Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121

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Journal of African Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

Regional structural mapping using a combined geological and

geophysical approach e A preliminary study at Cairo-Suez district,
Egypt
Mohamed Attwa*, Ahmed Henaish
Structural Geophysics Group (SGG), Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Zagazig, Zagazig University, 44519, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Contrary to the usual application of individual geological and/or geophysical surveys, this paper repre-
Received 25 July 2017 sented a sequential use of surface structural mapping and DCR method to afford a sensible structural
Received in revised form model in a cost effective way. Understanding the geological setting of a non-mapped area at the central
3 April 2018
part of Cairo-Suez District (CSD), Egypt, is an immediate engineering concern due to its complex
Accepted 18 April 2018
deformation history. Field work is carried out to measure stratigraphic sections and establish structural
Available online 24 April 2018
characteristics of the rock units. Surface geophysical DCR sounding and electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) surveys are performed. To overcome the non-uniqueness problem of DCR interpretation, the
Keywords:
Structural mapping
available borehole data, detailed surface geological measurements and a sequential use of linear and
DCR inversion non-linear inversion algorithms are applied. The practical benefits of detailed surface structural mapping
Electrical resistivity tomography are demonstrating in considering all geological parameters to a conceptual subsurface model, which
Uncertainty reduction would have not been identified or misinterpreted otherwise. In an integrative approach, such detailed
Cairo-suez district surface data allow us to confirm the uncertain inferred regional subsurface structures based on DCR data
inversion. For detailed subsurface structural characterization, the results of ERTs using coarse triangular
mesh and iteratively reweighted algorithm show a good agreement with prior known surface and un-
derground structural features. Additionally, ERTs significantly resolve the complex geological features,
which constitute uncertain structures in the surface structural model. The main impact of presented
integrative approach is to (i) constraint the DCR data interpretation and (ii) inform a preliminary study
plan of regional structural investigation, which can be used as a platform for engineering decision
emaking and/or further detailed geophysical and geotechnical investigations.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Gebel Mokattam). Structurally, CSD represents a part of two main

Nowadays, urbanization and development are becoming so
rapid. On the other hand, the intensive urban growth can magnify
the geo-environmental hazards. Accordingly, characterization of
subsurface structures is prerequisite for development, foundation
and civil engineering. In the northeastern part of Egypt, the Cairo-
Suez District (CSD) represents a part of the unstable shelf units,
which comprise the greater part of northern Egypt (Fig. 1a). This
mobile shelf reflects a disturbance in tectonics and, consequently,
structural highs and lows can be well-observed (e.g. Gebel Ataqa;
Abu Treifiya; Gebel El-Qattamiya; Gebel Nasuri; Gebel Abu Shama;
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: attwa_m2@yahoo.com (M. Attwa).
fault belts (Fig. 1a) which are called Mokattam (MK)-Nasuri (N) and
Maadi (MD)-Qattamyia (Q) (Moustafa and Abd-Allah, 1991).
Recently, the CSD represents one of the most important locations in
Egypt for major infrastructure projects and urbanization expansion.
The predominant factor in terms of engineering hazard is generally
related to moderate size earthquakes occurrence at short distances
(Fig. 1a). Accordingly, understanding the impact of fault rupture
hazards on the communities and constructions is (i) an immediate
engineering concern (IEC) and (ii) essential for informing future
science and policy directions. Fig. 1a indicates a general agreement
that CSD represents a zone of low to moderate seismicity (e.g.
Hussein et al., 2013), which is compiled from the National Earth-
quake Information Center (NEIC, 2016), the International Seismo-
logical Center (ISC, 2016), and published data (e.g. Abou Elenean
et al., 2010; Grünthal and Wahlstro €m, 2012). Moreover, the CSD is

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.04.010
1464-343X/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 105

