Firearm Ammunition

Ammunition/ Cartridge

DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION AND CARTRIDGE

Ammunition (Legal Definition) refers to any loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other
missiles maybe fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes
ammunition for air rifles.

This is the legal definition of ammunition as provided under section 877 of the
Revised Administrative Code. Technically, the term cartridge is used to describe a complete
unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case, propellant (gun powder), and primer.

While ammunitions for large caliber guns are called shells, ammunitions for rifles
and handguns are usually called cartridges.

Ammunition (Technical Definition) refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit

cartridge- meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder
and primer.

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Origin of Cartridge

 The term cartridge is derived from the word “Charta,” the Latin word for paper.

 Later on, it came through the French word “Cartouche,” meaning a roll of paper,
which indicates that the origin cartridges were not brass gliding-metal tipped units
which we are familiar with today.

Parts of a Cartridge

 Bullet
 The projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the
expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
 Cartridge case
 The tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. Sometimes called “shell”
or “casing”.
 Gunpowder
 The powder charge which, when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to
heated gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge
through the barrel and to the target. Sometimes called “propellant” or
“powder charge”.
 Primer
 The metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical
compound, which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite. Such
action is called “percussion”.

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The other specific parts of a cased center-fire cartridge are shown in the illustration below.

GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION

Based on general use, the four types of ammunition are:

1. Dummy: This a carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually made of steel and
discreetly dimensioned to be used by weapons instructors, inspectors and repairmen
when checking if weapons are functional.
2. Drill ammunitions: This type of ammunition is completely inert and without an
explosive propellant. It is used during military training to practice loading and
manipulation of firearms.
3. Blank ammunitions: This is a cartridge without a bullet. It may contain gunpowder
and priming mixture thus designed to produce gunshot to indicate firing. This is
used for theatrical performance and military training.
4. Live ammunitions: This is the real ammunition since it is composed of a complete
unit of unfired cartridge.

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 Another way to classify ammunition for small arms is according to the type of
firearm where they are loaded. Types of ammunition according to common types of
firearms are identified in the next page.

1. Revolver ammunitions: Designed for revolvers, this type of ammunition has a straight
case with rimmed base which allows the bullet to be rammed the chamber of the
revolving cylinder. The case is traditionally made of brass.

2. Pistol ammunitions: Designed for pistols, carbines and most submachine guns, this type
of ammunition has extractor’s groove instead of a rimmed base. The groove allows easier
loading and extracting before and after firing the cartridge.

3. Rifle ammunitions: Designed for hunting rifles, sniping rifles, assault rifles, machine
guns, and some submachine guns, this type of cartridge has a bottle-neck shape. It has
longer case for large powder capacity and increased power.

4. Shot shell: This type of ammunition is for shotguns. The case of this ammunition is
generally made of plastic with a metallic base. It usually contains several pellets,
although special types of shotgun ammo may be loaded with single slugs.

5. Case-less ammunitions: This is a special type of ammo. The gunpowder serves as casing
of the bullet. The entire cartridge is coated with varnish or similar material to protect it
from moisture and moderate shocks. Case-less ammo can be used in handguns and
rifles.

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 Its advantage lies essentially in its small weight and optimized volume. It is more
sensitive to moisture and shocks compared to cased ammo. It cannot be adapted for use
in revolvers because of practical reasons.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES

1. Classification according to location of primer

a. Pin-fire cartridge: Describes a historic type of cartridge used in breech loading

shotguns and pistols of the nineteenth century invented by Frenchman Casimir Lefaucheux
in 1836. Its history is closely associated with the development of the breechloader which
replaced muzzle-loading weapons.

The latter required a percussion cap, gunpowder and a projectile or charge be loaded
sequentially and packed using wadding and a ramrod. By contrast pin-fire cartridges were
supremely convenient in that they could contain percussion cap, powder and shot in a neat
pre-loaded package which was several times faster to fire and reload and was inherently safer.

