeable in adolescence, making it difficult for it to play
a protective role (Bates, 2016). Previous research indicated
that self-esteem declined from childhood to adolescence
(Bates, 2016). Adolescents with lower self-esteem have a
lower level of self-concept clarity (Campbell, 1990). A low
level of self-concept clarity is related to impaired self-conti-
nuity, which reflects a poor link between one’s past and one’s
present (Jiang et al., 2020). This will contribute to one’s self-
evaluation to be more vulnerable to negative events. Thus, a
vulnerable self-esteem could not play a protective role in an
adverse environment. As a form of social exclusion, paren-
tal phubbing reflects a passive parenting behavior. Conse-
quently, the self-esteem of adolescents frequently exposed
to parental phubbing, will hardly protect them from negative
influences. In addition, the reason for the buffering effect of
self-esteem is that individuals with high self-esteem are less
likely to totally repudiate themselves in the face of nega-
tive events than those with low self-esteem (Brown, 2010).
Because adolescents’ self-esteem is in a relative bottom in
the life-span self-esteem development trends (Bates, 2016),
when encountering parental phubbing, adolescents may
develop maladaptive thoughts involving the fear of abandon-
ment by parents. In this situation, self-esteem might not act
as a protective factor. On the other hand, the current study
only investigated explicit self-esteem and not implicit self-
esteem. Explicit and implicit self-esteem are related but refer
to distinct constructs Implicit and explicit self-esteem are
related but have distinct constructs (Gawronski & Boden-
hausen, 2006). Explicit self-esteem refers to propositional
processes, and implicit self-esteem is related to associative
processes (Lannoy et al., 2020). Implicit self-esteem is more
stable than explicit self-esteem. A previous study revealed
that implicit self-esteem moderated the relationship between
daily negative events and implicit partner regards among US
couples (Hamilton et al., 2022). Additionally, the discrep-
ancy between implicit and explicit self-esteem is associated
with different reactions to social feedback (Schröder Abé
et al., 2007). Therefore, we expect implicit self-esteem and
the level of self-discrepancy to moderate the relationship
Current Psychology (2023) 42:2255–2267
between parental phubbing and adolescents’ IGD. Future
studies should investigate this. In sum, our results revealed
that self-esteem may not have a protective effect when ado-
lescents experience parental phubbing. This may shed light
on the direction of future studies about the effect of self-
esteem in adolescence.
Implications
This study has both theoretical and practical implications.
We suggested that family factors have central effects on ado-
lescents’ cognitive and behavioral development. The pre-
sent study found that self-esteem and maladaptive cognition
play a sequential mediation role in the relationship between
parental phubbing and adolescents’ IGD. Theoretically, this
study supports the cognitive-behavioral model of pathologi-
cal Internet use, and maladaptive cognition is an important
predictor of IGD symptoms. Our results also supported
social learning theory, which posits that children’s behavior
is informed by the observation of parents’ activities. When
adolescents observe their parents frequently using mobile
phones, they will learn this behavior and, consequently,
become addicted to using mobile phones. Regarding the
practical implications, if parents reduce parental phubbing,
children might feel less ignored and be less likely to develop
maladaptive cognition. This could contribute to a decrease
in IGD symptoms. In the case of self-esteem, we believe that
family education should promote the understanding of the
importance of cultivating adolescents’ sense of self-worth
and self-esteem. Adolescents’ self-esteem can be fragile and
vulnerable; therefore, it is important for adolescents to feel
valued by their parents. Furthermore, this study revealed
the serious negative influence of parental phubbing on their
children. Parents should model their children’s behavior and
ensure that children do not feel ignored, to protect adoles-
cents from lower self-evaluation and problematic behavioral
outcomes.
Limitations and future directions
The limitations of this study lie in the following aspects.
First, although previous empirical studies have proved
the relationship between parental phubbing and mobile
phone addiction in adolescents, this study only adopted
a cross-sectional survey and did not explore causal rela-
tionships using a longitudinal design. In future studies,
we will make the current results more generalizable by
conducting a longitudinal study with a larger sample size.
Second, this study used a self-report method, which may
have contributed to interpretation bias and the effect of
individual differences in adolescents’ understanding of
parental phubbing. In future, parents’ and adolescents’
self-assessment can be adopted (Stockdale et al., 2018).
2263
Researchers suggested that studies on the family system
can look beyond the mother–child relationship and also
consider fathers and their relationships in the family to
better understand children’s development (Cox & Paley,
2003). Future studies can also distinguish between fathers’
and mothers’ phubbing to explore the similarities and dif-
ferences of the influence of parents on adolescents’ inter-
nal and external behavior problems (McDaniel & Radesky,
2018). Regarding future research directions, we can also
consider adding some cultural perspectives. For example,
for individuals in East Asian societies, filial piety is an
important aspect of family life. Moreover, studies have
found that filial piety can affect adolescents’ Internet
addiction. Whether children’s filial piety moderates the
harm of parental phubbing on adolescents is an issue wor-
thy of consideration in future research (Wei et al., 2019).
In future studies, we will adopt a third-person perspec-
tive on phubbing (Nuñez et al., 2020), and further inves-
tigate the causal relationship between parental phubbing
and adolescents’ internal and external outcomes by using
the experimental method. Overall, this study revealed that
adolescents’ self-esteem may not be a protective factor
against parental phubbing. This finding is different from
that of a previous study (Wang, Gao, et al., 2020; Wang,
Xu, et al., 2020), which may direct a new perspective of
the underlying mechanism.
Conclusion
Based on social learning theory (Bandura, 1971), the cogni-
tive-behavioral model (Davis, 2001), and sociometer theory
(Leary et al., 1995), the present study built a sequential medi-
ation model and a moderated mediation model. The results
indicated that parental phubbing increases adolescents’ risk
for IGD. Furthermore, the relationship between these two
variables may be affected by a decrease in self-esteem and an
increase in maladaptive cognition. The present results enrich
the previous literature and contribute to the understanding of
the impact of parental phubbing on adolescents’ perception
of neglect and cognitive and behavioral outcomes.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Humanities and
Social Sciences Youth Fund of the Ministry of Education of China
(19YJC190024), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(61907006), and Youth Team Foundation of Northeast Normal Uni-
versity “The misinformation spread and management on social media”
(No. 1909105).
Author Contributions Xinyuan Shen: Conceptualization, Methodology,
Writing—original draft.
Xiaochun Xie: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision—
review & editing.
Siqi Wu: review & editing.
13
2264
Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analyzed dur-
ing the current study are available from the corresponding author on
reasonable request.
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