Fig. 1. (a) Simplified tectonic map of Cairo-Suez District (CSD), the compiled major structures (compiled from Moustafa et al., 1985; Moustafa and Abd-Allah, 1991; e.g. Maqbool
et al., 2014; present study), and earthquake epicenters (stars). (b) Color composite Landsat ETMþ image of bands 7, 4, 2 as RGB shows the locations of the structural highs of the
study area, DC resistivity soundings and ERTs, observed boreholes and constructed geoelectrical cross-sections in relation to the structural highs. The different rock units of the
study area are displayed as follows: Middle Eocene rocks: brown; Upper Eocene rocks: blush green; Oligocene sand and gravels: olive to brown; Oligo-Miocene Basalt: black; Marine
Miocene: light green; Non-marine Miocene: light brown; and Pliocene to Recent: brownish orange. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
106 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
characterized by normal faults with subordinate strike-slip
component (e.g. Maqbool et al., 2014), which could play a vital
role in seismic hazards assessment.
Conventionally, surface structural mapping is based on litera-
ture data, field observations, stratigraphic studies and field struc-
tural measurements (e.g. Sakran et al., 2016). Moreover, locating
subsurface geological structures in structural lows represents a
risky mission in the lack of surface geological information, the
regional tectonic regime and borehole data. On the contrary, the
detection of subsurface geology and structures applying geophys-
ical methods is easier, cheaper and non-destructive giving faster
results than conventional excavation (e.g. Stan and Stan-Kleczek,
2014; Attwa and El-Shinawi, 2017). Additionally, the geophysical
interpretation art relies on the measured data quality and spatially
redundant stratigraphic information supported by field analogies.
However, in the scarcity of geological data, the uncertainty in the
geophysical data interpretation is increased. Consequently, under-
standing and characterizing subsurface structures impose specific
challenges.
Geoelectrical techniques are the most popular of geophysical
methods for geological, hydrogeological and geo-environmental
investigations (e.g. Revil et al., 2017; Mesbah et al., 2017). Specif-
ically, the direct current resistivity (DCR) method is well-
established and commonly used to answer unresolved geological,
geotechnical and structural problems (e.g. Attwa et al., 2014a;
Khaled et al., 2016; Maurya et al., 2017). For DCR sounding surveys
(1D), the measured data were used to characterize the subsurface
geological situations after calculating the intrinsic resistivity (i.e.
inversion process) of geoelectrical layers, which are stitched and,
finally, the depth geoelectrical sections are obtained. On the other
hand, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is preferred for char-
acterizing linear features and indicating the lateral inhomogenities
(e.g. Pazzi et al., 2016; Lysdahl et al., 2017). The 2D-ERT is a com-
bination of horizontal and vertical conventional DCR soundings in
which a huge number of data are manipulated along 2D profiles.
Accordingly, 2D-ERT is applied to show the subsurface layers
displacement related to subsurface structures at a short distance.
However, the DCR survey in form of DC soundings is still a
considerable source of deep and regional geological information
and it is suitable for preliminary subsurface structure delineations
for large areas.
The 1D DCR interpretations can give a better depth estimation of
deep subsurface layers than 2D inversion schemes. Furthermore, if
some parts of a 2D profile satisfy the 1D conditions, then the 1D
inversion of few soundings can give a better depth estimation and
vertical resolution compared with 2D inversion results (Basokur,
1999). The 2D inversion requires a special data acquisition, where
the electrode spacing should increase in the profile trend with
approximately identical spaced measurements stations. Accord-
ingly, for regional survey and required great depth of investigation
(DOI) of new unexplored area, the ERT of several profiles becomes
tedious and time consuming compared with DCR soundings. On the
other hand, the main drawbacks of conventional DCR soundings
have arisen from the 1D model assumptions of horizontally sub-
surface layers. This condition is further complicated by convex and
concave surfaces in landscape and significant lateral variation of
subsurface geological conditions (Griffiths and Barker, 1993).
Therefore, interpretation of data sets obtained by DCR sounding
remains ambiguous, which is simply explained in Fig. 2. Uncer-
tainty of DCR inverted data (Fig. 2) can be present in delineating the
geological parameters (e.g. dip value of bedding planes, type and
geometry of geological structures, etc.). For instance, Fig. 2 shows
that several possibilities/probabilities have been raised of geolog-
ical structures type, geometry and location regarding to DCR
soundings inversion results of proposed two and three sounding
points (Fig. 2a and b, respectively). Therefore, the interpreter seeks
original model corresponding to the geological and borehole in-
formation to reduce the inherent ambiguity, i.e. a non-uniqueness
problem. In addition, the development of 1D inversion algorithms
reduces, in general, the uncertainty of DCR soundings
interpretation.
The survey area (Fig. 1b) is located at the central part of CSD. It is
bounded by Cairo-Suez and Cairo-Ain Sokhna desert roads (Fig. 1)
to the north and south, respectively. The area has been a desert
land, i.e. a barren area of landscape, until 2012. From 2012 until
2017, construction activities with economic development have
been rapid increased. In earlier projects and based on our field
observations, many subsurface structures as faults and folds were
remarked. Regarding to historical seismicity studies, civil con-
struction projects on such structure zones can be are prone to
failure unless properly considered; especially human activities can
contribute in earthquake and movement acceleration along fault
planes. The subsurface structures of the area are concealed under a
thick cover of Oligocene rocks making structural modeling a chal-
lenging task. Accordingly, the key questions of the present study
were: (i) the assessment and mapping of structural complexity of a
non-mapped division at CSD (Fig. 1b); and (ii) the uncertainty
reduction and validation of DCR data interpretation of subsurface
structures mapping.
2. Approach and workflow overview
