QUALITY ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS (QMS307B)
PROJECT NAME: QUALITY TOOLS
LECTURER: MAWELA MD
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
Student Number Surname and Initials
Mokhele T 211289848
Moshidi OC 220436802
Matsimela G 220548490
Magoro KE 220371751
 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Quality is an attribute which give organizations competitive advantage, and different
organizations have a different perspective on how they define quality and what
quality means to them. There are seven basic quality tools which can help
organizations achieve quality they desire namely: pareto chart, histogram, cause and
effect diagram, stratification, check sheet, scatter plot, flow charts. This paper
explores the literature review; analysis as well as points of improvement for the
quality tools and how they have been applied in different situations.
Table of Contents
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................2
2. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................4
3. IDENTIFY QUALITY TOOLS..............................................................................................................5
4. CONDUCT LITERATURE REVIEW ON QUALITY TOOLS.....................................................................5
4.1. Histogram..............................................................................................................................5
4.1.1. Histogram application in visualising distributions..........................................................5
4.1.2. Histogram application in digital image enhancement....................................................6
4.1.3. Misinterpretations of histograms...................................................................................6
4.2. Cause-and-effect diagram......................................................................................................6
4.3. Stratification..........................................................................................................................8
4.3.1. Examples of stratification in corporate...........................................................................8
4.3.2. Stratification in a social context.....................................................................................8
4.3.3. What are the good features of stratification?................................................................9
4.4. Pareto chart...........................................................................................................................9
4.4.1. Origin of the pareto chart............................................................................................10
4.5. Scatter diagram....................................................................................................................11
4.5.1. Origin of the scatter diagram.......................................................................................11
4.5.2. Types of scatter diagrams.............................................................................................12
4.5.3. What are the benefits of using a scatter diagram?.......................................................12
4.6. Check sheet..........................................................................................................................13
4.6.1. Types and applications.................................................................................................13
4.6.2. Advantages of using a check sheet...............................................................................13
4.6.3. Integration with other quality tools:............................................................................14
4.7. Control chart........................................................................................................................14
These benefits contribute to their widespread use across industries..........................................16
5. ANALYSE THE QUALITY TOOLS.....................................................................................................17
5.1. Histogram............................................................................................................................17
5.1.1. Bin width......................................................................................................................17
5.1.2. Skewness......................................................................................................................17
5.1.3. Spread..........................................................................................................................18
5.1.4. Kurtosis........................................................................................................................18
5.2. Cause-and-effect diagram....................................................................................................18
5.2.1. A cause-and-effect diagram helps with:.......................................................................18
5.2.2. Benefits of constructing a cause-and-effect diagram are:............................................18
 5.2.3. In the manufacturing industry, key elements of the fishbone diagram also known as
the 6Ms include:..........................................................................................................................19
5.3. Stratification........................................................................................................................19
5.3.1. Descriptive analysis......................................................................................................19
5.3.2. Stratification indices.....................................................................................................20
5.4. Check sheet..........................................................................................................................20
5.4.1. Design and Purpose.....................................................................................................20
5.4.2. Data Collection and Interpretation...............................................................................20
5.4.3. Integration with Quality Improvement........................................................................20
5.5. Pareto diagram....................................................................................................................21
Pareto analysis.............................................................................................................................21
6. IDENTIFY ONE OPPORTUNITY OF IMPROVEMENT AND USE THE QUALITY TOOL(S)....................22
6.1. Cause-and-effect diagram....................................................................................................22
6.1.1. Avoid simplification......................................................................................................22
6.2. Check sheet..........................................................................................................................22
Opportunity Identification...........................................................................................................22
6.2.1. Using the Check Sheet:................................................................................................22
6.3. Scatter plot...........................................................................................................................23
7. RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................................................................24
8. CONCLUSIONS..............................................................................................................................26

Figure 1: Histogram............................................................................................................................7
Figure 2: Cause-and-effect diagram.................................................................................................9
Figure 3: Stratification diagram for defects on different machines (Malan, 2020)...................10
Figure 4: Pareto chart of Late Arrivals by Reported Cause.........................................................11
Figure 5: Pareto analysis.................................................................................................................12
Figure 6: Scatter plot showing the relationship between paper page length and average
citation rate by (Sanderson 2015).................................................................................................13
Figure 7: Sample distributions captured with the five types of data distributions considered:
randomly distributed, linear correlation, clustering, manifold (matching a discernable
function) and overlapping points.....................................................................................................14
Figure 8: The bins in panel A are too narrow, bins in panel B are too wide obscuring the
bimodality in the data. Panel C displays a balanced plot that reveals an almost-smooth
bimodal (Nuzzo, 2019).....................................................................................................................19
Figure 9: Normal distribution (Tague, 2019)..................................................................................19
Figure 10: Right skewed distribution (Tague, 2019).....................................................................20
Figure 11: Bimodal distribution (Tague, 2019)..............................................................................20