This is the type of cartridge in which the primer cup is concealed inside the cartridge
case. A pin is resting upon the primer. The pin protrudes at the side of the cartridge. The gun
chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when loaded in the chamber so that the pin could be
struck by the hammer after squeezing the trigger. Accordingly, this type of cartridge had been
used in France in the 1830s. This cartridge no longer manufactured today.

b.Rim-fire cartridge: A type of firearm cartridge. It is called a rim fire because instead
of the firing pin striking the primer cap at the center of the base of the cartridge to ignite it (as
in a centerfire cartridge), the pin strikes the base's rim. The rim of the rimfire cartridge is
essentially an extended and widened percussion cap which contains the priming compound,
while the cartridge case itself contains the propellant powder and the projectile (bullet).

Once the rim of cartridge has been struck and the bullet discharged, the cartridge
cannot be reloaded, because the head has been deformed by the firing pin impact. While many
different cartridge priming methods have been fired, only rimfire and centerfire survive today
in significant use.

This is the type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at the hollow
portion of the rim of the cartridge case. It can be fired if the firing pin strikes the bottom of the

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cartridge at the rim area. This cartridge type can be identified easily by the smooth base of the
cartridge case. At present, rim-fire cartridge is exclusively used by caliber .22 revolvers.

c. Center-fire cartridge: A cartridge in which the primer is located in the center of the
cartridge case head. Unlike rimfire cartridges, the primer is a separate and replaceable
component. The center fire cartridge has replaced the rim fire in all but the smallest
cartridge sizes. Except for low-powered caliber.22 long and short cartridges, and a handful
of antiques, all modern pistol, rifle, and shotgun ammunition are center fire. This is the type
of cartridge mostly used today.

The primer cup is placed centrally at the base of the cartridge. The priming
mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing on the primer cup which is supported
by the anvil.

Three types of cartridge according to location of primer

Pin-fire cartridge Rim-fire cartridge Center-fire cartridge

All the three above mentioned types of cartridges apply the percussion system.
Percussion is a means of igniting the propellant by using spark produced by the mechanical
blow against the primer.

Some books mention two other early types of cartridges under this category: the tit-
fire cartridge and tail-fire cartridge. Just like needle-fire cartridge, these are no longer
manufactured today.

2. Classification according to rim

a. Rimmed cartridge: The design of cartridge for revolvers, shotguns and some
rifles. The cartridge has a rimmed base- that is the rim diameter is obviously wider
than the case diameter, and it has no extracting groove. Examples are the .38 caliber
and .22 caliber cartridges for revolvers.

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 Figure 31 – Classification according to rim

b. Rimless cartridge: The type of cartridge which is true to pistol and rifle
ammunition. The cartridge case and the rim have equal diameter. Examples are the .45
cartridge and 9mm cartridges fro semi-automatic pistols, and 5.56mm and 7.62mm
cartridges for assault rifles.

c. Semi-rimmed cartridge: The rim is slightly wider than the case. Examples
are the caliber .25, .32 auto and super .38 cartridges for semi-automatics.

d. Rebated cartridge: A rare type of cartridge because the rim has smaller
diameter than the cartridge case. Example is the 8x59mm rifle cartridge.

e. Belted cartridge: The type of cartridge originally designed for machineguns.

The extractor’s groove is strengthened with another layer of metal to prevent the
machine gun’s extractor from damaging the cartridge case.

3. Classification according to power

a. Low-power cartridge: a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity of less than 1,850 fps.

b. High-power cartridge: a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle

velocity between 1,925 and 2,500 fps.

c. High-intensity cartridge: the projectile fired from this cartridge has muzzle
velocity of more than 2,500 fps.

4. Classification according to caliber

The table below shows the more common handgun cartridges with
their muzzle velocity and weight in grains.

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 Cartridge Weight

(in grains)

cal .22 rim-fire STD 36

cal .32 auto (7.65 auto) 71

cal .380 auto (9mm Short, .380 ACP) 95

cal .355 cartridge 90

9mm AUTO 124

cal .38 SPL (.38 S&W Special) 140

cal .357 Magnum (Smith &Wesson) 165

cal .40 auto (Smith & Wesson) 155

cal . 44 Magnum (Remington) 240

cal . 45 auto (.45 ACP) 230

cal. 454 Magnum (.454 Casull) 300

cal .475 Magnum ( .475 Linebaugh) 370

cal .50 Magnum (.50 Action Express) 325

The table shows the more common rifle cartridges with their muzzle velocity and
weight in grains.

