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Respiratory
Respiratory
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Respiratory System Anatomy
◼ Structurally
❑ Upper respiratory system
◼ Nose, pharynx and associated structures
❑ Lower respiratory system
◼ Larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs
◼ Functionally
❑ Conducting zone – conducts air to lungs
◼ Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and
terminal bronchioles
❑ Respiratory zone – main site of gas exchange
◼ Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and
alveoli
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Structures of the Respiratory System
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Nose
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Pharynx
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Larynx
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Larynx
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Structures of Voice Production
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Trachea
❑ Extends from larynx to superior border of T5
◼ Divides into right and left primary bronchi
❑ 4 layers
◼ Mucosa
◼ Submucosa
◼ Hyaline cartilage
◼ Adventitia
❑ 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
◼ Open part faces esophagus
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Location of Trachea
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Bronchi
❑ Right and left primary bronchus goes to right lung
❑ Carina – internal ridge
◼ Most sensitive area for triggering cough reflex
❑ Divide to form bronchial tree
◼ Secondary lobar bronchi (one for each lobe), tertiary
(segmental) bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
❑ Structural changes with branching
◼ Mucous membrane changes
◼ Incomplete rings become plates and then disappear
◼ As cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
❑ Sympathetic ANS – relaxation/ dilation
❑ Parasympathetic ANS – contraction/ constriction
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Lungs
❑ Separated from each other by the heart and other
structures in the mediastinum
❑ Each lung enclosed by double-layered pleural membrane
◼ Parietal pleura – lines wall of thoracic cavity
◼ Visceral pleura – covers lungs themselves
❑ Pleural cavity is space between layers
◼ Pleural fluid reduces friction, produces surface tension (stick
together)
◼ Cardiac notch – heart makes left lung 10% smaller
than right
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Relationship of the Pleural Membranes to
Lungs
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Anatomy of Lungs
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Microscopic Anatomy of Lobule of Lungs
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Alveoli
❑ Cup-shaped outpouching
❑ Alveolar sac – 2 or more alveoli sharing a
common opening
❑ 2 types of alveolar epithelial cells
◼ Type I alveolar cells – form nearly continuous lining,
more numerous than type II, main site of gas exchange
◼ Type II alveolar cells (septal cells) – free surfaces
contain microvilli, secrete alveolar fluid (surfactant
reduces tendency to collapse)
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Alveolus
◼ Respiratory membrane
❑ Alveolar wall – type I and type II alveolar cells
❑ Epithelial basement membrane
❑ Capillary basement membrane
❑ Capillary endothelium
❑ Very thin – only 0.5 µm thick to allow rapid diffusion of
gases
◼ Lungs receive blood from
❑ Pulmonary artery - deoxygenated blood
❑ Bronchial arteries – oxygenated blood to perfuse muscular
walls of bronchi and bronchioles
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Components of Alveolus
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Pulmonary ventilation
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Inhalation/ inspiration
❑ Pressure inside alveoli lust become lower than
atmospheric pressure for air to flow into lungs
◼ 760 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or 1
atmosphere (1 atm)
❑ Achieved by increasing size of lungs
◼ Boyle’s Law – pressure of a gas in a closed
container is inversely proportional to the volume of
the container
❑ Inhalation – lungs must expand, increasing lung
volume, decreasing pressure below atmospheric
pressure
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Boyle’s Law
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Inhalation
◼ Inhalation is active – Contraction of
❑ Diaphragm – most important muscle of inhalation
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Exhalation/ expiration
❑ Pressure in lungs greater than atmospheric pressure
❑ Normally passive – muscle relax instead of contract
◼ Based on elastic recoil of chest wall and lungs from elastic
fibers and surface tension of alveolar fluid
◼ Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped
◼ External intercostals relax and ribs drop down
❑ Exhalation only active during forceful breathing
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Airflow
◼ Air pressure differences drive airflow