Table 1: Data on Lung Volume (Adje, 2023).................................................................................21

Table 2: Participants on table showing gender and age (J, 2020).............................................22
 2. INTRODUCTION
W. Edwards Deming was brought to Japan in 1950 by the Japanese Union of
Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) to teach hundreds of Japanese engineers,
managers, and academics about statistical process control. Deming also gave a
number of lectures on the subject to Japanese company executives, during which he
emphasised the significance of the “basic tool” that could be used for quality control.
Kaoru Ishikawa, who was then an associate professor at the University of Tokyo,
was one of the JUSE members. Ishikawa standardised the seven basic tools of
quality control in order to “democratise quality,” and make quality control
understandable to all employees. He was influenced by Deming’s lectures.
With the exception of control charts, Ishikawa felt that 90 percent of a company’s
problems could be solved utilising these seven tools, all of which could be simply
taught to any employee. Because of its ease-of-use and graphical nature, statistical
analysis is made simpler for everyone. The seven basic quality control tools are
cause-and-effect diagrams, pareto charts, flow charts, check sheet, scatter plots,
control charts, and histograms. (Neyestani, 2017)
3. IDENTIFY QUALITY TOOLS
3.1. Histogram
3.2. Cause-and-effect diagram
3.3. Stratification
3.4. Pareto chart
3.5. Scatter diagram
3.6. Control chart
3.7. Check sheet

4. CONDUCT LITERATURE REVIEW ON QUALITY TOOLS

4.1. Histogram
A histogram is a graphical representation of frequency distribution of a data
set in which class intervals/bins are marked on the horizontal axis and
frequencies, relative frequencies or percentages are represented by the
heights of the vertical axis. The bars on the histogram are drawn adjacent to
each other with no gaps. Histograms can only be used for quantitative data. A
set of data can be represented by a compressed picture on a histogram
showing the mean, mode, and the variation in data especially the range.

Figure 1: Histogram

4.1.1. Histogram application in visualising distributions

A histogram was introduced by a British mathematician Karl Pearson when he
termed it a “time-diagram”, (Wilke, 2019) notes in “Fundamentals of data
visualization” Pearson used it to term historical time periods (K Naydrnov,
2023). According to (Wilke, 2019) Histograms have been used as visualization
tools since the early 18th century. One classical example of the usage of the
histogram was in the story of Titanic where they wanted to find out the age
distributions of the people on the boat. The researchers wanted to know that
out of 1300 passengers who were on the boat how many children, adults and
seniors where on the boat and a histogram were used. (Nuzzo, 2019) Adds
that Histograms were one of the earliest types of data visualizations, with
references to their use dating back to the 19th century and today they still
used in continuous process improvement. Continuous process improvement
 is core to the survival of any business. Histograms and other quality tools are
key to achieving continual process improvement of your business.

4.1.2. Histogram application in digital image enhancement

Image enhancement is an important topic in the digital image processing
space. Enhancing image sharpness and smoothness can help humans and
computer vision algorithms obtain superior quality. Image enhancement
method known as Histogram Equalization (HE) has played a significant part in
that field stated (Kim, 2019). Histogram Equalization alone has been seen as
not good enough and other methods have been suggested such as the Bi
Histogram Equalization (BBHE) in order to enhance contrast. A further
analysis by (Isa, 2018) proposed that Quadrant Dynamic Histogram
Equalization (QDHE) improved contrast by dividing the histogram into four
sub quadrants based on the median value of the original image. The major
advantage of QDHE is that it has enhanced the image without intensity
saturation, noise amplification and over enhancement.

4.1.3. Misinterpretations of histograms

Histograms are widely used and appear to be easy to plot and interpret
however according to research this is not true. According to (Lonneke Boil,
2019) there have been misinterpretations around identifying the measured
variable only as stated above histograms show distribution of one measured
variable. Students and researchers have misinterpreted histogram as
displaying more than one variable; some have misinterpreted frequency as
measured values. (Lonneke Boil, 2019) Furthers that there has been
misinterpretations related to variability, concept of distribution, identifying
measured level and variable. The two most recurring ideas are from
interpreting data and distribution and therefore histogram needs to be treated
with caution in order to obtain the desired accuracy.