Cartridge Weight

(in grains)

4.73mm Caseless 52

5.56 mm Military (.233 Remington) 64

cal .270 Rifle (Winchester) 130

cal .30-30 Rifle (7.62x51 Rmm) 150

7mm Magnum (Remington) 175

7.62mm Soviet (AK47 cartridge) 125

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 7.62mm Military (.308 Winchester) 180

cal .300 Magnum (Winchester) 200

cal .416 Magnum (Remington) 410

cal .50 Military (.50 BMG) 720

MAGNUM AMMUNITION

To distinguish regular from magnum ammunition, it is best to identify an example of

each. If we take cal .38 SPL cartridges as example of regular ammo, a good counterpart
should be the cal .357 magnum ammo. Although these two ammos have almost the same
caliber (in fact cal .357 magnum is smaller than cal .38 special), cal .357 magnum is more
powerful than cal .38 SPL.

The magnum ammunition has more gunpowder than a cal .38 SPL. Comparing the
length of cartridge case, cal .375 magnum ammo has 1.290 in cartridge case length while cal
.38 SPL has only 1.155 in cartridge case length. Thus, a bullet from .357 magnum travels
much faster and has greater impact than the bullet of .38 SPL.

Regular magnum cartridges

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 BULLET

A bullet is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from firearm by

means of the expansive force of gasses produced by burned gunpowder. In layman’s term,
the bullet is called slug. The word bullet came from the French word “Boulette” which
roughly means little ball.

As distinguished from pellets, bullets are slugs that have pointed tip or cylindrical
nose loaded in cartridges for rifled guns while pellets are small spherical projectiles loaded
in shot shells for smoothbore weapons. Pellets, more often called shots, may also refer to
skirted projectiles used in pellet guns.

As opposed to shells launched by artillery guns, bullets do not contain explosives

thus they are not self-propelling. Shells are capable for self-propulsion. These are the
projectiles fired from missile or grenade launchers.

The bullet, just like the primer and cartridge, is another ammunition component
significant to firearm examiners. Once it goes through the barrel of a firearm, the bullet is
marked by the rifling. In this manner, unique characteristics of the firearm are passed on to
the bullet. Thus, a bullet recovered from the crime scene can be traced to the firearm where it
was propelled using the rifling marks impressed on its surface.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BULLETS

The first bullets were much like crossbow arrows fired from ancient guns
immediately after the introduction of gunpowder in Europe. Large guns and cannons
initially fired stone balls until the mid-15th century when metal balls began to be cast.

The development of the hand culverin and matchlock harquebus brought about the
use of cast lead balls as projectiles. The original musket bullet was a spherical lead ball twice
smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely fitting paper patch which formed a tight seal so
the full pressure of the expanding gas would propel the rounded projectile.

Among the first ‘bullet-shaped’ bullets was designed by Captain John Norton of the
British Army in 1823. Norton’s bullet had a hollow base which expanded under pressure to
catch the rifling grooves once fired but the British Board of ordnance rejected it only because
spherical bullets has been in use for the last 300 years.

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 Figure 41- Early types of Ammunition

In 1836, an English gunsmith named William Greener invented the Greener bullet.
This was closely similar to Norton’s bullet except that the hollow base of the bullet was
fitted with a wooden plug which forced the base of the bullet to expand and catch the rifling.
Tests proved that Greener’s bullet was extremely effective but it was rejected because it was
judged as too complicated to produce since it is made of two separate parts.

Figure 42 - Samples of early forms of bullets

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 THE MODERN BULLET

Kinds of bullet according to mechanical construction

1. Lead bullet- those which are made of lead or alloys which is slightly harder the
pure lead. Ex. tin, antimony
2. Jacketed bullet- those that has core of lead covered by jacket of harder material
such as gilding metal, copper, and alloy of approximately 90 %, 10 % zinc, 90%
copper.
3. Tracer bullet- those that have chemical compounds on its base made out of barium
nitrates that set on fire when projected and permits the fight of the bullet.
4. Incendiary bullet- those that are used in setting or starting a fire in any flammable
targets (contain phosphorus).
5. Fragmentation bullet-
6. Dumdum bullet- an out-moded and generally misused term but also refer to bullet
that caused gaping wound upon contact.
7. Soft point or mushroom bullet- those that will expand upon striking an object
therefore produces great damage.
8. Hollow point bullet- those that has cavity in the nose designed to increase the
expansion when it hits the target.
9. Hollow base bullet
10. Ice bullet or solidified bullet- refers to the super cooled water made as a
bullet mostly used for assassination.

