Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

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Wear
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

On the running-in nature of metallic tribo-components: A review

M.M. Khonsari a, *, Sahar Ghatrehsamani b, Saleh Akbarzadeh b
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Running-in plays an important role in the steady-state performance of mechanical elements. It is a transient
Running-in process involving a complex interaction between friction, lubrication, asperities, plastic deformation, and wear in
Transient wear an intertwined fashion. The running-in process involves the evolution of the key tribological parameters such as
Transient friction
surface roughness, surface pattern, friction coefficient, and wear rate until the steady-state prevails. Importantly,
Lubricant
Deformation of surface asperities
the steady-state behavior of a tribo-component is dependent upon the operating conditions during the running-in
process. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the literature on this subject encompassing both
experimental and analytical development to date.

1. Introduction and analytical modeling points of view. Of particular industrial interest

Wear is the gradual removal of material from a sliding surface of one
body in contact with another body. A variety of material properties and
environmental factors affect the wear depth, including hardness, surface
roughness, type and magnitude of the applied load, operating speed,
environmental temperature, and lubrication. In general, wear evolves in
three distinct stages: Running-in, steady-state wear, and severe wear
leading to the end of useful life. Fig. 1 shows a schematic of these three
typical wear stages.
The first stage—where the two fresh surfaces in relative sliding
motion begin to experience intimate contact at the asperities level—is
known as the running-in or breaking-in period in which there are sig­
nificant plastic deformation and high wear rate. In the second stage, the
system attains a steady-state and the rate of change of wear becomes
constant. Near the end of the useful life, the tribo-component begins to
experience wearing out, often in a rapid transient fashion with erratic
behavior, and fail shortly thereafter [2].
Examination of the tribology literature reveals that the steady-state
phase—where the component spends most of its useful life— has
received significantly more attention than the running-in or the
wearing-out phases. Interestingly, research also shows that the way a
component is broken-in can have a significant effect on the steady-state
performance. Thus, it is worthwhile to investigate the progress made
toward understanding the complex nature of the running-in phase.
This paper presents a comprehensive review of the literature dealing
with the running-in phase in tribo-components from both experimental
are the geometric and associated conformity changes of tribo-compo­
nents—such as piston rings, cam-followers, gears, hydrodynamic bear­
ings, and rolling element bearings— during the running-in period.
To begin with, general aspects of unlubricated or “dry” contacts are
reviewed. Zhenfang et al. [3] studied running-in characteristics of steel
discs rubbing against composite pins both theoretically and experi­
mentally. They observed that wear in steel depends on the surface
roughness as well as surface hardness and that for composites materials,
the surface roughness is the dominating factor. Beheshti and Khonsari
[4] employed a fatigue-based theory to analyze the dry sliding contact
and compared the model predictions to the results of a series of
pin-on-disk tests. Amiri et al. [5–7]investigated the relationship between
wear, temperature rise, and entropy during the steady-state regime of
dry sliding contact. Agdam and Khonsari [8] presented a technique
aimed at facilitating the calculation of frictional power dissipation and
the average contact temperature in dry sliding contact. Ghatrehsamani
and Akbarzadeh [9] developed a model to predict the friction coefficient
and adhesive wear coefficient in dry sliding contacts and conducted
pin-on-disk experiments to verify the model predictions. Fig. 2 shows
surface roughness, weight loss, and friction coefficient of steel disk
under load 30 N and two different sliding speeds of 0.1 m/s and 0.2 m/s.
Experimental results at each stage of the running-in period showed a
decrease in the amount of wear rate and surface roughness, which was
confirmed by the friction coefficient being fixed in the friction
coefficient-distance graph.
The outline of this paper is as follows: it begins, in Section 2,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: khonsari@lsu.edu (M.M. Khonsari).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2021.203871
Received 25 December 2020; Received in revised form 4 March 2021; Accepted 9 March 2021
Available online 14 March 2021
0043-1648/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M.M. Khonsari et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic of the wear and wear rate behavior.
describing general features of wear and prediction methodologies, and
in Section 3, general features of running-in. Then, in Section 4, the
evolution of surface roughness during running-in with a focus on the
effect of surface pattern, surface texturing, and lubricant is discussed. In
Section 5, a review of the pertinent works on mixed lubrication is pre­
sented. Then, optimum operating conditions in the running-in period are
covered in Section 6. The recommendations for future research di­
rections are given in Section 7. The summary and concluding remarks
are presented in Section 8.
2. General features of wear and prediction methodologies
In 1946, using the views of Holm, who was the pioneer in intro­
ducing the mechanism of wear, Archard [11] proposed a relation to
express the adhesive wear of two surfaces in contact. Archard’s
expression for wear is very similar to that developed by Holm. The main
difference is that Holm’s idea was that the process involves separating
atoms from the surface, while Archard’s idea was to consider the process
as separation of wear particles from the surface. Thus, the use of Arch­
ard’s equation has become widespread in the tribology literature. It is a
remarkably simple relationship that relies on empirical data to relate the
wear volume to the applied load, sliding distance, and material hard­
ness. These parameters can be easily measured. The constant of pro­
portionality—often referred to as the Archard wear coefficient—lumps
all other effects into a single constant that must be determined experi­
mentally. During running-in, however, the wear coefficient is not con­
stant. Archard’s equation states that wear volume V is a function of the
applied load Fn, sliding distance L, and hardness H as given in Eq. (1).
Fig. 2. Changes of (a) friction coefficient (b) arithmetic mean asperities (Ra) (c) the weight loss [10].
2
Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
Fn L
V =K (1)
H
where K is the proportionality constant, often referred to as Archard’s
wear coefficient. In Archard’s equation, the geometric shape of surface
heterogeneities is assumed to be spherical. It is a simple equation to
describe sliding adhesive wear and it ignores the effects of heat and
friction, surface roughness, and elastic and elasto-plastic deformation.
Wear volume and friction force are directly related (V ∝ Ft L).
Amonton-Coulomb law of sliding friction relates the normal load Fn to
friction force Ft, i.e. Ft = μFn . The expression Ft L physically illustrates
the work of friction force. Therefore, the wear volume is directly pro­
portional to the energy dissipated by friction. The rate of energy dissi­
pation can be considered to assess the changes in the mechanical and
metallurgical properties of the contacting bodies. The elegance of en­
ergy approaches to the wear process is that the effect of multitudes of
factors involved —load, velocity, environmental conditions, etc.—on
the wear rate can be accounted for by considering frictional energy
dissipation within the contact.
There are four main wear mechanisms during both steady-state and
running-in period: adhesive, abrasive, fatigue cracking, and corrosion.
The phenomenon of wear is affected by several factors and parameters.
Changing each of these parameters might result in a different state of
wear. Duration of the running-in, friction coefficient, wear rate, and
surface roughness varies depending on the wear mechanism. For
example, adhesive wear is associated with relatively high stresses due to
the contact of surface asperities that cause plastic deformation in the
contact area. These plastic deformations, along with the local slippage of
the joints, promote material transfer from one surface to the other.
Abrasive wear is accompanied by scratching and damaging the con­