◼ 3 other factors affect rate of airflow and ease of
pulmonary ventilation
❑ Surface tension of alveolar fluid
◼ Causes alveoli to assume smallest possible diameter
◼ Accounts for 2/3 of lung elastic recoil
◼ Prevents collapse of alveoli at exhalation
❑ Lung compliance
◼ High compliance means lungs and chest wall expand easily
◼ Related to elasticity and surface tension
❑ Airway resistance
◼ Larger diameter airway has less resistance
◼ Regulated by diameter of bronchioles & smooth muscle tone
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Lung volumes and capacities
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Spirogram of Lung Volumes and
Capacities
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Lung Volumes
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Lung Volumes
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Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
◼ Dalton’s Law
❑ Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own
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Partial Pressures of Gases in Inhaled Air
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Henry’s law
❑ Quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is
proportional to the partial pressures of the gas
and its solubility
❑ Higher partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and
higher solubility, more of the gas will stay in
solution
❑ Much more CO2 is dissolved in blood than O2
because CO2 is 24 times more soluble
❑ Even though the air we breathe is mostly N2, very
little dissolves in blood due to low solubility
◼ Decompression sickness (bends)
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External Respiration in Lungs
◼ Oxygen
❑ Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air (PO2 105 mmHg) into blood of
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Internal Respiration
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Rate of Pulmonary and Systemic Gas Exchange
◼ Depends on
❑ Partial pressures of gases
◼ Alveolar PO2 must be higher than blood PO2 for diffusion to
occur – problem with increasing altitude
❑ Surface area available for gas exchange
❑ Diffusion distance
❑ Molecular weight and solubility of gases
◼ O2 has a lower molecular weight and should diffuse faster
than CO2 except for its low solubility - when diffusion is slow,
hypoxia occurs before hypercapnia
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Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
◼ Oxygen transport
❑ Only about 1.5% dissolved in plasma
❑ 98.5% bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells
◼ Heme portion of hemoglobin contains 4 iron atoms –
each can bind one O2 molecule
◼ Oxyhemoglobin
◼ Only dissolved portion can diffuse out of blood into cells
◼ Oxygen must be able to bind and dissociate from heme
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Relationship between Hemoglobin and
Oxygen Partial Pressure
❑ Higher the PO2, More O2 combines with Hb
❑ Fully saturated – completely converted to oxyhemoglobin
❑ Percent saturation expresses average saturation of
hemoglobin with oxygen
❑ Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
◼ In pulmonary capillaries, O2 loads onto Hb
◼ In tissues, O2 is not held and unloaded
❑ 75% may still remain in deoxygenated blood (reserve)
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Oxygen-hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
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Hemoglobin and Oxygen
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Bohr Effect
❑ As acidity increases (pH
decreases), affinity of Hb
for O2 decreases
❑ Increasing acidity
enhances unloading
❑ Shifts curve to right
◼ PCO2
❑ Also shifts curve to right
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Temperature Changes
❑ Within limits, as
temperature
increases, more
oxygen is released
from Hb
❑ During hypothermia,
more oxygen remains
bound
◼ 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate
❑ BPG formed by red
blood cells during
glycolysis
❑ Helps unload oxygen
by binding with Hb
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Fetal and Maternal Hemoglobin
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Carbon Dioxide Transport
❑ Dissolved CO2
◼ Smallest amount, about 7%
❑ Carbamino compounds
◼ About 23% combines with amino acids including those in Hb
◼ Carbaminohemoglobin
❑ Bicarbonate ions
◼ 70% transported in plasma as HCO3-
◼ Enzyme carbonic anhydrase forms carbonic acid (H2CO3)
which dissociates into H+ and HCO3-
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CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3-
◼ Chloride shift
❑ HCO3- accumulates inside RBCs as they pick up
carbon dioxide
❑ Some diffuses out into plasma
❑ To balance the loss of negative ions, chloride (Cl-)
moves into RBCs from plasma
❑ Reverse happens in lungs – Cl- moves out as
moves back into RBCs
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End of Chapter 23
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