11. Steel jacketed bullet

12. PGU Armor piercing Incendiary (API) - Depleted Uranium (DU) – effective in
Operation Dessert Storm.
13. Explosives bullets (fragmentation) – those that contain a high charge of explosives,
upon hitting the target it usually explode leaving a large wound or damage.
14. Ball Bullets- those that are made out of core used against personnel.

PARTS OF STANDARD BULLET

1. Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust and heat from the burning
gunpowder.
2. Heel – the part where the base and bearing surface meet.

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 Figure 44 - Parts of standard rifle bullet

3. Bearing surface- the cylindrical side of the bullet that comes in contact with the
barrel rifling.
4. Cannelure – the groove around the body of a bullet to receive the case crimp; for
lead bullets, this part is better known as lubricant groove.
5. Jacket – a metal covering of the bullet’s lead core which could be made of copper,
brass, steel, aluminum, or an alloy of these metals; it may partially or completely
cover the lead core.
6. Core – bulk of mass in the bullet; the main component of the bullet that is usually
made of lead but sometimes alloyed or replaced with other metals for special
purposes such as deeper penetration and tracing.
7. Shoulder – the part where the parallel sides end and the ogive begins
8. Ogive – the radius of curve between the bearing surface and the point usually
stated with respect to the caliber.
9. Tip or Nose - the most forward point of the ogive.
10. Head-height – the length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS

There are two general groups of bullets according to composition: lead and jacketed.

1. Lead bullets: These are made of pure lead or alloyed with tin and antimony. Lead
alloy is slightly harder than pure lead. Traditionally, lead bullets are for revolvers and
caliber .22 rim-fire cartridges. Lead bullets with copper gilding are used in caliber .22 high-
velocity rim-fire cartridges.

Pure lead bullets are not satisfactory for use when high velocities are involved.
During acceleration, their softness permits deformation by air resistance, adversely affecting

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ballistic performance outside the gun barrel. Besides, lead bullets maybe damaged by
loading mechanism of automatic weapons, and may cause jamming. Today, lead bullets are
used mostly used in revolver cartridges, particularly those used in target shooting.

Lead bullets can be further classified according to shape. Based on shape, lead bullets
are either in the form of any of the ff:

a. Lead Round-nosed bullets – solid round-nosed lead bullet

b. Lead Wad-cutter bullets
c. Lead Semi-wad-cutter bullets
d. Lead Hollow-point bullets-solid hollow point
e. Rifled Slugs – slugs for shotguns

2. Jacketed bullets: Metal-jacketed bullets are the types of bullets with lead core
covered by soft brass or copper-plate soft steel jacket. The core is composed of lead-
antimony alloy for hunting and for military anti-personnel cartridges. In military armor-
piercing bullets, the core is composed of hardened steel or tungsten carbide.

Special Consideration of Bullet

1. Souvenir- bullet that has been lodge and remains in the body for very long period of
time.
2. Bullet migration- the bullet that is not lodge in the place were it was located (bullet
embolism).
3. Tamdem Bullet- two or more bullets living the barrel after another or also called
misfire.
4. Blank Bullet- used for training.

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THE CARTRIDGE CASE

Cartridge case for small arms ammunition is also called shell and casing. Cartridge
case can be defined as the tubular metallic or non-metallic container that holds together the
bullet, gunpowder and primer. It is the ammunition component that is automatically ejected
from auto loading firearms during the firing process.

However, for non-auto loading firearms, the shell is manually extracted from the
chamber. This remains at the scene of shooting incident unless collected by the shooter or
other persons involved in a crime. This is the ballistic evidence that can help trace the
particular firearm from which it was fired and ejected.

FUNCTION OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

The cartridge case of center-fire ammunition has three important functions, which
are as follows:

1. to hold the bullet, gunpowder and primer thus assembling them as one unit;
2. to serve as waterproof container for the gunpowder; and
3. to act as “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel during firing.