The current integrative approach is summarized in Fig. 3. In
stage I, a detailed surface study of the lithostratigraphic setting and
mapping of structural highs are carried out using different scale
satellite images (e.g. Landsat ETMþ and Google Earth images) and
field-work. Moreover, such surface geological investigations are
compared with the regional tectonic regime of CSD. Following stage
I, a surface geophysical survey (stage II) are conducted using DCR
method. First the DCR soundings are carried out to show a regional
geological framework of the study area (Fig. 1b). 2D-ERTs are per-
formed for detailed subsurface structural mapping in order to
ensure the inferred structures. In comparison with available bore-
holes and measured structural parameters (stage I), complemen-
tary subsurface information can be gained to reduce the
uncertainty of DCR data inversion. All detailed measured data of
stage I (e.g. dip value of bedding planes and geometry of geological
structures) are taken into consideration for controlling the DCR
data interpretation, stage II. Next, the derived surface and subsur-
face geological data (stages I and II) are complemented to construct
a series of problem solving cross-sections (stage III), which are used
to build-up a regional geometrical structural model.
3. Surface geological and structural setting (stage I)
3.1. Lithostratigraphy
To understand the structural geology, it has first been necessary
to establish the detailed stratigraphy for the area producing a
geological map based on the recognized formations. Lithostrati-
graphic data were derived from field observations around the
central part of CSD and the observed borehole data. Fig. 4 sum-
marizes the geological units of the area under investigation (Fig. 1)
from Middle Eocene to Recent.
The Middle Eocene rocks comprise the limestone and chalky
limestone of the Observatory Formation (Farag and Ismail, 1959),
which is more than 120 m thick. It is overlain by the marly and
chalky limestone of the El Qurn Formation (Farag and Ismail, 1959),
which attains 40 m thick. The El Qurn Formation overlies the Wadi
Garawi Formation (Farag and Ismail, 1959), which is composed of
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 2. Schematic models showing the uncertainties and possibilities in geological interpretation of the proposed stitched resistivity sections based on individual DCR sounding
inversion results.
marl and shale and reaches 15 m thick. The Upper Eocene rocks
(Fig. 4b) are represented by the Wadi Hof Formation (Farag and
Ismail, 1959), which is around 60 m thick and is composed of
shale, marl and limestone. The Oligocene rocks (Fig. 4c) overly
unconformably the Eocene rocks. They are represented by the
varicolored sands and gravels of the Gebel Ahmar Formation
(Shukri, 1954). It attains 40 m thick and occupies the structural and
topographic lows. Further, basalt flows of a Late Oligocene to Early
Miocene age were mapped. Such flows are unconformably overlain
by the Miocene and Pliocene rocks.
The Miocene rocks were classified into marine and non-marine
units (Shukri and Akmal, 1953). The marine unit (Fig. 4d) reaches
50 m thick and consists of sandstone, shale and sandy limestone.
The non-marine unit attains 35 m and consists of sands and gravels.
The Miocene rocks are unconformably overlain by the sands,
gravels and sandy limestone of the Pliocene rocks (Shukri and
Akmal, 1953). The overlaying thin layers of soil and colluvial sedi-
ments are distributed in the Wadis and scattered areas.
3.2. Structural geology
Regionally, the tectonic setting of CSD is controlled by three
different tectonic deformations related to the movements between
the African, Eurasian and Arabian plates (Meshref, 1990). The study
107
area (Fig. 1b) is represented by four uplifted structural highs
namely; Gebel Nasuri, Gebel Anqabiya, Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar
and the northern part of Gebel El-Qattamiya. Such structural
highs are separated from each other by a depression filled with
Oligocene rocks (Fig. 1b). Gebel Nasuri forms an isolated ridge
trending WNW-ESE and extending for about 11 km long with
maximum elevation of 345 m. The exposed rocks at Gebel Nasuri
fault block are mainly represented by the Upper Eocene rocks
except for the easternmost part; where sands and gravels of the
Oligocene rocks are present (Fig. 5a and b). It can be also noticed
that Gebel Nasuri is bordered easterly by Gebel Anqabiya, which
mainly comprises the Miocene rocks with an aerial extension of
approximately 65 km2 (Fig. 1b). The southwesternmost part of the
area is represented by Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar, which extends to
the Cairo-Ain Sokhna road (Fig. 1). It exposes mainly the Upper
Eocene rocks with an aerial extension of around 12 km2 and with
maximum elevation of 420 m (Fig. 6a). Easterly, Gebel El-Qattamiya
(Fig. 1) is composed mainly of the Middle and Upper Eocene rocks.
It forms a structural block trending NW-SE (Fig. 7a and b) and has a
maximum elevation of 447 m.
In the study area (Fig. 1), the measured dip of bedding, in gen-
eral, shows a moderate dip towards the NE. The Eocene rocks have a
gentle to moderate dip ranges from 10 to 25 with various dip
directions due to the effect of geological structures. On the other
108 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 3. Workflow of an integrative approach related to the present study.
hand, the Miocene rocks have a very gentle dip, which does not
exceed 10 . Structurally, the area is deformed mainly by faults and
folds of different scales. The collected structural data during the
detailed field mapping revealed a total of thirty six mapped faults
belonging to four prominent sets oriented in a descending order of
frequency; WNW-ESE, NW-SE, ENE-SSW and NNW-SSE (Fig. 8a and
b). The measured dip data from five fault surfaces indicated a
moderate to steep angle, which usually exceeded 65 . A total of
nine mapped folds belong to two prominent sets oriented, in a
descending order of frequency; WNW-ESE and NW-SE.
The entire surface mapped faults are normal faults and clearly
crop-out through the whole area. WNW-striking faults are well-
exposed at the southwestern part of Gebel Nasuri where they
form a left-stepped en echelon pattern and also they cut the body of
Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar (Figs. 5b and 6b). The best-exposed NW-
and NNW- striking faults are observed at the Gebel El-Qattamiya.
Further, it was observed that the normal faults of opposite dip