tacting surfaces, often due to the influence of hard particulate matter
either formed due to wear or emerging from the environment as a
contaminant. The environment can also react chemically with the
sliding surfaces and cause corrosive wear. This is typically a two-step
process involving first a corrosive attack and then wearing away the
corroded surfaces. Surface fatigue covers the combination of wear
mechanisms—operating within a surface layer of several micrometers in
thickness—caused by tangential shear stresses at the material surface.
The surface fatigue is characterized by crack formation along the grain
boundaries or cleavage planes starting at the surface and progressing
continuously to a greater depth by subcritical crack growth.
The fact that such transitions occur implies that there are situations
in which wear behavior cannot accurately be represented by a linear,
normalized combination of units. Some transitions, such as wear-
M.M. Khonsari et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic of two approaches of thermodynamics (a) Entropy genera­
tion (b) Damage.
through of a fatigue failure, can be rapid and catastrophic, but others,
such as the degradation of abrasive paper by debris loading or adhesive
wear, are more gradual.
A tribological process is always accompanied by the dissipation of
energy. Energy dissipation is an irreversible phenomenon associated
with material degradation. Thus, it is logical to apply the principles of
irreversible thermodynamics to study the characteristics of wear and
develop a tool for probing into its complex behavior. From a thermo­
dynamics point of view, the wear of two bodies is an unbalanced process
due to the transfer of heat and mass from the system boundaries and
generation of entropy S. Fig. 3 shows the production of entropy and
damage in the bulk. Fig. 3(a) shows that in an open system —which is
allowed to interchange heat and matter with its surroundings— the
change of entropy consists of two parts: ds = de s + di s. The entropy
exchange with surroundings is de s and the entropy generation internally
by the system is di s. The second law of thermodynamics also states that
the entropy production must be non-negative, i.e. di s ≥ 0. Fig. 3(b)
∑
shows that the surface density of cracks, voids, and cavities ( dADi/ )
dA
can be quantified via a so-called the damage variable, Dn , lying on an
∑
elemental cross sectional plane with the area of dA as Dn = dADi/dA.
Klamecki [12,13] was one of the first researchers who described the
friction process based on the concepts of irreversible thermodynamics
using a near-equilibrium analysis via entropy generation as a measure of
thermodynamic disorder. He demonstrated that the existence of relative
velocity between the sliding bodies indicates that sliding is a
non-equilibrium process and frictional interactions result in a dissipative
process. A near-equilibrium analysis of the process using entropy gen­
eration was then used to show that energy is dissipated during sliding
contacts. More specifically, Ramalho and Miranda [14] showed that the
friction energy dissipates mainly through three processes: temperature
rise in contact, the formation of wear particles, and entropy generation
due to material transformation in the junction.
Bryant et al. [15,16] formulated applied the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to relate any form of degradation to the irreversible
dissipative processes germane to degradation. Specifically, they pro­
posed a so-called Degradation-Entropy Generation (DEG) theorem and
presented results for dry sliding wear and friction and demonstrated that
entropy can be considered as the fundamental measure of degradation.
Bryant et al. showed that Archard’s wear coefficient is directly related to
entropy, temperature, and a new coefficient called the degradation co­
efficient. Additional relevant investigations are reported by Huq and
Celis [17], Abdel-Aal [18], Shakhvorostov et al. [19], Calaco et al. [20],
Jahangiri et al. [21].
Amiri and Khonsari [6] presented an extensive survey of the papers
pertaining to the thermodynamic approach to tribosystems, using the
concept of entropy as a natural time base with a summary of the sig­
nificant contributions of outstanding researchers. Naderi et al. [22–24]
extended the results to processes involving cyclic fatigue and showed
that the necessary and required conditions for the terminal fracture of a
metal undergoing fatigue loading correspond to a constant
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Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
accumulation of entropy. Agdam and Khonsari [8] further investigated
the relationship between wear and entropy generation. Experiments
were carried out to determine the relationship between the wear rate,
dissipated power, and the temperature rise under oscillatory dry sliding
conditions. In a follow-up study, the authors showed that the predicted
temperatures can be used for the estimation of wear under reciprocating
dry sliding configuration [25]. They employed entropic and
energy-based approaches for the prediction of wear in dry sliding con­
tact between crossed cylinders [26].
More recently, Hajshirmohammadi and Khonsari [27] proposed that
the speed at which a crack propagates is linearly linked to the entropy
flow and provided experimental evidence. Lijesh et al. [28–32] proposed
an integrated degradation coefficient for analyzing wear for boundary
and mixed lubrication regimes using the principles of thermodynamics.
They derived a relationship that correlates the time-dependent wear
rates (in running-in and steady-state period), friction coefficient, and the
contact temperature and verified their theory by extensive experimental
testing.
In connection with thermodynamics in the field of tribology, the
method of Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) that treats the ‘‘dam­
age growth’’ as an irreversible process, which follows the laws of ther­
modynamics, has also been considered. Quraishi et al. [33] developed
the application of thermodynamics and CDM for predicting crack for­
mation in fretting by calculating subsurface shear stress distribution.
They showed that the developed model is capable to predict the number
of cycles to fretting failure.
Beheshti and Khonsari [34] predicted the number of cycles before
crack nucleation using the continuum damage mechanics (CDM)
approach and applied this approach in conjunction with the load sharing
concept to predict steady-state lubricated line-contact wear [35].
Recently, Ghatrehsamani et al. [10] presented experimental and
CDM-based numerical results for the changes in the arithmetic average
of asperity heights, Ra, friction coefficient and wear, which occur during
dry sliding contact of steel during the running-in period.
3. General features of running-in
In general, transitions are either induced or occur naturally. Within
the context of tribology, natural transitions result from the time-
dependent response of bearing materials and their lubricants to
external elements, including chemical, mechanical, thermal, and other
environmental factors. Thus, running-in can be considered as a natural
transition of a new component from its pristine stage in response to the
external elements imposed on the system.
In a valuable contribution, Blau [36] discussed the differences be­
tween various terms that are often used in describing the nature of
transition wear, such as running-in, breaking-in, and wearing-in. These
terms are related but not identical. Wearing-in pertains to the process by
which initially fitted surfaces tend to adjust themselves to produce
geometrical conformity. Breaking-in and running-in can both involve
wearing-in processes but also include changes in friction that do not
necessarily take place over the same period of time as those involved in
wearing-in. The term running-in applies to tribological transitions that
are induced by imposed changes in operating conditions or may occur
without external intervention that naturally age the system.
In the absence of proper running-in, the local contact loads can be
many times higher than expected, resulting in high surface temperatures
that could cause untimely transitions to scuffing and severe metallic
wear. The design, assembly, and the history of prior use can affect the
running-in characteristics of a machine.
It is worthy of stressing that the time needed for wear to become
steady is not necessarily equal to the steady-state friction. In general,
two tribosystems that display the same friction coefficients can have
quite different wear rates because the energy is partitioned differently
into heat, fracture, deformation, and the creation of wear particles.
Changes in wear and friction during running-in are the result of
M.M. Khonsari et al. Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