The shell of a center-fire cartridge prevents the escape of gases towards the rear of
the chamber. As the body of the shell is forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure of expanding gases, the shell is suddenly pushed back towards the bolt.

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 As the base of the cartridge case comes in contact with the breech face, it receives
unique marks in addition to the impression already put by the firing pin. Such marks are
distinctive characteristics stamped by the firearm on the shell.

ANATOMY OF A STANDARD SHELL

Standard cartridges of center-fire ammunitions have a shell that is usually made of

brass -70% copper and 30% zinc. Some other special cartridges are coated with plastic
varnish, zinc, copper, or tungsten. Some are made of plastic and hard paper, like the tubes
for shotgun shell.

Figure 33 - Shell of revolver and pistol cartridge

The parts of a standard shell are as follows:

1. Rim: This part of the shell limits the forward travel of cartridge into the chamber,
particularly in rimmed cartridges. For rimless and semi-rimmed cartridges, the
rim limits the clearance between the head and supporting surface of the bolt of
the firearm.
2. Primer Pocket: This part has three functions: (a) to hold the primer in central
position; (b) to prevent gas from escaping to the rear of the cartridge; and (c) to
provide solid support of primer anvil.
3. Vent: Also called flash hole, this part provides a passage of heat and flame from
the primer pocket towards the gunpowder chamber.

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 Figure 34 – the cartridge case

4. Body: This is the ‘cork’ that plugs the breech to prevent gas from escaping at the
rear of the gun barrel. For bottleneck shaped cartridges, the cork includes the
shoulder and the neck.
5. Neck: This is the part occupied by the bullet, which is true for rifle and
machinegun cartridges.
6. Cannelure: This is composed of serrated grooves found at the interior surface of
the neck which has a dual function: to serve as lubricant groove and to prevent
the bullet from being pushed or pulled.
7. Crimp: This acts as the lip since it is found at the periphery of the mouth of the
cartridge case. It has also two functions: to aid in holding the bullet in place and
to resist the initial forward motion of the bullet while the gunpowder undergoes
combustion.
8. Shoulder: This part supports the shell’s neck and is only present in rifle and
machinegun cartridges.
9. Base: This is the bottom part of the case that contains the primer, rim, and
headstamp.
10. Headstamp: The bottom surface of the shell that contains engraved data such as
the manufacturer’s ID, caliber and year of manufacture.
11. Extracting groove: This is the circular groove near the base of the shell designed
for automatic withdrawal after each firing.

TYPES OF SHELL ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Straight case: This description of shell is true to pistol and revolver

ammunition. This is the casing of all rimmed-cartridges for revolvers and all center-
fire pistol ammo that are now manufactured.

2. Tapered case: This is an obsolete type of shell. It is very rare but presently
being used in magnum jet cartridge of caliber .22 firearms.

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 4. Bottleneck case: This description is applicable to shell of rifle ammunition.
This is the casing of most modern center-fire rifle cartridges. This is the type
of shell that provides the greatest powder capacity commensurate with over-
all case length.

Figure 35 - Types of shell according to shape

TYPES OF SHELL ACCORDING TO RIM

This classification of shell is based on head-form or base design. The 5 basic base
designs of cartridge cases are as follows:

1. Rimmed case: This type of shell is designed for cartridges of revolvers, shotguns
and some single shot rifles. This the earliest type of shell. The diameter of the cartridge base
is wider than the diameter of the body.

It provides for easy extraction from the chamber, however, it is not suited for
automatic feeding from box magazine. Revolvers and shotgun ammos normally have
rimmed shells which stops them from sliding through the breech upon loading in the
chamber.

2. Semi-rimmed case: This type of shell is designed to combine the advantages of the
rimmed and rimless casing. However, it never became popular.

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 3. Rimless case: This has a base with the same diameter as that of the body. This case
design allows smooth feeding from magazine to the chamber. The case length and shoulder
allow proper head spacing. Since rimless case is the shell design of cartridges for
semiautomatic pistols and autoloading rifles, it has extracting groove to allow automatic
extraction.

Figure 36 - Types of Shell According to Rim

THE PRIMER

The primer of center-fire cartridges refers to a small metallic ignition cup at the
center of the cartridge base. When the striker hits the base of the cartridge, a distinctive mark
is placed by the gun on the primer. This mark is known as the firing pin impression which is
very useful to firearm examiners.