occur in pair with parallel strike lines forming a horst-graben
faulting style (Fig. 7a and b). ENE-striking faults well-crop-out at
the northeastern part of Gebel Nasuri representing a right-stepped
en echelon pattern (Fig. 5a and b).
Based on our field observations, it was noticed that the folds are
well-exposed at different scales. The best outcrop folds are found at
Gebel Nasuri, where two major anticlines can be noticed affecting
the Upper Eocene rocks of the most body of this structural high
(Fig. 5). The first one is a double plunging fold where its axis runs
towards the WNW and affects the bulk of Gebel Nasuri. On the
other hand, the second fold lies at the northeastern part and
plunges towards the ENE. The Upper Eocene and Oligocene rocks
are affected by a SW-plunging major syncline at the eastern most
part of Gebel Nasuri (Fig. 5). Also, the central part of Gebel Yah-
moum El-Asmar, comprises two gentle, double plunging anticlinal
and synclinal folds and an ESE-plunging anticline to the east
(Fig. 6). Structural analysis of these folds revealed that they are a
result of drag of the beds in the vicinity of the faults where the folds
axis are parallel or sub-parallel to the strike of the faults (Fig. 8a and
b). Where drag folds are bent, synclines are present in the hanging-
wall while anticlines are present in the footwall (Fig. 8c). Drag folds
constitute as a result of the lateral and upward propagation of faults
(a consequence of fault growth) into regions that have been mon-
oclinally flexed at the fault tips or may also form as a result of
frictional drag along the fault surface (Schlische, 1995). At all scales,
drag folds have been obtained at the study area, especially, at the
outcropped Eocene rocks of Gebel Nasuri and Gebel Yahmoum El-
Asmar (Fig. 8d and e).
4. Surface geophysical studies (stage II)
4.1. DCR field data acquisition
Fig. 1b shows the location of geophysical measurements using a
high power resistivity meter (SYSCAL R2, IRIS instrument). The
measured data were stacked considering the level of noise, which
was expressed as measured resistivity standard deviation values.
The apparent resistivity data were stacked 10 times and final data
were taken when the value of data quality factor were minimized
(i.e. stacked error ~< 1%). The surface cover consists of sand mixed
with gravel, which is characterized by a relatively high resistivity
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 4. (a) Composite stratigraphic section of the study area. (b) The Upper Eocene sediments at Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high, looking towards NE. (c) The Oligocene
sediments at Gebel El-Qattamiya structural high, looking towards NNE. (d) The Marine Miocene sediments at Gebel Anqabiya structural high, looking towards the SE.
value causing a high resistance contact. Stainless steel electrodes
were used and saltwater was added, in a hole, around a poor
contact electrode to improve electrical contact with ground.
The field surveys were achieved through gradual stages from
December 2014 until August 2015. At initial DCR survey, twenty five
DCR soundings (Fig. 1b) were executed using conventional Schlu-
merger array with 2000 m maximum half electrode spacing (AB/2).
Here, the DC soundings were measured to acquire regional and
deep geological information. In order to reduce the DCR ambiguity
related to surface topography, the DCR soundings points were
measured as possible over a straight survey lines. Accordingly, the
DC sounding distributions were carried out based on the ground
accessibility of the area, where many hills and queries are
commonly found. Consequently, the DC soundings could not be
arranged in regular and/or grid-like shape (Fig. 1b). Next, the 2D-
ERTs were carried out at three selected sites of complex structures
of concave and convex surfaces topography to verify the inferred
(i.e. uncertain/deduced) structures from both stage I and the con-
structed geoelctrical cross-sections. The measured 2D-ERTs
(Fig. 1b) were acquired manually using 30 electrodes with 15 m
electrode spacing for P1 (435 m length) and 10 m for P2 and P3
(290 m length). Regarding to the advantages of Wenner beta (WB)
configuration (e.g. Attwa et al., 2014b), the WB array was used for
the ERT survey.
4.2. DCR data processing/inversion
To reduce the uncertainty of DCR interpretation, the measure-
ments were acquired close to the available six observed boreholes
(for location, c.f. Fig. 1b). Furthermore, a joint use of conventional
and non-conventional DC inversion techniques was applied for
109
robust DCR soundings inversion process. Moreover, to verify the
reliability of inversion results, the output of stage I was used to
control the DCR soundings interpretation. As an initial step, the DC
soundings were inverted using a sequential interpretation method,
which was explained in details in Basokur (1999); depending on a
1D linear filtering and damped least-squares algorithm (Levenberg-
Marquardt). The data points were smoothed using the 1D
smoothness weighting schemes (Basokur, 1999). Then, the genetic
algorithms (GA) were applied through non-conventional inversion
process using a heuristic search and best solutions selection of low
misfit value (Basokur et al., 2007; Akça and Basokur, 2010). In GA,
the search space was adapted considering the results of the
sequential interpretation method and borehole information.
Fig. 9 represents the interpretation of DC sounding No. 1 using
GA (for location c.f. Fig. 1b). It can be noted that the generation
numbers and population size were both 60. In the same way, the
other sounding points were inverted using GA applied the same
number of generations and populations. It is proved that redundant
geological information toughed the 1D inversion results. It is thus
preferable to incorporate the well-known prior information to
discriminate the subsurface layer distributions and, consequently,
the subsurface structures can be deduced from the stitched re-
sistivity sections.
The 2D-ERT profiles were processed and inverted using a con-
ventional inversion method, “Boundless Electrical Resistivity To-
mography” software package (BERT), which is widely used in
geological assessment (e.g. Hübner et al., 2015). The BERT is based
on the finite-element (FE) forward modeling (Rücker et al., 2006)
and conventional derivative based inversion (DBI) method
(Günther et al., 2006). Because the area is characterized by irregular
topography, an unstructured mesh of irregular triangles was
110 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121