Fig. 4. Eight forms of frictional behavior (a) dry contact with oxidation (b) boundary lubrication (c) increase temperature (d) the mechanical disruption (g) contact
geometry changes (f) the crystallographic reorientation (observed by Blau [38]).

alteration in surface roughness as well as those in surface composition,

microstructure, and third-body distribution. Some investigators contend
that running-in is exclusively associated with the surface roughness
reaching a steady-state condition. For example, Kragelsky et al. [37]
defined the end of running-in as the number of cycles to reach the op­
timum load-carrying capacity of a surface at a steady state.
The running-in process is time-dependent and scale-dependent fric­
tion and wear phenomenon, both of which are influenced by how the
energy in the tribosystem is partitioned. The scale of the factors that
affect friction and wear during different stages of running-in might, in
fact, change. Thus, the analytical treatment of running-in can benefit
from an approach capable of performing multi-scale analysis. Accord­
ingly, features that control friction may begin on the nanometer scale
and increase to the micrometer and even sub-millimeter scales. This
notation fundamentally requires a detailed understanding of how energy
is dissipated [13].
The three features of frictional running-in behavior as described by
Blau [38] are: (a) the period of characteristic transients within the Fig. 5. Surface roughness parameters.
running-in period, including the time to reach steady-state, (b) the
general trend of the friction force versus time of operation, and (c) the
unique composition of operations, but rather must be analyzed in the
level of friction oscillation superimposed upon the general trend.
background of the given tribosystem. Since friction depends on surface
Fig. 4 shows the running-in experiments conducted by Blau [2],
finish and that surface finish is a function of wear, it is reasonable to
characterizing eight different friction trends. The basic shape of the
argue that frictional characteristics of running-in cannot be effectively
eight transition curves is a starting point for developing a semi-empirical
modeled without considering wear.
running-in model that can be represented in its simple form as a product
of two factors: L(t), J(t) are the time-dependent lubrication factor and
4. Evolution of surface roughness during running-in
contribution of the solid materials, respectively.
μ(t) = L(t).J(t) (2) Running-in is a process during which the asperities of two contacting
surfaces plastically deform and surfaces conform to each other. Many
The friction behavior of surfaces depends on factors such as material, other parameters that can affect the microstructural, thermal, and
contact conditions, lubricant, and contact pressure. Fig. 4(a) depicts a chemical properties of the mating surfaces can also change during this
dry contact case with the presence of oxidation between the surfaces. process [39]. The most dominant parameters that are affected are the
Fig. 4(b) shows the contact of surfaces in the boundary lubrication case surface roughness and friction coefficient. Therefore, to model the
where an initial increase in the coefficient of friction occurs due to the running-in process in contacts, appropriate modifications must be made
contact of the asperities. As the surface asperities experience wear and to incorporate the variation of the asperity height distribution. Investi­
plastic deformation, the surfaces become smoother and, therefore, the gating the effect of surface roughness on the performance of mechanical
friction coefficient decreases. Fig. 4(c) shows how an increase in tem­ parts in contact requires adequate knowledge of the topography of the
perature in the contact can result in a further increase in the friction surfaces. Fig. 5 shows the main surface roughness parameters that one
coefficient. Fig. 4(d) represents a scenario where the mechanical often encounters in evaluating tribological performance. These param­
disruption of surface oxide films alters the behavior of friction coeffi­ eters change during the running-in period.
cient, and in Fig. 4(g) occurs contact geometry changes. The physical Several models exist for predicting the behavior of the rolling/sliding
mechanism for the behavior depicted in Fig. 4(f) is the crystallographic systems during running-in. See, for example, extensive work reported by
reorientation of near-surface microstructure during the primary stage of Sugimura et al. [40], Blau [41], Lin and Cheng [42], Kumar [43], Wang
sliding. Each form is not uniquely attributed to only the operation or and wong [44–46], Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [47].

4
M.M. Khonsari et al.
Fig. 6. Change of surface profile during running-in in mixed lubricant (reproduced from Ref. [47]).
Fig. 7. The effect of Surface pattern (a) pure rolling (b) rolling/sliding (reproduced from data in Sugimura et al. [48]).
During the running-in process, asperities experience both elastic and
plastic contact that alter the asperity heights. An example of a simulated
prediction of the height distribution of asperities during the running-in
period is shown in Fig. 6. The height of asperities, which had an initial
Gaussian distribution, is shown to decrease with time as a result of wear
as well as plastic deformation of asperities. High asperities experience
larger deformations and produce larger wear particles because they are
not protected by the lubricant film, while asperities with lower heights
remain unchanged. This can be observed on the left side of the histo­
gram, which is almost unchanged during the running-in.
Effect of Surface Pattern: The surface roughness pattern of me­
chanical elements largely depends on the manufacturing process
employed in preparing that part. The orientation of the roughness may
be isotropic, longitudinal, and transverse. To account for the orientation
of the asperities, a surface pattern parameter, λ, is introduced. A
commonly assumed pattern is isotropic (λ = 1), in which the surface
roughness pattern has no particular directional preference. Depending
on the machining procedure and the employed tools, specific direc­
tionality in the form of either transverse or longitudinal patterns may be
created. The corresponding parameter for the transverse is λ < 1 and the
longitudinal pattern is λ > 1. Fig. 7 shows the effect of surface pattern on
the wear volume in the lubricated running-in contact under pure rolling
as well as rolling/sliding motion. It shows that the surface pattern can
largely affect the wear volume.
Effect of Surface Texturing: The use of surface texturing to improve
tribological properties was first discussed in 1960. The surface rough­
ness structure in mechanical seals was studied by Anno et al. [49]. In
1990, the use of laser for surface texturing with the aim to improve
tribological properties appeared. But the first systematic work on the
texturing process was started in early 1996 by Etsion et al. [50–53].
They presented a theoretical model for the texture structure of me­
chanical seals and demonstrated significant improvement in the per­
formance of seals, especially when hemispherical textures are regularly
5
Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
distributed on the surface of the seal.
Kligerman et al. [54,55] investigated the improvement of the per­
formance of the piston ring with partial laser surface texturing and
showed that the coefficient of friction reduces by 20 to 30 percent in the
textured surfaces. The friction force is an important factor in fuel con­
sumption and engine performance. A portion of friction losses in the
engine is caused by the contact of the piston ring with the cylinder. Ryk
and Etsion [56] presented an experimental study to evaluate the effect of
partial Laser Surface Texturing (LST) on friction reduction in piston
rings by comparison between the performance of a reference
non-textured conventional barrel shape ring and optimum partial LST
cylindrical shape ring and concluded that the partial LST piston rings
exhibited about 25% lower friction.
Qiu and Khonsari [57] investigated the tribological performance of
laser surface texture of stainless steel rings. The dimples were made in a
circular and oval shape in two directions on the steel surface. It was
observed that the cavity behavior was dependent on the velocity and for
a specific surface density and that the performance of the dimples de­
pends on the depth-to-diameter ratio. If the density is constant, one
could determine an optimal ratio to attain the highest load-carrying
capacity. Two years later, Sharma et al. [58] studied the effect of sur­
face texture on the performance of a hydrodynamic journal bearing. In
that study, the effect of micro-cavities on the journal bearing was
considered, and found that having small cavities in different positions of
the bearing surface enhances the performance of the bearing.
Mo et al. [59,60] investigated the effect of imperfect texture shape
and dimensional uncertainty on the surface texture performance by
adopting numerical experiments, statistical models, and artificial neural
networks. They showed that the most critical geometric parameters that
influence the friction force are manufacturing errors associated with the
texture’s area density. With respect to the load-carrying capacity and the
coefficient of friction, manufacturing errors associated with the dimple
diameter are more influential than those of the dimple depth and the
M.M. Khonsari et al.
Fig. 8. Effect of surface pattern on (a) Stribeck curve (b) film thickness (reproduced from data in Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [63]).
area density.
Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [61] evaluated the running-in behavior of
a piston ring with different combinations of coated and textured surfaces
using a custom-made engine testing device. They showed a combination
of the texturing and coating improve the frictional behavior and
running-in time compared to cases when only one surface treatment was
applied.
In addition to the piston ring, other components in the engine include
the cam-and-follower, ball bearings, Journal bearing, etc., can also be
surface textured. In general, changing the pattern and texture of the
surface, coating and thickness of the lubricant can reduce friction and
wear. Research is needed to determine the running-in behavior of
textured surfaces.
Effect of Lubrication: In lubricated contact, the surface pattern in­
fluences the lubricant flow, lubricant film thickness, asperity load and,
as a result, running-in period. In a pioneering work, Patir and Cheng
[62] presented an average flow model by Reynolds equation for deter­
mining the effects of 3D roughness on partial hydrodynamic lubrication
in terms of pressure and shear flow factors, which were obtained by
numerical simulations to determine the effects of surface roughness on
partially lubricated contacts.
Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [63] predicted the effect of the surface
pattern on the coefficient of friction in lubricated contact between
two-cylindrical rollers, the results of which is illustrated in Fig. 8. The
results reveal that surfaces with transverse patterns generate larger
friction than those with longitudinal surfaces. Transverse surfaces
generate a higher film-forming capacity compared to isotropic and
longitudinal surfaces due to the orientation of asperities. L is the lubri­
cation parameter where u1 and u2 are the speeds of the rollers and Ra1
and Ra2 are the arithmetic average of asperity heights for levels 1 and 2,
respectively.
/ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
L = μ(u1 + u2 ) P R2 + R2 (3)
a1 a2
Examination of the effect of surface pattern on the Stribeck curve
Fig. 9. (a) Flowchart for predicting the change of the surface topography (b) run-in map for rough sliding contact (reproduced from data in Jamari [64]).
6
Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
reveals that transverse surfaces show a higher friction coefficient than
both the isotropic and longitudinal surfaces because the transversely
oriented asperities impede the flow in the sliding direction and cause
more asperity–to–asperity contact. Comparison of the film thickness for
different surface patterns shows that transverse surfaces have a higher
film-forming capacity than isotropic and longitudinal surfaces.
From [1].
As was stated earlier, the asperities experience huge changes during
running-in. Jamari [64] proposed a running-in model based on the
elastic-plastic micro-contact and the wear model. The proposed model
had the capability to predict the change in the surface topography
during running-in. He measured initial surface geometry, z(x,y), as an
input for the contact model and z’(x,y) and z’’(x,y) as the output of
surface geometries after applying the contact and wear model. He used
the surface topography change for calculating the number of cycles (or
distance) until reaching an optimum roughness. Fig. 9(a) shows the
numerical algorithm used by Jamari [64], and Fig. 9(b) shows the sur­
face topography changes during the running-in process for a certain
number of cycles or sliding distances predicted using this model. These
processes were continued and repeated until the optimum roughness of
the surface was developed.
Vladescu et al. [65] investigated the effect of surface texture on the
reciprocating contact. Several textured samples with different shapes
were evaluated and compared with polished samples. The reciprocating
test showed that the surface texture depending on the lubrication regime
and the direction of the grooves, can have either beneficial or harmful
effects on the lubrication. Their results showed that the creation of
grooves in the transverse direction has the best performance compared
to other orientations. They showed that longitudinal grooves have the
weakest tribological performance.
Taee et al. [66] experimentally and analytically studied the effect of
surface patterns created by laser on the running-in and the steady-state
behavior of ST37 disk using a mixed-lubrication model. The results
indicate that by means of surface texturing, the friction coefficient and
wear rate can be reduced by 12–23 and 50%, respectively. Also, a
M.M. Khonsari et al. Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