Once the primer is hit by the firing pin, the priming mixture burns sending flame or
spark through the flash-hole. This hole, also called vent, is the passage of heat and flame that
ignites propellant loaded in the gunpowder chamber.

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 The primer of center-fire cartridges for handguns, rifles and shotguns is shaped like a
cup that is made up of three main parts: ignition chemicals, a cup and an anvil. In refilling
cartridge cases, the used primer is removed from the primer pocket and replaced with a
whole new primer.

The history of primers for ammo of modern small arms goes back in 1807 when a
Scottish Presbyterian Minister name Alexander John Forsythe conceived the idea of using
detonating chemicals to ignite the gunpowder contained in the cartridge case. He simply
applied the principle of percussion to improve firearms and ammunitions. The first
successful priming mixture that he invented is composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal
and sulfur in powder form.

The primer is designed in such manner that once the priming mixture is compressed,
it undergoes rapid combustion thus producing flame or sparks to ignite the propellant
loaded in the cartridge case.

PARTS OF STANDARD PRIMER OF CENTER-FIRE CARTRIDGE

1. Primer cup: This is the container of the priming mixture. It is composed of brass
and copper or any other gilding metal.
2. Anvil: It is a thin but rigid metal strip where the priming mixture is crushed
once the firing pin strikes the primer cup.
3. Primer pocket: It simply refers to the space at the center bottom of the shell
where the primer cup, priming mixture and anvil occupy.
4. Disc: This is small piece of paper or disc of tin foil which is pressed over the
priming mixture. Its dual purpose is to hold the priming mixture in place and
to exclude moisture that might degrade the quality of the priming mixture.
5. Priming mixture: This is the chemical component of the primer.

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 Figure 37 - Primer of center-fire cartridge

THE PRIMING MIXTURE

The primer is a volatile (highly sensitive) chemical in powdered from contained in

the primer cup. Once its volume is compressed, it automatically undergoes rapid
combustion.

The priming mixture is usually made of lead styphnate, barium nitrate, and
antimony sulfide. Lead, barium and antimony elements are typical in primers of center-fire
cartridges.

There are 2 classes of modern priming mixture:

1. Corrosive primer: This type is primarily composed of potassium chlorate. If this

is ignited, it produces potassium chloride which draws out moisture from the air
and this moisture speeds the corrosion of metal. Its ingredients are:
a. Potassium chlorate – 45% (initiator and fuel)
b. Antimony sulfide – 23% (fuel element)
c. Mercury Fulminate – 32 % (initiator)

2. Non-corrosive primer: This is the improved class of priming mixture. It has

barium nitrate instead of potassium chlorate.

TYPES OF PRIMER

According to number of vents and internal construction, there are two types of
primers: Berdan and Boxer.The Berdan primer is the European type. It was invented by
Hiram Berdan and was patented in March 20, 1886. The anvil, which is actually a part of the
cartridge case, is sticking out from the center of two or three flash holes. Special tool is
required to remove the primer. Thus, Berdan primed shells are not generally reloaded.

The Boxer primer is the American type which has a single vent. Its anvil is V-shaped
separate little piece of brass, thus this is also called separate anvil type. The flash hole is
located at the center of the primer cup. The Boxer type primer was developed by Colonel
Edward Munier Boxer and was patented in June 29, 1869. Although the process of
manufacturing it seems to be quite difficult, it became more popular because of its
adaptability in reloading cartridge cases.

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 Figure 38 - Two types of Primer

The original design of Berdan primer has been modified. The two more popular
modifications are the French modified Berdan primer and the Chinese modified Berdan
primer.

Figure 39 - French Modified Berdan

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What is Corrosion and Erosion?

Corrosion- the chemical wear and tear of the inside of a gun barrel due to rust formation or
chemical reactions by the products of combustion after firing.

Erosion- the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to
mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.

THE GUNPOWDER

Gunpowder is a chemical substance of varied compositions, sizes, shapes, and colors

that function as propellant. Although it burns rapidly upon ignition, it is classified as low-
explosive mixture. There are two main types of gunpowder the black powder and the so-
called smokeless powder.