4.2. Cause-and-effect diagram

A cause-and-effect diagram, also referred to as a fishbone diagram or an
Ishikawa diagram, is a visual tool used to graphically display all the potential
causes of a particular problem or effect in a logical order. It is a tool that helps
identify, sort, and display potential causes of a particular problem or quality
characteristic. (Deshpande, 2008) It graphically illustrates the relationship
between a given outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome. It is
structured in such a way that it displays a number of branches, of which
makes it resemble the skeleton of a fish.
 Figure 2: Cause-and-effect diagram

More than 50 years ago through his collaboration/work with Kawasaki Steel
Works, Kaoru Ishikawa from the university of Tokyo introduced cause-and-
effect diagrams. The Japanese industry began to employ these diagrams as
quality control and improvement tools, and soon other nations including the
United States started to use them as well. These diagrams also known as
Ishikawa diagrams or fishbone diagrams, have been frequently used in quality
circles and other initiatives aiming to identify all the aspects that have an
impact on the success or failure of a given process and also to draw out ideas
about methods to minimise issues or take advantage of opportunities.

The cause-and-effect diagrams’ common fishbone term originates from their

similarities with the skeleton of a fish, and the problem to be solved shown in
the “fish head”. The problem is the outcome that is impacted by the numerous
factors that are then shown in the diagram. A clear description of the problem
is placed in the fish head. (Ishikawa, 1982)

The problem at hand should be written at the end of the cause-and-effect

diagram, indicating the focus of the diagram. All the fishbone diagram’s
branches and twigs or bones lead to and contribute to this problem. The major
bones extending diagonally off a central backbone in the diagram are the
categories of causal elements that are expected to influence the effect.
These are typically the major categories that frequently occur as the major
bones in a fishbone diagram for various problems including people, methods,
materials, equipment, and organisation. Minor bones protruding from the
major bones more accurately identify the underlying causes. Minor bones
added to the people bone could include “insufficient skills”,
“miscommunication”, “inadequate supervision”, “poor supervision”, “poor
judgement”, or others. Each of these factors represent a secondary branch in
the diagram. More detailed factors could be added as twigs on these
secondary branches. (Ammons & Roenigk, 2022)
4.3. Stratification
(K, 2023) reviewed that social stratification dates back to the bronze ages, most
early civilizations, the Sumerians, Egyptians and Harappans among them,
had social classes (strata) of inequity that left some better positioned than
others. (Malan, 2020) Explains that stratification is a method to divide the
data into categories or groups (homogeneous kind) and go for further analysis
using descriptive, graphical representation or advanced level of statistics. It
derives the meaningful information from the data and helps to understand the
existing problem. For example, stratification can be done in equipment,
materials, location wise, population groups etc.

Figure 3: Stratification diagram for defects on different machines (Malan, 2020)

4.3.1. Examples of stratification in corporate

an example by (K, 2023) suppose in the food industry, a manufacturer wants
to find out whether they are manufacturing good quality products or not. Let
say they have 10 different plants located in various parts of India. They will
collect samples from different plants and do further analysis. Basically,
stratification is a method of collecting the sample and dividing it into strata.
Strata should be homogeneous in nature which means it should be of the
same type. Here in this example, we have 10 different plants or strata.

(K, 2023) Furthers that in a piston manufacturing industry, several defects were
found during a process and to analyse the causes of defects they have to
stratify the process data. It may occur due to the machine, material, duration,
etc. Suppose it occurs due to machine variation and now they have to divide
the data into several classes with respect to machine like Machine A, B and
so forth. By doing this they can check the performance of a machine and
compare the variation within the machines also.

4.3.2. Stratification in a social context

Social stratification is a phenomenon that still exists in the 21st century.
Historically and sociologically, there is no classless society. All societies have
forms of ranking in which their members are categorized into positions as the
driving force is competition for a better life. As a result, there is social mobility
with a constant movement of units between individual layers, as well as a
 desire to preserve the higher positions. A profession is not only a way of
earning money but also a display of style and prestige, as in advanced
societies professions are associated with social status and remain the most
widely used measure of the class system of stratification. Social stratification
continues being a tool that could help governments categorize populations
according to their needs and how to provide solutions to those needs. (K
Naydrnov, 2023)

4.3.3. What are the good features of stratification?

According to (Malan, 2020) the following features make stratification an
excellent investigation tool.
1. It allows you to see the difference between groups.
2. It helps determine whether the problem is confined to a specific subgroup.
3. It gives you insight into why the problem exists.
4. It lets you compare groups with respect to some aspects.
5. It makes it easier to understand results.