Fig. 10. The effect of running-in on Stribeck curve [67].

simulation study was performed to gain insight into the relationship ( )

between the input parameters such as speed, applied load, and the size − 0.56 h/
(7)
σ
of dimples on the film thickness, pressure distribution, the load-carrying ∅x = ∅y = 1 − 0.9e
capacity and predict the friction coefficient in the mixed-lubrication
Stribeck curve has the ability to identify the lubrication regimes of
regime.
contact i.e., boundary lubrication, mixed-lubrication, and full-film
regime [69]. In the mixed lubrication regime, part of the load is car­
5. Mixed lubrication
ried by the asperities and the rest of the load by the lubricating fluid. The
load carried by the surface roughness results in wear of the surfaces.
During running-in, as the asperities deform, the thickness of the
Using the load-sharing model developed in 1972, Johnson and Green­
lubricant film as well as the contribution of the asperities in carrying the
wood determined derived appropriate expressions that relate the total
load change, which results in the change in wear and friction coefficient.
load and the divided load between the asperities and the fluid film [70].
As the running-in period progresses, the portion of the load carried by
Relationship between the total load and the carried load by asperities
the asperities decreases, while the portion of the load carried by the fluid
and fluid film:
film increases.
Running-in is shown to have a profound effect on the Stribeck curve. F F
F = Ff luid + Fasperity γ1 = 1 1
/γ 1 + /γ 2 = 1 γ2 = F (8)
The effect of the running-in period on the Stribeck curve for three sur­ Ff a
faces: completely new, partly run-in, and fully run-in are shown in
A part of the total load F is carried by the fluid film Ff and the rest of
Fig. 10 as the surfaces running-in, owing to the decrease in the surface
the load is carried by asperities, Fa . In this equation, the parameters γ1
roughness, the friction coefficient decreases, and the shift from bound­
and γ2 are called scaling factors.
ary lubrication to partial lubrication occurs at lower rolling speeds
Industrial components: Examination of the running-in behavior of
compared to the fresh surface. The reason is that run-in surfaces are
major tribo-components such as gears, bearings, cam-followers, wheel
smoother than fresh surfaces and thus can be preserved by a smaller film
tracks, and the like is of significant interest to industry, for it affects the
thickness.
steady-state performance of these components.
The governing equation used to study the pressure in the lubricant
Gears are one of the most widely used industrial parts used for power
film is the Reynolds equation (5), which is obtained from Navier-Stokes
transmission. Hence, studies to identify wear on gears are very exten­
(4) and continuity equations [68]:
sive. Hua and Khonsari [71] developed a numerical procedure to solve
DV the governing equations for the transient EHL with variable load, cur­
ρ = FB − ∇P + ∇2 τij (4)
∂t vature, and rolling velocity which deals with the lubrication behavior of
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] gear transmission. They investigated the effects of geometry factors on
ρh3 ∂P
∂/∂x + ∂/∂y
ρh3 ∂P
= ∂/∂x
ρh(ua + ub )
+ ∂/∂y
ρh(ua + ub ) the lubrication of a gear transmission include gear ratio, central dis­
η ∂x η ∂y 2 2 tance, gear tooth module, and profile shift of gear tooth. The analysis in
+ ρh(wa + wb ) − ρua ∂h/ − ρva ∂h/ + h ∂ρ/ = u ∂(PhT )/ (5) Ref. [71] is based on the assumption that full EHL prevailed, so that
∂x ∂y ∂t ∂x
surface roughness was involved in the calculations. Later, Larsson [72]
where h is film thickness, ρ is the fluid density, η is fluid viscosity, hT is investigated wear in gears involved with non-Newtonian lubricants in
the average distance between two surfaces, u is rolling speed, ∅x and ∅y the mixed lubrication regime. Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [73,74] used
is pressure factor in the direction, x and y. the model developed by Lu et al. [75]—which used the load-sharing
In the mixed lubrication regime, the Reynolds equation for Newto­ concept to predict the coefficient of friction—to study the perfor­
nian fluid at steady state was modified by Patir and Cheng [62] for mance of spur gears in isothermal mode with consideration of surface
including surface roughness orientation as well as the effect of fluid roughness.
compressibility: Sjoberg et al. [76–79] investigated the effect of load during the
[ ] [ ] running-in period on the efficiency of the gears. They concluded that a
ρh3 ∂Ph ρh3 ∂Ph higher load in the running-in improves the steady-state gear efficiency.
∂/∂x ∅x + ∂/∂y ∅y = u ∂(PhT )/∂x (6)
η ∂x η ∂y They observed that the greater the load during running-in, the greater
the effect on the surface roughness. Andersson et al. [80] compared
For an isotropic surface with a Gaussian distribution of roughness
super finished and ground gears to check greater contact pressure during
heights, the flow pressure factor is calculated as follows:

7
M.M. Khonsari et al. Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

the running-in that is useful to improve performance. The result was that
super finished gears did not show significant changes in the roughness
parameters after the running-in. Sosa et al. [81–83] studied the phe­
nomenon of running-in, without dismantling the gear, to measure
roughness and power loss during the entire process and concluded that
the changes in the surface occur in the initial cycles of operation and also
different loads during running-in changed the gear mesh efficiency over
the whole range of velocities tested. Mallipeddi et al. [84–86] studied
the effect of the load on the progress of the surface specifications of the
gears and concluded that a higher load during the running-in increases
the probability of micro pitting occurrence because of the surface ir­
regularities and the stress concentrations.
The prediction of cam-follower performance is a challenging
problem. Effects such as transient changes in parameters along with
compression of the lubricant layer, elastic deformation of surfaces, side
leakage of lubricant, heat generation due to loss of viscosity and changes
in lubricating properties with pressure and temperature are simulta­
Fig. 11. The lift-off speeds of three loads (reproduced from data in Lu and
neously present in this contact. Torabi et al. [87] investigated the effect Khonsari [93]).
of surface roughness pattern and surface profile changes during
running-in wear on cam-follower using numerical modeling. They also
have a long lifetime under a purely hydrodynamic lubrication regime.
considered various effective parameters such as surface roughness ef­
However, the bearings are prone to wear when they are in a mixed
fects as well as heat generation from the friction of asperities.
lubrication regime during starting and stopping.
Takabi and Khonsari [88] studied experimental testing and thermal
Lift-off: Lift-off shows when hydrodynamic lubrication prevails and
analysis of ball bearings. Simulations results indicate that higher
wear is no longer a concern. See, for example, the prediction of the lift-
rotational speed, oil viscosity and housing cooling rate lead to the larger
off speed in journal bearings by Lu and Khonsari [93] operating under
temperature gradient and thermally-induced preload in ball bearings.
different loads and oil inlet temperatures and the behavior of lift-off
They [89] developed a dynamic model of cylindrical roller bearings to
speed and the agents that affect it. They examined the specifications
show the importance of surface roughness and contact load on the wear
of the Stribeck curve in different load, oil temperature, and oil type and
rate and heat generation between the rollers and the raceways. The ef­
showed that increasing the oil supply temperature and the load shifts the
fect of different surface roughness and radial loads was studied on
lift-off speed to the right. In the mixed or boundary lubrication regime, a
lubricant film thickness, wear rate, and rate of heat generation between
higher temperature creates a greater friction coefficient, while in the
the rollers and the races. It is shown that the film thickness and the rate
full-film lubrication regime, the opposite occurs. Fig. 11 shows the re­
of heat generation between the rollers and the raceways increase at
sults from oil SAE 30 with an inlet temperature of 40 ◦ C, the lift-off
greater surface roughness, also disclose that, in large radial loads, wear
speeds at three different loads with their associated coefficients of
rate increases proportionally to the increase in the radial load. None­
friction.
theless, the rate of heat generation between the rollers and the raceways
Start-Stop: There are a number of studies on the importance of start-
significantly increases and decreases with an increase in the radial load.
stop in bearings. Chun and Khonsari [94] detected the potential region
In a wheel/rail contact, both rolling and sliding occur in the contact
of wear scarring on engine journal bearings operating at a fixed angular
area. Mild wear and severe wear have been observed on the track. Mild
crankshaft velocity such as a minimum oil film thickness. They obtained
wear results in a smooth surface with minimal plastic deformation and
wear zone at every crank angle below most oil film thickness scarring
oxide wear debris and severe wear results in a rough surface with
wear based on the concept of the centerline average surface roughness.
extensive plastic deformation and flake-like metallic wear debris. Un­
The wear volume changed according to the wear depth and wear angle,
derstanding and identification of wear regimes and transitions in wheel/
depending on the minimum oil film thickness at every crank angle, and
rail systems have been seen in other researches. Lewis and Olofsson [90]
the total wear volume was the summation during one cycle.
collected experimental data on rail wear and presented outlines work in
Chun [94–97] studied the variation of oil film thickness at potential
terms of slip and contact pressure related to expected wheel/rail contact
wear regions of journal bearings in a misaligned shaft during motoring
conditions and contact points carried out to produce maps of rail ma­
start-up and coast-down cycles. He initially calculated the central ec­
terial wear coefficients taken from laboratory tests run on twin disc and
centricities of the two journal bearings by using the mobility method,
pin-on-disc.
then calculated the outer end eccentricity by using the geometry of the
Hardwich et al. [91] carried out twin-disc wear testing to study the
bearings and, further, the tilting angle and degree of misalignment of the
wear characteristics under dry, water and grease-lubricated conditions
shaft by using the eccentricities of the two bearings. He calculated the
of rail run against the wheel. Their test results showed that over the same
wear of journal bearings using the fractional film defect coefficient, the
slip range, a water contaminated contact would only reach the severe
asperity load sharing factor, and the modified specific wear rate for the
regime and with grease, contact will be entirely in the mild regime.
application of mixed-elastohydrodynamic lubrication regime.
Higher energy input is required to achieve the transitions between wear
Liu et al. [98] presented a transient mixed elastohydrodynamic
regimes for water and grease contacts, compared to dry conditions.
lubrication model to investigate the transient process. In the model, they
The rail profile grinding is an efficient method to reduce rail wear
adopted the average Reynolds equation considering the influences of
and increase the rail service life. Aiming to reduce the rail side wear on
surface deformation and inlet temperature. They analyzed the oil film
curves, Zai et al. [92] presented a design methodology for rail
and friction loss of the system and the journal center trajectory during
asymmetric-grinding profiles based on the principle of low wheel-rail
engines starting up. Fig. 12(a) shows in the first revolution of starting
dynamic interaction. In the design criteria of rail profiles, the
up, the contact friction of the main bearing under hot start-up condition
wheel-rail contact geometry and the wheel–dynamic rail interaction
was much more serious than that under cold start-up condition. Based
were the fundamental elements.
on Fig. 12(b), during the run-up and transition to idle phases, the main
Many researchers have adopted various techniques for improving the
bearing generates more friction loss under the cold start-up condition
performance characteristics of a journal bearing during running-in. As
than that under the hot start-up condition. During the run-up and
one kind of main shaft bearings, hydrodynamic journal bearings will