©
Fig. 5. (a) Google Earth satellite image 2016 CNES/Astrium and (b) Detailed field geological map of Gebel Nasuri structural high, c.f. Fig. 1 for location.
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 111

©
Fig. 6. (a) Google Earth satellite image 2016 CNES/Astrium and (b) Detailed field geological map of Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high, c.f. Fig. 1 for location.
112 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121

©
Fig. 7. (a) Google Earth satellite image 2016 CNES/Astrium and (b) Detailed field geological map of Gebel El-Qattamiya structural high, c.f. Fig. 1 for location.

generated using Delaunay triangulation in forward calculation scheme was applied using a first-order smoothness constraint
(Rücker et al., 2006). Regarding to expected surface inhomogeneity, (Günther et al., 2006). To minimize the artifact effects regarding to
the L1 norm (i.e. robust) was applied for inversion process of BERT. the soil heterogeneities, different weights for vertical and hori-
For implementation the 2D inversion, a global regularization zontal model boundaries, az ¼ lwz (called “ZWEIGHT”) and ax ¼ l
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 113

Fig. 8. Strike summary plot showing (a) fault and (b) fold frequency distribution. (c) Schematic model shows the idealized geometry of drag folds. (d) Field photo of an anticlinal
drag fold along the footwall of a WNW-ESE normal fault at Gebel Nasuri (looking towards ESE). (e) Field photo of an anticlinal drag fold along the footwall of a WNW-ESE normal
fault at Yahmoum El-Asmar (looking towards SE).

(known as “LAMBDA”), were applied. Since the area is highly
deformed, the regularization parameters were adjusted to
construct a highly structural model by huge parameters contrast
considering the constraints of model smoothness versus the data
misfit.
The measured DCR values were edited for faulty measurements
removal. The raw resistivity data with insignificant current and/or
high standard deviation (>5%) were excluded. In addition, outliers
and negative measured resistivity values were rejected as bad data
quality. The 4% (~5 data points) of the measured resistivity data (i.e.
126 data number) was the maximum rejected data ratio. Because
the reciprocity data were not measure, an error level of 5%
plus10 mV was selected to assess the uncertainty of measured data,
as suggested by many researches (e.g. Günther et al., 2006; Attwa
et al., 2014b).
5. Integrated outcrop and subsurface data (stage III): results
and discussion
Stage III was carried out using the integration of surface
geological mapping (stage I) and subsurface dataset (stage II). In
order to assemble a consistent structural model, the interpretation
of DCR inversion results have been calibrated with surface (stage I)
and subsurface geological/structural data.
5.1. 1D-DCR interpretation/structural model
Seven geoelectrical cross-sections (for location, c.f. Fig. 1b) were
built up according to geological and geophysical datasets. The
geoelectrical cross-sections (Fig. 10) were constructed parallel or
sub-parallel to the dip of the bedding planes (A-A’, B-B0 , C-C0 and D-
114 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 9. Interpretation of DC sounding No. 1 (c.f. Fig. 1b for location) using genetic algorithm (GA). (a) The mean and best misfit values versus generations. (b) The fitting between the
measured and calculated resistivity data. (C) Correlation between the intrinsic resistivity of layers and the borehole data.
D, group I) and parallel or sub-parallel to the strike of the bedding
planes (E-E0 , F-F0 and G-G’, group II). The borehole data and
measured geological parameters (stage I) were recalled at stage III,
e.g. regional dip regime and direction of rock units. Further, the
inferred faults regarding to the geoelectrical layer displacements on
the constructed stitched resistivity sections were correlated with
the aerial distribution of outcropped lithological units, lineaments
significance on satellite images and the surface mapped faults ge-
ometry. Folds were taken into account to be drag folds as those
observed on the ground surface (Fig. 8). All the prior controls are
put into concern and, in this case, the inconvenience in the DCR
interpretation can be reduced.
The constructed stitched resistivity sections (Fig. 10) show a
variation in geoelectrical layer thicknesses and resistivity values in
both vertical and horizontal directions reflecting lithological het-
erogeneities and/or diverse structural changes. Starting from the
surface exposure of Gebel Nasuri and Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar,
the cross-sections A-A0 and B-B’ (Fig. 10) were constructed. Such
sections were calibrated with three observed borehole data at
soundings 1, 2 and 10. Therefore, A-A0 and B-B0 are considered
informative sections for clarifying the geological and structural
conditions at the western part of the area. Near to Gebel Nasuri and
Gebel Yahmoum El Asmar (i.e. soundings No. 24 and 23, respec-
tively), medium (23-73 U-m) to low (2-16 U-m) resistivity layers
are well-represented corresponding to marl and shale in-
tercalations, respectively, of Upper Eocene rocks. On the other
hand, the first geoelectrical layer of DC soundings between Gebel
Nasuri and Gebel Yahmoum El Asmar represents a wide range of
resistivities (11-631 U-m), which can be related to the near-surface
heterogeneity corresponding to Oligocene clayey rich sand and
gravely sand. This layer is followed by a medium resistivity layer
(59- 89 U-m), which corresponds to the Oligocene calcareous sand
(e.g. soundings No. 1, 2 and 8, cross-section A-A0 ). The third geo-
electrical layer is implied by high resistivity values (>100 U-m)
corresponding to Oligocene sand and gravel. The Oligocene de-
posits are followed by medium resistivity layer corresponding to
Upper Eocene marl (cross-section A-A0 and B-B’).
Structurally, the cross-section B-B0 shows the juxtaposition be-
tween the Upper Eocene rocks of Gebel Nasuri and Gebel Yahmoum
El-Asmar structural highs and the Oligocene lithological units. It
can be noticed that all observed faults from surface structural
mappings are projected on both cross-section A-A0 and B-B’
considering the measured dip angles, e.g. the Upper Eocene rocks
have moderate dip values (ranges from 10 to 25 ) towards the NE
direction. In comparison with such faults projection (i.e. solid red
line), the deduced faults corresponding to geoelectrical layer
displacement can be inferred as dashed red color line. Accordingly,
it can be observed that the fault throws range from 50 to 100 m at
the western part of the area. Additionally, the geoelectrical layers
close to Gebel Nasuri and Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar are folded
regarding to the observed surface drag folds (Fig. 8).
With onset of the Middle Eocene and Miocene outcrops, the
cross-sections C-C0 , D-D0 , E-E0 , F-F0 and G-G0 were constructed.
Regarding to surface geology and the observed borehole data, the
inversion results of DC sounding No. 20 at Gebel El-Qattamiya show
three geolectrical layers (cross-section D-D0 and G-G0 ); i.e. medium
(62 U-m), low (12 U-m) and high (16,362 U-m) resistivity values,
which can be attributed to Middle Eocene deposits of marl, shale
and argillaceous limestone, respectively. Considering borehole data
and the surface exposure of Gebel Anqabiya, the first geoelecterical
layer at DC sounding No. 21 is represented by low to high resistivity
(8-249 U-m) values corresponding to Miocene sand, gravel and clay
intercalations. It is underlain by low resistivity layer (<16 U-m)
attributing to Miocene clay/sandy clay (Fig. 10). Similarly, medium
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 115