Whatever type of gunpowder is used, the main function is the same. Gunpowder
serves as the source of energy to propel a projectile. Once it is burned in a confined place, it
produces large volume of heated gasses that expand thus generating energy capable of
pushing through the gun barrel and launched it to fly towards a target.

Serpentine powder – the oldest known gunpowder or propellant

A. THE BLACK POWDER

Most historians agree that it was the Chinese ALCHEMISTS who first developed the
black powder sometime in the 19th century during the Han Dynasty. The formula for black
powder first appeared in the writings of the 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon.

Gunpowder was probably introduced in Europe from the Middle East. Berthold
Schwarz (spelled in other reference books as Schwartz), a 14th century German monk whose

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real name is Constantin Anklitzen, may have been the first person to employ gunpowder for
propelling a projectile.

The first reference to cannon that used black powder dates back in 1126 when oil
bamboo tubes were used to launch missiles at the enemy. Eventually bamboo tubes were
replaced by metal tubes. From China, the military use of gunpowder appears to have spread
to Japan and Europe. It was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241 and was
mentioned by Roger Bacon in 1248. By the mid 14th century, early cannons are mentioned
extensively both in Europe and in China.

Whatever the precise dates and identities of its first discoverers and users, it is
certain that black powder was manufactured in England in 1334 and that powder-
manufacturing plants existed in Germany in 1340.

Black powder consists of the following optimum formula:

a. 11.85% sulfur (main fuel component)

b. 74.64% saltpeter (scientifically known as KNO3, or potassium nitrate which
provides oxygen to the reaction)
c. 13.51% carbon

The basic ration is 2 parts sulfur, 3 parts charcoal and 15 parts saltpeter.

The three disadvantages of black powder that were tolerated before the invention of
modern gunpowder are as follows:

1. It produces large cloud of whit smoke.

2. It leaves a thick, heavy fouling which is both hygroscopic and corrosive.
3. It attracts moisture hence it must be stored properly.

B. THE SMOKELESS POWDER

In 1886, Paul Vieille in France developed the first smokeless gunpowder called
Poudre B. This was made from gelatinized nitrocellulose mixed with ether and alcohol, it
was passed through rollers to form thin sheets, which were cut with a guillotine to flakes of
the desired size. Vielle’s powder was used in the Lebel rifle that was adopted by the French
Army in the late 1880s.

The French Army was the first to use Poudre b but it was not long before other
European countries followed their example. Vieille’s powder revolutionized the
effectiveness of small guns and rifles.

In 1887, Alfred Nobel also developed smokeless gunpowder which he called

‘ballistite.’ Nobel’s gun powder is composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60% nitrocellulose, a
powder easier to handle and more powerful than Poudre B. In 1889, Professor John Jacob
Abel developed ‘cordite’, a smokeless powder of the same composition with that of Nobel’s
powder.

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

 Smokeless powder allowed the development of modern semi and full-automatic
firearms. There are two main advantages of smokeless powder over black powder. Minimal
smoke is produced when smokeless powder is burned. It is much more powerful than black
powder giving an accurate rifle range of up to 1000 yards.

The term smokeless powder is a misnomer for this propellant is neither a powder
nor smokeless. Most smokeless powder used as propellant appears as flakes. When they are
burned, they produce smoke but not as many compared to huge cloud of white smoke
produced by black powder.

C. COMPOSITION OF MODERN GUNPOWDER

Nitrocellulose-based smokeless gunpowder was the propellant primarily used

during the first two world wars.

Smokeless powder consists of almost pure nitrocellulose (single-base powders),

frequently combined with up to 50% nitroglycerin (double-base), and sometimes
nitroguanidine (triple-base) corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or
flakes using solvents such as ether.

Smokeless powder burns only on the surface of the granules. Larger granules burn
more slowly, and the burning rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings which
deal burning. The intent is to regulate the burning rate so that a more or less constant
pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the
highest velocity. Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area
such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a
vacuum. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from
causing undesired ignitions.

Today, smokeless powder can be of various shapes. Sheets of smokeless powder are
cut into discs, flakes, balls, or tiny cylindrical shapes. Disk shaped or flake propellants are
usually used in handgun ammo while cylindrical gunpowder is often used in rifle ammo.