8
M.M. Khonsari et al.
Fig. 12. (a) Engine speed curve during starting up (b) oil film thickness curve at the middle section of bearing (reproduced from data in Liu et al. [98]).
transition to idle phases, the main bearing generates more friction loss
under the cold start-up condition than that under the hot start-up con­
dition. In the early stage of hot starting up, the asperity contact bearing
capacity is larger than that under the full-loaded condition, which means
a more serious wear under hot start-up condition.
Cui et al. [99] investigated the start-up behavior of journal bearings
and obtained hydrodynamic oil force and asperity contact force, the
motion of the journal center, the contact time, and the lift-off speed of
the bearing. The result shows that the hydrodynamic oil force increases
during the early stage of the start-up process, leading to a sharp decrease
in the contact force. An increase in the relative clearance of the bearing
generates a decrease in both the contact force and the contact time. Also,
a high start-up acceleration leads to a sharp decrease in the contact
force.
Wu et al. [100] presented a method for wear analysis of the hydro­
dynamic journal bearings based on abrasive wear model. An equation is
formulated for predicting the specific wear rate of the bearing material
as a function of the wear depth.
Vinh [101] described the static and dynamic characteristics of a
cylindrical journal bearing operating under critical conditions, namely
at very low speed and high specific pressure.
The influence of different forms of surface texture on finite journal
bearing is investigated by Kango et al. [58]. Comprehensive analysis of
Fig. 13. Optimum operating conditions (reproduced from data in Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [105]).
9
Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
misaligned journal bearings based on mass-conservative thermohy­
drodynamic model are presented by Jang and Khonsari [102]. The effect
of surface texture on the performance of the journal bearing operating
under the transient condition by a fluid-structure interaction approach
was characterized by Lin et al. [103]. The thermomechanical in­
teractions of a journal bearing undergoing thermally induced seizure
with FE model by Krithivasan and Khonsari [104].
6. Optimum operating conditions
The operating conditions of the running-in regime affect the steady-
state performance of the tribosystem. In other words, to improve the
steady-state performance of the system, the operating conditions for the
running-in period should be carefully selected. Thus, optimization is a
new research area in the field of running-in. Control of the running-in
process can be a valuable tool in extending the working life of engi­
neering tribosystems and ensuring stable operation. Like tribosystem
optimization in general, running-in control requires attention to design,
surface mechanics, chemistry, and materials.
Jamari [64] proposed a running-in model which is based on the
elastic-plastic micro-contact of asperities and the wear model that are
able to predict the change of the surface topography during running-in
locally or deterministically. Therefore, the running-in process as a
M.M. Khonsari et al. Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

Table 1
Comprehensive summary of research papers.
Authors [Ref.] Year Method Remarks

Quneer et al. [108] 1965 Mathematical model Developed equation w = β(I − exp(− nl) +KL) for calculating the sliding wear and the linear and transient component
Experimental and validated by experiment for steel on steel under lubricated.
Christensen [109,110] 1966 Experimental Experimental study of changes in surface roughness and contact conditions under line contact of mixed lubrication in
sliding.
Kragelsky & Kombalov 1969 Mathematical model Obtained the value of the surface roughness after running-in in elastic contact by dimensionless ratio: hmax /Rb1/ν = Δ.
[37]
Montgomery [111] 1969 Experimental Investigated changes during running-in on Grey iron: (1) improve in the conformity of the surfaces, (2) became
smoother the surface, (3) in the case of surface lubricant the generation of protective surface films, (4) physical
changes in the structure.
Rows et al. [112,113] 1975 Experimental Investigated the surface topographic changes during running-in of grease-lubricated plain bearings and an evaluation
of greases with extreme pressure and solid-lubricant additives by scanning electron microscopy.
Sreenath & Raman [114, 1976 Experimental Studied running-in wear on a compression ignition engine showed that the linear wear of the cylinder liner increases
115] with an increase in the initial surface roughness, and the cast iron liner and rings decrease with increasing load but
the mass wear increases with increasing load.
Masouros et al. [116,117] 1977 Analytical model Showed that high initial surface roughness gives high linear wear during running-in bearing until linear wear law
Experimental controls the process.
Stout & King [118,119] 1977 Analytical model Discussed analytical techniques in surface topography and their application to a running-in experiment. Two distinct
1982 Experimental facts have transpired from experiments: the use of relocation methods in wear experiments is invaluable, change in
the shape of the amplitude distribution of the profiles.
Roy Chowdhury et al. 1979 Experimental Analysis of surface topography change in plain bearings, emphasized surface smoothing during running-in by plastic
[120] flow and by abrasion, predicted optimum concentrations of solid lubricant additives and the selection of suitable load
and speed conditions.
Prujanski [121] 1979 Experimental Discussed the influence, geometrical characteristics, and friction coefficient of surface finishing methods on surface
wearing ability. Smoothing of asperity peaks by running-in leads to a lower wearing ability.
Begelinger & Gee [122] 1981 Experimental By investigating the effect of running-in on the load-carrying capacity of thin-film lubricant, showing the surface of
the stationary cylinder becomes very smooth, the rotating cylinder remaining unaffected. As the local radius of
curvature increases, the load-carrying capacity increases.
Blau [2,123] 1981 Experimental Investigated the break-in behavior of dual-phase steel using a stroke-by-stroke fixed ball-on-flat tribometer, shown to
be reproducible on the SiC cloth samples and had a double peak in plots of the friction as a function of the number of
strokes. Argon environments reduced the friction and the wear track width.
Dowson et al. [124] 1982 Analytical Investigated the running-in process in tribology.
Murakami et al. [125] 1982 Experimental Investigated the effect of the oxide film under four-ball tests of squalling with and without DBDS additive by X-ray
microanalysis, photoelectron spectroscopy and electron diffraction technique. Concluded that DBDS should be
considered in connection with its contribution to the oxide film formation.
Blau & Whitenton [126, 1982 Experimental Described the effects of break-in behavior for dry sliding flat-on-ring tests of bronze on steel. Showed tilt of the fixed
127] 1984 flat block can affect the break-in duration for friction and wear because of the rate at which a balance of steady-state
sliding surface contact conditions achieved.
Glaeser [128] 1983 Experimental Investigated the microstructure and chemical makeup of wear debris during lubricated wear experiments and
identified two types of debris: (1) metal flakes (2) submicron metal particles embedded in a gel-like lubricant product.
Ludema [129] 1984 Theory A review of scuffing and running-in of lubricated surfaces with focus on adhesion, asperities and oxides.
Baglin [130] 1986 Experimental Determined the conditions under sinusoidal asperities with a circumferential lay elastically deform by hydrodynamic
pressure ripples within an elastohydrodynamic conjunction. Found that micro-EHL occurs at low loads with thin
macro-elastohydrodynamic films.
Bengtsson & Rönnberg 1986 Experimental Presented 3D measuring system using a conventional stylus for the surface topography. This set-up permitted on-line
[131] calculations of worn-off volume in running-in experiments. Described a relocating technique for relocating the
sample between the rig and the measuring system.
Kang & Ludema [132] 1986 Experimental Determined the mechanisms of "break-in" of lubricated surfaces with various surface roughness values. Found
breaking-in by sliding requires a specific initial surface roughness of about 0.1 μm center-line average. Smoother and
rougher surfaces failed quickly.
Sugimura et al. [40] 1986 Analytical model Offered a running-in equation which describes the changes in surface micro-topography. It relates the height
distribution of a composite profile of wearing surfaces to the size distribution of the wear particles.
Blau [41] 1987 Mathematical model Developed a model to portray the commonly observed shapes, durations, and variations in kinetic friction coefficient
Experimental versus sliding time curves. Terms in the model involve material properties and physical interface conditions such as
transfer, debris accumulation, and surface roughness.
Barber & Ludema [133] 1987 Simulation Development of a test device to study the role of the honed roughness pattern found on most cylinder walls in fired
Experimental engines. The reason for the honed roughness to allow a high wear rate, without catastrophic scuffing, in locations of
high stress between poorly conforming parts.
Suzuki & Ludema [134] 1987 Experimental Conclusions are: the reduction in friction was not due to surface smoothing, involved pairs of steel in mineral oil the
formation and progressive dislodging of Fe3O4, dislodged the oxide clumps by wiping the contact surfaces, the oxide
film had a moderate electrical resistance and also prevented adhesion.
Tomlinson [135] 1988 Experimental Running-in wear of grey cast iron and the effect of laser transformation hardening was mainly abrasive, and no
adhesive wear occurred. Irons graphite was deposited on the wheel; wear continued with the higher load but reached
a steady-state condition. With the laser-hardened irons, the amount of wear was reduced.
Blau [38,136] 1989 Analytical Emphasized transitions and break-in phenomena, describe friction and wear, materials behavior, important variables
which affect transitions in friction and wear, considerations in tribotesting materials, and reporting of friction and
wear data.
Hu et al. [137] 1991 Dynamic model Predicted the optimum roughness to obtain the minimum wear rate, the stability of the wear system and its critical
load capacity.
Wu & Zheng [138] 1991 Experimental Formation of an oil film can be determined by surface waviness: Wn , λ0.5x . The characteristic of contact can be
determined by the surface roughness, the geometry of the asperity, the plasticity index. Running-in can only improve
the surface roughness effect during contact and hardly change the surface wavelength.
Kelly et al. [139] 1992 Experimental Twin-disc tests in micro-EHL confirm prior running-in at lower speed enhances load and temperature at scuffing.
Examination of surface oxidation and smoothing suggests the second was the dominant effect.
Liu et al. [140] 1992 Experimental
(continued on next page)