Fig. 10. The constructed cross-sections in relation to the structural highs at the study area (c.f. Fig. 1b for location).
Fig. 10 Continued.
116 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121

to low resistivity layer can be recognized at soundings No. 12, 14 Upper Eocene and Marine Miocene rocks in the study area (see
and 16 (cross sections E-E0 and F-F0 ) corresponding to near-surface cross-sections B-B0 and G-G0 ). A good illustration of the subsurface
Miocene deposits. Compared with inversion results of all soundings extension of Eocene drag folds can be presented at Gebel Nasuri
on stitched resistivity sections C-C0 , D-D0 , E-E0 and F-F’ and borehole and Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural highs. Additionally, the
data, Miocene deposits are underlain by Oligocene rocks (Fig. 11). subsurface extension of a surface mapped synclinal fold affecting
From a structure standpoint, the cross-section C-C0 was created the Marine Miocene rocks can be observed at the north-central part
to show the structural juxtaposition between the Oligocene at the of the area, i.e. between Gebel Nasuri and Gebel Anqabiya (see
southern parts and Miocene lithological units at the northern parts cross-section C-C0 ).
(Fig. 10). Obviously, lateral variation of rock lithologies along cross-
sections E-E0 and F-F’ (Fig. 10) are structurally juxtaposed against
5.2. Subsurface structural tomography
the Miocene rocks of Gebel Anqabiya to the East with faults throws
do not exceed 160 m. Also, an obvious contrast in the intrinsic re-
At the area of Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high, the
sistivity values can be observed along the cross-section E-E’ (i.e.
outcropped fault scarp represents one of the largest faults (master
between soundings No. 15 and 14), which can be related to the fault
fault) of 6 km long with a throw of ~140 m (Fig. 11). The 2D-ERT P1
existence between Upper Eocene and Miocene rocks, respectively.
inversion results fit the ground truth; a high resistivity zone
Regarding to the detailed surface structural mapping, the cross-
(>300 U-m) around electrodes 9e12 can be corresponded to sandy
section G-G0 shows a displacement between the exposed Middle
limestone (Fig. 11a and b) with marl intercalations (Upper Eocene).
Eocene rocks of Gebel El-Qattamiya and the Upper Eocene rocks
Such zone is bounded on both sides by low (<15 U-m) to medium
along a NNW-dipping fault, which has an estimated throw of about
(30-70 U-m) resistivity values attributing to Eocene shale and marl,
300 m. Along cross-sections C-C0 and E-E’, the geoelectrical layers
respectively. Regarding to the observed surface structures, the
were folded (e.g. soundings No. 17 and 19) respecting to all
lateral contrast in resistivity values can be related to different set of
measured geological parameters and observed surface fold
faults (Fig. 11c). The 2D-ERT P1 indicates that the layers of the drag
locations.
synclinal fold along the fault plane may appear continuous and the
Regarding to the regional tectonic framework (stage I), the
deformation can be described as being ductile. Clearly, the 2D-ERT
variation of the Oligocene thicknesses on the constructed geo-
P1 makes possible to determine small-scale antithetic faults that
eelctrical cross-sections can be attributed to a syn-depositional
dip towards the master fault (Fig. 11a and c). However, the small-
fault movement during the Oligo-Miocene extension of the Gulf
scale antithetic faults could also be attributed to the smearing ef-
of Suez rift. Thickness variation of the syn-rift sediments is com-
fect, which is well-known in ERT, in the absence of surface mapping
mon in rift basins as extension and subsidence control the sedi-
structural controls (Stage I). Further, it can be observed that the
mentation and distribution of the syn-rift facies (e.g. Bosence,
high conductivity geoelectrical boundaries of ERT (Fig. 11c) are
1998). Further, folds are common structural feature affecting the
distorted and, thus, layer thicknesses cannot be well resolved.