4.4. Pareto chart

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Figure 4: Pareto chart of Late Arrivals by Reported Cause

According to (Xavier Franch 2015); The Pareto chart is a graphical display of

the Pareto principle. When observing events, it is often a phenomenon that
approximately 80% of events are due to 20% of the possible causes. A
classical application to software is the general fact that 80% of software
failures can be attributed to 20% of the code [4]. This observation was first
made by Joseph M. Juran who, in the early 1950s, coined the term “Pareto
Principle” which leads to the distinction between the “vital few” and the “useful
many.” The Pareto chart consists of bar graphs sorted in descending order of
the relative frequency of errors by category. Pareto charts are used to choose
the starting point for problem-solving, monitoring changes, or identifying the
basic cause of a problem.
4.4.1. Origin of the pareto chart
According to (Rosing 2015)In 1906, the economist Vilfredo Pareto illustrated
in his research a stunting discovery: 80% of the land in Italy was owned by
just 20% of the people. This principle is today known as the Pareto principle -
or 80-20 rule - and has been widely adopted and used across all aspects of
business, economics, mathematics, and processes - just to name a few.81
The Pareto analysis is applied in a straightforward technique to prioritize the
root-cause and/or problem solving, subsequently that the first part resolves
the greatest number of problems.82 It is based on the idea that 80 percent of
problems may be caused by as few as 20 percent of causes.

Figure 5: Pareto analysis

The Pareto analysis can be used to identify the top features to implement first
as ranked by customers, identify the best placement of user-interface
elements according to their common usage scenario, focus the bug-fixing
efforts on the components that contribute heavily to faults, and so on.

It is important to recognize that the Pareto principle applies differently to each

project, and within each project it applies differently to its constituents. For
instance, the 20% most used features of a project might be the most
overlooked ones in another project; 20% of the customers using 80% of the
bandwidth might not be the same 20% producing actual useful content.
Similarly, software quality metrics could also be applied, with statistical
methods such as factor analysis (Ebert, 1992) and principal component
analysis (Munson and Khoshgoftaar, 1990), and classification methods (Selby
and Porter, 1988; Porter and Selby, 1990) to predict and manage the
expected quality and productivity during the project life cycle.
4.5. Scatter diagram

Figure 6: Scatter plot showing the relationship between paper page length and average citation rate by
(Sanderson 2015)

Scatter plots are a very common type of visualization. Their flexibility has led
to their use in a variety of exploratory and presentation contexts. The
traditional scatterplot represents each object in a dataset with a point (or other
mark), positioned on two continuous, orthogonal dimensions. As data grows in
scale and complexity, the traditional scatterplot design rapidly becomes
ineffective. As a result, many other scatterplot designs have been proposed.
While these designs may address scale, they are often specific to data
characteristics and tasks. Designers have little guidance in how to select
among design choices. (Sarikaya 2018)

4.5.1. Origin of the scatter diagram

The term “scatter diagram” was due to Karl Pearson.11 A JSTOR search finds
the term first appearing in a 1906 article in Biometrika (which Pearson edited),
“On the Relation Between the Symmetry of the Egg and the Symmetry of the
Embryo in the Frog (Rana Temporaria)” by J. W. Jenkinson. However, the
term only came into wide use in the 1920s when it began to appear in
textbooks, e.g., F. C. Mills, Statistical Methods of 1925. OED2 gives the
following quotation from Mills: “The equation to a straight line, fitted by the
method of least squares to the points on the scatter diagram, will express
mathematically the average relationship between these two variables.”
David’s 2001 “first (?)” attribution to Kurtz and Edgerton is also challenged by
the mention of this term in the 1938 text Elementary Statistical Method by A.
E. Waugh: “This is the method of plotting the data on a scatter diagram, or
scattergram, in order that one may see the relationship” (OED2). (Friendly
2017)
 4.5.2. Types of scatter diagrams
(D. K. Urriburri 2017)
 Randomly distributed.
 Linear correlation.
 Clustering.
 Manifold.
 Overlapping points

Figure 7: Sample distributions captured with the five types of data distributions considered: randomly distributed,
linear correlation, clustering, manifold (matching a discernable function) and overlapping points

(Mayorga and Gleicher 2013)

4.5.3. What are the benefits of using a scatter diagram?

The following benefits can define the importance of a scatter diagram:
 It visualizes the relationship between two variables.
 Is one of the best tools to show a non-linear pattern.
 It provides the data to confirm a hypothesis that two variables are
related.
 It determines the range of data flow, for example, the maximum and
minimum values.
 It visualizes patterns that are easy to observe.
 Is very simple.
 It establishes a relationship between two sets of numerical data.
 It can track patterns and trends of different measures.