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M.M. Khonsari et al. Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871

Table 1 (continued )
Authors [Ref.] Year Method Remarks

Studied quantitative of wear debris and the running-in mechanisms for iron and steels, showed correlation with the
weight loss and surface roughness changes, and the formation mechanism of spherical wear debris particles was a
fatigue process.
Liang et al. [141] 1993 Numerical Studied contact stress distribution in running-in for the elastic contact of 3D rough surfaces, showed that the
percentage of plastic deformation β expressed as function of the contact stress distribution λ, the running-in process
can increase the elastic component of deformation and decrease of plastic deformation.
Pawlus [142] 1994 Experimental Cylinder wear during running-in depends on the roughness height and the shape of the roughness profile distribution;
found that the influence of the cylinder surface’s ability to maintain oil on the selected engine operating parameters
after running-in is substantial.
Sugimura et al. [48] 1994 Experimental Studied effects of longitudinal, isotropic and transverse roughness pattern on the lubricated running-in process of
rolling/sliding contacts. Proved plastic deformation to be dominant in surface micro-topographical change, showed
wear was essential to the decrease in metal-to-metal contacts.
Andersson et al. [143] 1996 Experimental Investigated the running-in of water-lubricated journal bearings and shaft sleeves made of different silicon carbide
materials. The initial surface roughness influenced the initial dynamic friction coefficient, the running-in distance,
and the material properties had a limited influence on the running-in behavior.
Zhang et al. [3] 1996 Experimental Investigated the running-in wear in the system of a steel disk and composite pins, found that the wear mechanisms
were dominated by abrasion and the fracture of the reinforced particles played an important role.
Chou and Lin [144] 1997 Numerical Investigated effects of different surface roughness and running-in on oil-lubricated line contacts in terms of friction
Experimental coefficient, wear loss, oil temperature, specimen roughness and electrical resistance by a gear/cam adapter.
Visscher et al. [145] 1998 Experimental Presented engine tests on the wear and profile development of a twin-land oil-control ring, shown that the roughness
Numerical height of the plateau honed liner decreases during running-in, did not show a significant overall change in surface
roughness because the piston lands were much smoother.
Jeng and Gao [146–148] 1998 Simulation Running-in wear for surfaces from different manufacturing processes based on abrasive and adhesive wear models,
2000 predicted changes of surface parameters: r.m.s., skewness, kurtosis by the Johnson translatory system, compared
surfaces with different height distributions.
Horng [149,150] 1998 Experimental Illustrated the effect of speed, load, roughness on transition behavior by micro-contact model, from mixed lubrication
2002 toward boundary lubrication and toward scuffing failure, from mixed lubrication toward scuffing failure the
transition diagram showed a similar shape for the different average roughness values.
Braithwaite et al. [151] 1999 Experimental Presented comparative test in two similar engines under same conditions except in one case MOS2 additive was used
as a crankcase lubricant, the additive was reduced metal-to-metal contact, achieved the change in surface topography
by plastic deformation.
Shirong & Gouan [152] 1999 Numerical Developed a fractal model of running-in wear used the relation Rowe’s modified adhesion theory. Studied the
Experimental variation of surface topography during running-in with fractal parameters. Obtained the relation of real contact area
between rough surfaces to profile fractal parameters, material properties, load.
So & Lin [153] 1999 Experimental Studied the combined effects of ZDDP, surface texture and hardness on the running-in of ferrous metals. Obtained that
if the hardness was the same, lay directions should be parallel but perpendicular to sliding direction, the roughness
values smaller than 0.09 μm.
Sasajima et al. [154] 2000 Numerical Presented a relocation technique for asperity profiles using profile collation index and statistical information on
height and its application to calculate volume changes in running-in wear. Increased the wear volume with the sliding
length, but the volume change was saturated where the sliding length was over a certain value. At this saturated
point, the running-in wear was said to have ended.
Wang et al. [44–46] 2000 Numerical Derived the relation of wear volume and the surface roughness change during running-in for PEHL contacts, checked
Experimental the pattern and the correlation length of a rough surface and found to have no effect on the relation of wear volume
and change of average roughness.
Cavatorta & Cusano [155, 2000 Experimental In part I, analyzed surface changes different run-in procedures on aluminum pins against carburized steel disks. The
156] area contact is lubricated base PAG lubricant mist. In part II, analyzed surface smoothing and film formation part I, in
relation to the observed scuffing resistance of run-in components.
Katoh et al. [157] 2001 Experimental Analyzed the running-in process under the mixed lubrication by combined lime-space plot and 3D bearing curves.
The friction force on the transverse roughness was lower than the longitudinal roughness in the transition zone, but
the disagreement between the two directions increased.
Liu et al. [158] 2001 Numerical Investigate the role of the soft, thin, metallic film in the running-in on silver-film-covered and uncoated metallic
Experimental surfaces. Showed that a low COF of about 0.22 and obtained low wear at the beginning of sliding when there was thin
film.
Lugt et al. [159] 2001 Experimental Investigated the influence of surface topography on friction, film breakdown and running-in in the mixed lubrication.
Reported film breakdown did not always increase with slip but depended on certain aspects of the surface structure
and friction was not determined simply by Ra value.
Teo & Lafdi [160] 2001 Numerical Studied friction film from graphitic allotropic form to amorphous and wear behavior of a carbon composite, shown
Experimental that any type of mechanical or thermal fatigue failure or bulk material is sufficient to generate friction and wear
instabilities.
Nogueira et al. [161] 2002 Experimental Proposed a friction model to predict tribological behavior in lubrication regimes, tried to take into of factors
influencing the conditions in the contact operates: normal load, sliding speed, viscosity, elastic modulus, Poisson’s
ratio, roughness parameters. Thus, by choice of materials can reduce the running-in period.
Kumar et al. [43] 2002 Mathematical model Developed a model to characterise the running-in and steady-state wear rate from the experimental wear data as a
Experimental function of load, roughness, temperature. Initial roughness was the most significant parameter, the wear rate
decreased with temperature.
Yang [162] 2003 Numerical Described the transient wear volume by an exponential equation and the steady-state wear by a revised Archard’s
Experimental equation, analyzed for A6061-T6 alloy and MMC-D, an aluminum alloy matrix composite.
Jeng et al. [163] 2004 Simulation Composed model of Johnson translatory system and a microscopic wear model, used to describe the changes of
Experimental surface roughness during running-in for general surfaces.
Wang et al. [45] 2004 Numerical Presented an approach into the calculation of wear of running-in contacts under PEHL, obtained results based on
surface data that at various intervals during a running-in experiment clearly indicate the change in the severity of
contact surface wear.
Blau [36] 2005 Experimental Investigated the attributes of frictional running-in include the overall trend in friction force with time, the duration of
Analytical characteristic features in the friction/time curve, and the immediate level of frictional oscillation.
Nélias et al. [164] 2005 Semi-analytical Contact model with consideration of surface defects, thermal effects, plasticity, and strain hardening.
Wang et al. [165] 2005 Experimental
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Table 1 (continued )
Authors [Ref.] Year Method Remarks