Fig. 10. (continued).

 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 117

Fig. 11. Verification of the inferred structures at Gebel Yahmoum Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high. (a) Google Earth satellite image © 2016 CNES/Astrium of the fault scarp at the
Upper Eocene rocks of Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high. (b) Field photo of the fault scarp of Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar structural high, looking towards ESE. (c) Electrical
resistivity tomogram obtained from 2D inversion of profile P1 and oriented mostly perpendicular to the major surface structures and DCR sounding location No. 23 (for location, c.f.
Fig. 1b). (d) A correlation between the deduced structures along 2D-ERT P1, inversion results of DC sounding No. 23 and the constructed geological cross-section (X-X‘).
118 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 11d (X-X’ cross-section) shows the detailed structural model
considering all geological parameters and geophysical inversion
results around the master fault at Gebel Yahmoum El-Asmar
structural high.
The 2D-ERT P2 was measured perpendicular to an uncertain
fault plane (Fig. 12a) on Oligocene high land sediments (Fig. 1b). The
2D-ERT P2 shows two main geoelectrical layers; medium (upper)
and high resistivity (lower) layers. Considering the outcropping
terrains lithology and borehole data, the central part of the profile
(i.e. ~100e150 m profile distance) shows a medium resistivity
(~200-300 U-m) layer corresponding to clay rich gravelly sand,
which can be associated to the weathered basalt. In the first 40 m
from the origin of the 2D profile, high resistivity values (>300 U-m)
can be attributed to the Oligocene sand and gravel. At ~80 m from
the beginning of the profile P2, the abrupt change in resistivity
values can be attributed to the fault displacement within Oligocene
sediments. The surface geological and structural controls allow us
to increase the confidence in inversion results by considering the
attitude of bedding planes and surface mapped fault locations.
Accordingly, bedding planes and the deduced fault have been
projected considering the measured dip values (stage I).
Fig. 13 shows the inversion results of 2D-ERT P3 at the eastern
part of Gebel Nauri structural high. Here, we recalled all prior re-
sults of outcrop and DCR sounding (No. 25) data, which were
projected on the 2D profile (Fig. 13b). At the central part of 2D-ERT
P3 (i.e. ~100e150 m profile distance), a sharp contact between
medium (30-50 U-m) and high resistivity (>100 U-m) layers can be
distinguished. According to the surface local geology, high re-
sistivity values can be related to Oligocene sand and gravel, while
the medium resistivity to Eocene sandy limestone. Furthermore, at
Fig. 12. Verification of an inferred fault affecting the Oligocene south to Gebel Nasuri structural high (see Fig. 1b for location). (a) Google Earth satellite image © 2016 CNES/Astrium
of the fault scarp. (b) Electrical resistivity tomogram obtained from 2D inversion of profile P2 (for location, c.f. Fig. 1b) and oriented perpendicular to the observed major fault at this
location.
~50 m from the beginning of the profile P3, a lateral variation of
high resistivity values, which corresponds to Eocene sandy lime-
stone, can be observed. Based on the results of stage I, the inspec-
tion of Fig. 13a indicates that two uncertain faults and double
plunging anticline structures can be observed on 2D-ERT P3. The
observed resistivity values contrast are more likely caused by faults.
In order to gain a detailed and accurate subsurface structural pic-
ture, the dragged beds and dip value of bedding planes are repre-
sented correlating with the detailed surface structural mapping
(stage I) and 1D-DCR inversion results.
The 2D-ERTs (P1, P2 and P3) show that the mesh conditions and
the application of robust data regularization (L1) in BERT represent
good signatures of fault locations in accordance with the known
surface structures of the area. However, it is also clearly noticed that
the lateral and vertical resolution of 2D-ERTs are decreased, spe-
cifically, in (i) presence of a high conductive layer (e.g. shale) and
(ii) increasing the depth of investigation (DOI). Such drawbacks in
DC resistivity inversion, which is beyond the article scope, were
discussed, in details, by Attwa et al., (2014b). This limitation can be
corresponded to the DC current behavior within subsurface layers,
i.e. the injected current takes the least resistance way preferring to
stay at such layers. Accordingly, the decrease of potential difference
at the high conductive layer boundaries leads to producing the
boundary smearing conditions of ERTs. Therefore, the interpreta-
tion and calibration using surface geology, structures and borehole
data are highly required.
Regarding to the abovementioned results, the all deduced faults
and folds were projected on the surface geological map, as shown
in Fig. 14a. Plotting the geological structures was achieved
regarding the regional tectonic regime and the geometry of the
 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121 119