Scatter diagrams are a visualization design widely applicable to a large range

of analysis scenarios. With the many different design strategies available to
select from, understanding the trade-offs between the many design choices is
challenging. In this work, we have introduced a framework to help determine
the design appropriateness for task support and show how this framework can
 help gauge task performance dependent on characteristics of the data. With
the characterization of this design space, we have described the challenges,
existing solutions for these challenges, and potential areas for innovation in
scatterplot design.

4.6. Check sheet

Check sheets, a fundamental quality tool, serve as systematic data collection
forms used to organize, categorize, and analyse data. They find extensive
application in diverse industries, aiding in process improvement, decision-
making, and identification of patterns. This review delves into the various
aspects of check sheets, their types, applications, benefits, limitations, and
integration within quality management frameworks.

Walter A. Shewhart, often referred to as the father of statistical quality control,

played a significant role in introducing the concept of check sheets as part of
his pioneering work at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the early 20th century.
In the 1920s, Walter Shewhart developed statistical methods to control and
improve the quality of products and processes. He introduced the idea of
using graphical representations to analyse data and identify variations in
processes. Check sheets, along with other tools like control charts and Pareto
diagrams, emerged as part of his foundational work. (Juran & Gryna, 1993)

4.6.1. Types and applications

A check sheet is any kind of form that is designed for recording data. Data
collection can always become unmanageable and messy. Data collection is
important because it is starting point for statistical analysis. In many case the
recording is done so the patterns are easily seen while the data are being
taken. Check sheet help analysis to find the facts or patterns that may aid
subsequent analysis. Check sheet also help to organize data by category.
They show the likelihood of the event and the most important the data is
increasingly helpful as more data are collected.
These types are versatile and widely used across industries, including
manufacturing, healthcare, service, and research. Check sheets are
employed for tasks such as defect tracking, process monitoring, customer
feedback analysis, and more.

(Montgomery, 2017)

4.6.2. Advantages of using a check sheet

 It is easy to use.
 The root of the problem can be clearly identified.
 Efficient way to show data.
 Core of constructing other graphical data.
 Check sheets offer numerous advantages that contribute to their popularity as
a data collection tool. Their simplicity makes them accessible to individuals
with minimal training. Standardization ensures consistent data recording,
reducing errors arising from varied interpretations. Quick analysis of data
collected using check sheets facilitates prompt decision-making and action.
Furthermore, check sheets facilitate the identification of trends and patterns,
allowing organizations to make informed quality-related decisions.
(Oakland, 2003)

4.6.3. Integration with other quality tools:

Check sheets are often used in conjunction with other quality tools.
Combining check sheets with tools like Pareto charts, histograms, and control
charts enhances the depth and accuracy of analysis. This integration enables
organizations to gain comprehensive insights into data trends and their
implications.
(Goetsch & Davis, 2014)
(Bregfogle III, 2013)

4.7. Control chart

The concept of control charts was pioneered by Dr. Walter A. Shewhart, a
physicist and engineer, in the early 1920s. Shewhart's work at Bell Telephone
Laboratories led to the development of statistical methods to manage and
improve the quality of products and processes. He introduced the idea of
using graphical techniques to monitor and control variations in processes.
In 1924, Shewhart introduced the control chart, which he initially called the
"Shewhart chart." He demonstrated that by collecting data from a process
over time and plotting it on a chart, one could distinguish between common
cause variation (inherent to the process) and special cause variation (due to
external factors). Shewhart's charts enabled early detection of deviations from
the norm, allowing for timely corrective actions.
Shewhart's work laid the foundation for the application of control charts in
various industries. During World War II, control charts gained significant
prominence, particularly in industries related to defense production.
Manufacturers used control charts to ensure consistent quality of materials
and products essential for the war effort. The quality management movement
continued to evolve, with control charts becoming a central tool in the
emerging Total Quality Management (TQM) approach. Control charts were an
integral component of process improvement methodologies, aiding
organizations in identifying variations, reducing defects, and achieving better
quality outcomes.

According to source
Shewhart, W. A. (1924). A Method for Determining if a Process or Product Is
Conforming to Specifications. The Bell System Technical Journal, 3(3), 535-
555.
Deming, W. E. (1986). Out of the Crisis: Quality, Productivity and Competitive
Position. MIT Press.