Crystals
Cylindrical Flakes

Figure 40 - Different shapes of Gunpowders

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

 D. THE FOUR (4) MAIN CLASSES OF PROPELLANTS

1. Single-based propellant: This is composed of pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with

nitrocellulose.

2. Double-based propellant: This type is composed of nitrocellulose and

nitroglycerin mixed with any or all of the following minor ingredients: centralite,
Vaseline phathalate esters, and inorganic salts. This type appears as gray-green to
black in color and the grains are similar in size and shape to single-based
propellant.

3. Triple-based propellant: This is composed of three principal ingredients, which

are nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine and nitroguanidine.

This type of propellant was developed in attempting to compromise the low-

power sing-based propellant and high-power but excessive heat of double base
powders.

Triple-based propellant contains small percentage of nitroglycerin but

sufficient to provide added power. Nitroguanidine is added to lower the flame
temperature while still adding active explosive element.

One significant characteristic of triple-based propellant is it is practically

flash-less and does not generate the amount of smoke produced by the other
types.

4. HIT (high-ignition temperature) Propellant: The main ingredient of this class of

propellant is the RDX (cyclonite) group of high explosive.
It was developed by the Dynamite Noble of Germany in conjunction with
Heckler and Koch. This type of propellant is loaded in caseless cartridge such as
the ammunition of the modern German rifle called G11K2.

THE PRODUCTION PROCESS OF BLACKPOWDER

1. PREPARATION – all three of the raw materials need purifying and processing before
they could be used for gunpowder.

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

 SALTPETER/NITER – is the common name for potassium nitrate. Originally
extracted from pigeon droppings and other nitrogen rich manures it was later obtained
from imported mineral deposits – mainly in India in the 19th century. The raw saltpeter
was dissolved in water, boiled and recrystallized.

*SULPHUR/SULFUR – this was imported from Spain and purified by distillation.

*CHARCOAL – both the wood used and the method of burning were crucial to the
quality of the finished gunpowder. Softwood timer was the best. Originally the
charcoal was made in the traditional way in earth covered mounds. In the late 18th
century it found that putting the wood in sealed iron cylinders and heating these in a
furnace produced a far more reliable and effective gunpowder.

2. MIXING – all three ingredients were crushed into a fine powder in a ball mill. They
were then mixed in the proportions required for the particular way in which the
finished gunpowder was to be used.

3. INCORPORATION – just mixing the ingredients will give a very rapid burning
material, but for an explosive mix, every grain must be a mixture of all the three.

4. PRESSING – pressing the size of the grains. It gave a stronger explosion for a given
weight of gunpowder. This was the most dangerous stage of production.

5. CORNING – the cake from either the mill or the press was broken up and the grains
were then sieved to ensure the final product was of the required grain size. Dust was
removed by tumbling in silk walled drums.

6. GLAZING – this was an optional process, only done to powder for certain uses.
Graphite dust was added to the gunpowder and tumbled in a drum. The grains of
gunpowder ended up with a thin coating of graphite giving it a polished appearance.

7. DRYING

TERMS INVOLVING GUNPOWDER

 GUNCOTTON – is a nitrocellulose explosive invented in 1845 by Christian Shinbein

as a smokeless propellant for firearms.

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

  EXPLOSIVE – is a stable material that upon proper stimulation rapidly changes
from solid or liquid into a hot expanding gas.

 TNT (TRINITROTOLUENE) – is one of the most commonly used high explosives in

the world.

 DYNAMITE – is a powerful explosive made by mixing the highly unstable liquid

nitroglycerin with an absorbent.

 BOMB – is a container filled with an explosive, incendiary matter, or gas that can be
dropped, hurled, or set in place to be detonated by an attached exploding device.

 GRENADE – is a small filled with explosives or chemicals

Shotgun Ammunition

Shotshell - A cartridge
containing projectile(s)
designed to be fired in a
shotgun. The cartridge
body may be metal, plastic
or paper.
Shot – Typically lead or steel
Wadding – Plastic cup which
holds the shot

* Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Glossary 4th Edition

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

 Figure 26- Parts of a Shotgun Cartridge

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst

Prepared by: Joey Cain R. Meneses, RCrimgst