Fig. 13. Verification of the inferred structures at Gebel Nasuri structural high. (a) Google Earth satellite image © 2016 CNES/Astrium of the fault scarp at the eastern part of the
structural high. (b) Electrical resistivity tomogram obtained from 2D inversion of profile P3 (for location, c.f. Fig. 1b) and oriented mostly perpendicular to the major surface
structures.

measured surface geological structures. The analysis of the resul-
tant structural model revealed that a total of twenty two subsurface
mapped faults belongs to three prominent sets oriented in a
descending order of frequency; NW-SE, WNW-ESE and NNW-SSE
(Fig. 14b). A total of five mapped folds belongs to three prominent
sets which are oriented in a descending order of frequency; NW-SE,
WNW-ESE and NNW-SSE (Fig. 14c).
6. Summary and conclusion
The proposed approach was applied to identify the subsurface
structural setting of a non-mapped area at the central part of CSD,
north Eastern Desert, Egypt. This district is considered as a new
development axis for urban and industrial expansions, but mean-
while the district is characterized by a complex structure settings
related to the Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt. In briefly, the detailed surface
structural benchmark was used to reduce the interpretation am-
biguity of DCR data to be more discriminate. Starting from stage I,
surface geological mapping was accomplished by studying satellite
images in order to outline the outcropped rock units to delineate
the major structures framework. This was followed by field work
which had been completed by studying the stratigraphic outcrops,
measuring bedding planes attitude and surface geological
structures geometry. Afterward, trend analysis of the mapped faults
and folds were completed and structural deformation mechanism
was resolved. At stage II, surface geophysical studies were accom-
plished by measuring DCR soundings and ERTs. To gain a concep-
tual subsurface structural model, the results of stage I and II were
integrated.
The made-ground nature of the area makes the geophysical data
acquisition and interpretation were challenging. The sequential use
of derivative-based inversion (DBI) methods and genetic algo-
rithms (GA) has the advantage of being able to robust the inter-
pretation process offering helpful information for deep and
regional geological investigations using DCR soundings. Further,
the prior information of the surface structural mapping is required
to calibrate the deduced regional subsurface structures from the
constructed geoelectrical cross-sections (i.e. stage II). The impor-
tant a prior information role was shown here to be even more
essential. Moreover, at three selected sites, the resultant inferred
structures were validated by measuring 2D-ERTs. The L1-norm
application and iteratively reweighted algorithm are clearly bene-
ficial for demonstrating the detailed subsurface structures. The
ERTs provided a benefit in figuring out more details about the
subsurface geological structures along short distances, which were
impossible to be determined using 1D alone or not outcropped.
120 M. Attwa, A. Henaish / Journal of African Earth Sciences 144 (2018) 104e121
Fig. 14. (a) Projection of the deduced geological structures (red structural symbols) from the present approach. (b) Rose diagram of the deuced fault attitudes. (c) Rose diagram of
the deuced fold axes attitudes. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
However, the well-known decrease in sensitivity and resolution of
ERT in presences of high conductive layer (e.g. shale) causes a
challenging task to derive the subsurface layer structures. Thus, it is
necessary to be as close as possible to the known actual surface
structure features, i.e. guidelines, to control the deduced subsurface
structures on 2D-ERTs.
Finally, the deduced structures have been projected on the
geological map of the study area. Structural analysis of the deduced
subsurface structure trends revealed a good matching with those
analyzed from surface geological mapping (i.e. stage III). Therefore,
such integrated approach has a great importance to the decision
makers for the designation near the mapped structural traces and
considerations for environmental engineering assessment.
Furthermore, it is concluded that the present integrated non-
invasive approach provided a good example on how to investi-
gate the non-mapped complex subsurface structures of areas
similar to CSD. With a large number of synthetic models, it is hoped
that the proposed approach could be enhanced to assess the ERT
ability to demonstrate specific complex subsurface structure
features.
Acknowledgements
The first author (MA) Special thanks to A.T. Basokur, I. Akca
(Ankara Uni. Turkey) and T. Günther (LIAG institute, Hannover,
Germany) for great assistance with inversion software during
preparing this paper. The authors wish to thank S. Sakran (Cairo
University, Egypt) for his critical comments that improved the
overall structural models.
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