Control charts, such as X-bar and R charts, p-charts, and c-charts, are used
to monitor processes and detect variations. They have wide-ranging
applications in industries such as manufacturing, healthcare, and service to
ensure quality standards are met.
Control charts play a pivotal role in quality methodologies like Six Sigma and
Total Quality Management (TQM). They offer a structured framework for
process monitoring, driving continuous improvement efforts.

For the part length example, we must ensure the R chart (bottom) is in control
before analysing the X-bar chart. If the R chart is unstable, the control limits
for the X-bar chart will be invalid, potentially leading to false signals of an out-
of-control situation on the X-bar chart. The R chart does not flag any points in
red. They’re all in control. However, the X-bar chart on the top is a different
story because it flags six points. Red data points fail a statistical test and
suggest that special cause variation exists.
Control charts for continuous data, such as lengths and weights, typically
have two panels. The top panel assesses the process mean over time, while
the bottom evaluates its variability. In this manner, X-bar-R, X-bar-S, and I-MR
charts are common pairings because they assess both the mean and
variability. Control charts for attribute data, such as pass or fail for defect data,
have only one panel and evaluate either the proportion of defects or the
number of defects per subgroup.
According to Source, Montgomery, D. C. (2017). Introduction to Statistical
Quality Control. John Wiley & Sons.
These benefits contribute to their widespread use across industries.
Early Detection of Variations Control charts are designed to detect variations
in a process. By monitoring data over time, control charts can identify shifts,
trends, or patterns that deviate from the expected norms. Early detection
allows for prompt corrective action before deviations lead to defects or quality
issues. Control charts provide a visual representation of process performance.
This enables data-driven decision-making by helping managers and teams
understand whether the process is operating within acceptable limits or if
there are significant deviations requiring attention. Control charts help
distinguish between two types of process variations: common cause (inherent
to the process) and special cause (due to external factors). This differentiation
is critical for understanding whether a variation is part of the natural variability
of the process or if it indicates an issue that needs to be addressed. It
facilitates continuous improvement efforts by highlighting areas where the
process can be enhanced. When unusual patterns or variations are identified.
According to source
9. Goetsch, D. L., & Davis, S. B. (2014). Quality management for
organizational excellence. Pearson.
5. Womack, J. P., Jones, D. T., & Roos, D. (1990). The machine that changed
the world: The story of lean production. Simon and Schuster.
 5. ANALYSE THE QUALITY TOOLS
5.1. Histogram
5.1.1. Bin width
The decision of the width of the bin can be challenging since the bin width
control the resolution of the histogram. If the bin width is too wide, the
histogram becomes “soft focus” without a clear shape and with too many data
features being obscured. If the bins are too narrow then it becomes difficult to
recognize true distribution of data. (Nuzzo, 2019)

Figure 8: The bins in panel A are too narrow, bins in panel B are too wide obscuring the bimodality in the data.
Panel C displays a balanced plot that reveals an almost-smooth bimodal (Nuzzo, 2019)

5.1.2. Skewness
Skewness is the measure of the asymmetry of a histogram. A histogram with
normal distribution is symmetrical. In other words, the same amount of data
falls on both sides of the mean. A normal will have a skewness of 0. The
direction of skewness is “to the tail.” The larger the number, the longer the tail.
If skewness is positive, the tail on the right side of the distribution will be
longer. If skewness is negative, the tail on the left side will be longer. (Tague,
2019)

Figure 9: Normal distribution (Tague, 2019)

 Figure 10: Right skewed distribution (Tague, 2019)

Figure 11: Bimodal distribution (Tague, 2019)

5.1.3. Spread
Both range and the standard deviation illustrate data spread. Range is
calculated by subtracting the minimum data value from the maximum data
value. The standard deviation is a measure that indicates how different the
values are from each other and from the mean. There are two methods of
calculating standard deviation using individual data points or using a samples
average range. (Tague, 2019)

5.1.4. Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of the combined weight of the tails in relation to the rest
of the distribution. As the tails of a distribution become heavier, the kurtosis
value will increase. As the tails become lighter the kurtosis value will
decrease. A histogram with a normal distribution has a kurtosis of 0. If the
distribution is peaked (tall and skinny), it will have a kurtosis greater than 0
and is said to be leptokurtic. If the distribution is flat, it will have a kurtosis
value less than zero and is said to be platykurtic. (Tague, 2019)

5.2. Cause-and-effect diagram

5.2.1. A cause-and-effect diagram helps with:
 Identifying the possible root causes for a specific effect, problem, or
condition.
 Sorting out and relating some of the interactions among the factors
affecting a particular process.
 Analysing existing problems so that corrective action is taken.

5.2.2. Benefits of constructing a cause-and-effect diagram are:

 Helps determine the root causes of a problem or quality characteristic
using a structured approach.
 Insists on group participation and uses group knowledge of the
process.
  Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format to diagram cause-and-effect
relationships.
 Pinpoints potential causes of variation in a process.
 Shows areas where data should be collected for further study.

5.2.3. In the manufacturing industry, key elements of the fishbone diagram

also known as the 6Ms include:
 Method: any standardized methods set by supervisors may not be
accurately followed by the operators. The instructions must be
assessed to make sure that all processes are accurate to the team and
all areas of the operation are clearly described.
 Machine: this includes any machinery utilized in the process, including
all the structures and equipment that may be the cause of the problem.
The causes can be connected to maintenance, usage, and assembly of
equipment which could lead to bottlenecks.
 Materials: to determine their effect, all supplies and resources utilized
in the production or process are examined. Material defects,
mishandling, low quality, and a lack of proper inspection can lead to
problems further along the process.
 Measurement: the fishbone analysis also includes techniques and tools
used to measure quality standards. Parts and processes need to be
assessed to determine whether they adhere to the quality control
standards set in place, and all problems should be examined to identify
the root cause of the problem.
 Manpower: anything related to people participating in the process
relevant to the problem statement. Manpower typically includes
operators, employees, maintenance teams, supervisors, and quality
control specialists.
 Environment: whether it is the external factors of the production area or
the environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, pressure,
etc., the environment is important to consider when determining the
root cause of a problem. For a streamlined workflow, the production
facilities must be able to handle the environment without having any
adverse impact on the production or process.

5.3. Stratification
5.3.1. Descriptive analysis
(Adje, 2023) Argues that in statistics, stratification is the process of dividing the
rows of a data frame into subgroups that have common properties. Deciding
what properties to look at requires some creativity and insight from the data
scientist, although often what to do is obvious. To illustrate, consider
measurements of people’s full expiratory lung volume collected as part of a
study to understand the functional effects of smoking and exposure to
second-hand smoke.
Table 1: Data on Lung Volume (Adje, 2023)
5.3.2. Stratification indices
Indexes of socioeconomic status and other measures of social stratification,
intended to gauge individuals' positions on a hierarchy and society, are widely
used throughout the behavioural and social sciences as well as in other fields
for a variety of purposes (J, 2020)
Table 2: Participants on table showing gender and age (J, 2020)

5.4. Check sheet

5.4.1. Design and Purpose

Check sheets are designed for systematic data collection and categorization.
Their simplicity makes them accessible to various users, contributing to
consistent and standardized data recording.

5.4.2. Data Collection and Interpretation

Check sheets enable efficient data collection, which can be quickly interpreted
for decision-making. Patterns and trends become evident through data
analysis, aiding in identifying areas of concern or improvement.

5.4.3. Integration with Quality Improvement

Check sheets are integral to Lean and Six Sigma methodologies. They
facilitate data-driven root cause analysis, aiding organizations in process
optimization and continuous
 5.5. Pareto diagram
Pareto analysis
According to (Carpenter 2011)This is based on the Pareto principle (also known as
the 80/20 rule),5 which assumes that most of the problems or results in any situation
are determined by only a small number of causes. The chart helps to identify the vital
few contributors that account for most quality problems. The chart is a form of
histogram that orders any data gathered by frequency of occurrence, and shows, for
instance, how many quality defects were generated by a particular type of identified
cause. PM4DEV offers an example in which a Pareto chart is used to map errors in
the collection of project beneficiary data.6 The project team identified five categories
of error and for each category counted the frequency of occurrence within the total
number of errors. Figure 8.1 shows the resulting chart in which the bars represent
each category of error. The chart reveals how 80 per cent of the errors could be
reduced just by improving the collection of data in two categories.
6. IDENTIFY ONE OPPORTUNITY OF IMPROVEMENT AND
USE THE QUALITY TOOL(S)
6.1. Cause-and-effect diagram
6.1.1. Avoid simplification
Cause-and-effect diagrams are used to identify the potential root causes of a
problem or an effect. The most common mistake made is oversimplifying the
causes by focusing only on surface-level reasons without looking further into
the underlying factors. To address this problem, the following steps should be
taken:
 Thorough investigation: Thoroughly investigate each category of
causes on the diagram. Investigate further to find any underlying less
obvious causes that may be contributing to the problem.
 Root cause analysis: Once potential causes are identified, identify the
root causes rather than just addressing the symptoms. Employ the 5
Whys technique to further analyse the fundamental reasons behind
each cause.
 Critical thinking: Assumptions should be challenged and also seek
evidence or data to support each cause listed on the diagram. This
helps prevent bias and baseless assumptions.
 Complex relationships: Causes can be interconnected and have
complex relationships; some causes amplify or mitigate the effects of
others. Ensure that these relationships are represented on the diagram
to capture the complexity.
 Iterative process: Utilise the cause-and-effect diagram as an iterative
tool. As more insight is gained, revisit the diagram to add, modify, or
refine causes.
 Data-driven approach: Potential causes should be supported by data
and evidence. This lends credibility to the diagram and helps prioritise
causes based on their actual impact.

6.2. Check sheet

Opportunity Identification
An opportunity for improvement can be identified in a manufacturing process
where machine downtime is a recurring issue affecting overall efficiency.

6.2.1. Using the Check Sheet:

 Define the specific machine downtime causes (e.g., maintenance,
material shortage).
 Develop a check sheet with categories for each downtime cause.
 Record each instance of downtime in the relevant category.
 Periodically analyse the check sheet data to identify the primary
causes of downtime.
 6.3. Scatter plot
One opportunity for improvement in a scatter plot is to enhance the visualization by
adding additional layers of information by:
 Trend Lines: Incorporate trend lines, regression lines, or other fitted models to
help visualize the general trend of the data. This can assist in identifying
patterns and making predictions based on the plotted variables.
 Background Information: Include contextual information or reference lines on
the plot to provide a benchmark or point of comparison. This could be a
reference line at a specific value or a shaded area representing a certain
range.
 Dynamic Visualizations: If your data changes over time, consider creating an
animation or interactive plot that shows the evolution of the scatter plot over
different time periods. This can reveal trends, changes, and patterns that are
not as evident in a static plot.

Incorporating multiple enhancements can provide a more comprehensive view of the

relationships between variables within a scatter plot.
 7. RECOMMENDATIONS
The seven basic quality control tools are fundamental techniques that assist
organisations with analysing and improving processes. Recommendations for
effectively utilising each of these quality control tools include:
7.1. Check sheets:
 Regularly reviewing the collected data to identify trends and patterns.
 Utilising a check sheet to collect data consistently and systematically.
 Designing the check sheet in a user-friendly and intuitive format for
easy data recording.
7.2. Pareto charts:
 Focusing on the largest contributing factors to prioritise efforts.
 Creating meaningful categories to group similar problems together.
 Updating the Pareto chart continuously as new data becomes
available.
7.3. Cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone diagram):
 Involving cross-functional teams to brainstorm possible causes from
different perspectives.
 Utilising clear categories (such as 6Ms: Manpower, Machine, Method,
Material, Measurement, and Environment) to structure the analysis.
 Implementing solutions by first validating potential causes with data.
7.4. Histogram:
 Further utilising histograms to determine whether a process is normally
distributed or skewed.
 Interpreting the histogram accurately by first comprehending the
underlying data and process.
7.5. Scatter plot:
 For better understanding, axes and data points should be named
clearly.
 Analysing the scatter plot for trends, correlations, or outliers that could
provide new information.
7.6. Control chart:
 Setting control limits based on historical data or process specifications.
  Monitoring the control chart consistently to identify any shifts or trends
in the process.
7.7. Stratification:
 Key factors should be identified to stratify data effectively, including
time, location, or product type.
 Uncovering variations and trends by analysing each subgroup
independently.
 Utilising stratification to have better understanding of process
performance.
 8. CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the seven basic quality tools are extremely useful assets for
companies looking to improve processes, enhance quality, and deliver exceptional
products and services. When used effectively, these tools provide benefits such as
easier problem identification leading to targeted solutions, data-driven decision-
making, prioritisation of efforts by highlighting the most important factors contributing
to problems and thus allowing resources to be allocated effectively, root cause
analysis, process understanding, real-time monitoring, cross-functional collaboration,
structured and continuous improvement leading to sustained quality improvement,
customer satisfaction, and business success.
The successful implementation of these basic quality control tools also depends on
committed leadership, trained personnel, accurate data collection, and a willingness
to embrace change. By utilising these tools and combining them into a larger quality
management framework, companies can build a solid foundation for attaining higher
levels of quality, efficiency, and customer satisfaction.