Studied the running-in process of surface-contacted SiC in water, found the maximum running-in load had a large
influence on the load-carrying capacity.
Vassiliou et al. [166] 2006 Experimental Studied the effect of running-in on the tribology and surface morphology of metal-on-metal Birmingham hip
resurfacing device.
Awasthi et al. [167] 2006 Average flow model Studying the effect of running-in wear in lubrication problems.
Zhu et al. [168,169] 2007 Dynamic Method Displayed the changes of fractal dimensions of frictional signals in the running-in wear process.
Experimental
Shakhvorostov et al. [170] 2007 Experimental Investigated the influence of the initial grain size of the softer of two tribopartners on the running-in, shown that first
interplay of unworn surfaces was squired by vast plastic flow, the grain size reduction. The softer Cu with larger
grains had higher wear.
Dienwiebel & Pöhlmann 2007 Experimental Studied the formation of tribologically induced nanocrystalline layers in lubricated contacts during running-in by
[171] atomic force microscopy, auger electron spectroscopy. Initially, at very high wear rates, formed zinc phosphate anti-
wear films, which slow down the wear process.
Durak et al. [172] 2008 Experimental Presented an experimental method for obtaining applied results related to the journal bearing under running-in,
shown the connection between the oil additive and the running conditions, known that one of the roles of an additive
was to form a protective layer to reduce the friction coefficient.
Ismail et al. [173–176] 2010 Finite Element Indicated running-in in elastic-plastic rolling contact with strain hardening behavior.
Method
Jibiki et al. [177,178] 2010 Experimental Considered surface texturing to be an effective means of enhancing the properties of a tribological contact bearing
2016 steel, reduced number of cycles to complete the running-in process, the contact stiffness of the micro texturing was
low, the contact region was larger.
Luo [179] 2010 Experimental Investigated the origin of running-in friction in unlubricated sliding wear, a coating TiAlN/VN, the friction behavior
of transition metal nitride hard coating was dominated by the viscous shearing of tribofilm adhesively bonding to the
parent nitride coating.

Podgursky et al. [180] 2010 Experimental Studied the influence of surface geometry of hard coatings on tribological behavior by means of the lateral rotating
cathode arc method on HSS substrates, the investigation by AFM revealed that for all types of coatings, the non-
Gaussian HDF was mainly due to the macroparticles.
Vuong et al. [181,182] 2009 Analytical model Determined the wear transitions between wheel/rail steel and experimentally validated to obtain the wear coefficient
2011 Experimental of rail steels.
Akbarzadeh & Khonsari 2010 Presented a model to predict the running-in performance of the rolling/sliding surfaces used the load-sharing
[47,105,183] 2011 Numerical concept, analytically and experimentally studied, if during the running-in the speed was maintained at optimum
2013 Experimental value, the steady-state power loss and wear will be minimum.
Argatov & Fadin [184] 2011 Mathematical model Estimated the running-in period at the macro-scale with fixed contact zone in the framework of Archard’s law.
Bosman et al. [185,186] 2011 Semi-analytical Calculated surface topography using an elasto-plastic model based on COF and mechanical threshold on lubricant and
strain related failure.
Ejtehadi et al. [187] 2011 Experimental Identified cause of running-in wear in a type of spherical chassis joint.
Simulation Conducted material tests for polyoxymethylene to identify the stress–strain behaviour used for non-linear FEM in
algorithm.
Mortazavi et al. [188] 2011 Numerical Proposed Shannon entropy as a surface roughness parameter and used its decrease as a simple test for self-
Experimental organization. Produced on the steel plates, various textures, in terms of roughness parameters. Compared how self-
organization occurs for different textures during running-in.
Sjöberg et al. [77–79] 2011 Experimental Studied running-in affects the dry elastic contact ratio in spur gears using real surface topographies from green-
2016 Numerical shaving, honing, and grinding manufacturing methods. The shaved gears had the highest dry elastic contact area ratio
after running in; the ground gears had the lowest.
Bartel et al. [189] 2012 Numerical Described a model for the simulation of the transient wear characteristics of journal bearings subjected to mixed
friction. Calculated the gap geometry change, the solid contact load ratio, boundary friction ratio, the micro-
hydrodynamic effects, elastic deformations of the bearing environment, and mass change cavitation.
Paleo [190] 2012 Experimental Tested the all-steel and hybrid silicon nitride angular contact ball bearings. The running-in period lasts longer for all-
steel bearings, the severe wear more extended than in the hybrid rolling bearings, the friction moment was greater in
all-steel bearings.
Shen & Meng [191] 2012 Experimental Demonstrated a running-in method for an improved lifetime of bulk-fabricated silicon MEMS device which can
effectively reduce undesirable initial wear and thus generate an endurable bearing surface.
Wang and Zhou [192] 2012 Population growth Simulated the changes of peak and valley, peak height decreased and the decreasing speed slows during running-in,
model the local valley inverse tendency.
Pogačnik & Kalin [193] 2012 Experimental Focused on the parameters affecting the running-in and long-term behavior of plastic/plastic and plastic/steel
contacts for an evaluation of the performance in real-scale applications.
Jamari [64] 2012 Quantitative Based on the elastic-plastic contact and the wear model, predicted the change of the surface topography during
approach running-in.
Zhmud et al. [194,195] 2012 Experimental Studied improvement in the tribological properties of camshafts, liners, and rocker arm shafts gained cylinder due to
2019 ANS tribo-conditioning.
Blau et al. [196] 2013 Experimental Investigated the effect on the running-in of lubricated bronze and surface-treated titanium against alloy steel, the
wear occurred on the surface engineered Ti-alloys, frictional running-in tend to occur early.
Chen et al. [197,198] 2013 Experimental Investigated running-in process of Si-SiOx/SiO2 in amplitude air using AFM
Dienwiebel et al. [199] 2013 Experimental Investigated tribochemical effects of the metals and alloys during running-in, showing the formation of third bodies of
metallic alloys depends on the mechanical mixing of the first bodies, debris and the lubricant or the atmosphere.
Feser et al. [200] 2013 Experimental Investigate the running-in behavior of brass against 100Cr6 under lubricated conditions.
Zhang et al. [201–204] 2013 Numerical Investigated the connection of surface topography before and after running-in.
Experimental
Mezghani et al. [205,206] 2013 Experimental Investigated the various aspects of the wear modeling that caused running-in problems in honed surfaces and its
2015 Numerical implications on ring-pack friction performance.
Li et al. [207,208] 2013 Experimental By applying the multifractal theory, calculated the multifractal spectra parameters of frictional vibration signals in
the running-in process, observed that the frictional vibration signals had a multifractal nature.
Beleulmi et al. [209] 2014 Numerical Research consisted of reliability modeling of transport systems and investigated the influence of running-in time over
the duration of life.
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Table 1 (continued )
Authors [Ref.] Year Method Remarks

Cabanettes & Rosén [210] 2014 Experimental Analyzed the topography variations observed during the running-in of a camshaft on a valve train rig test.
Lu et al. [211] 2014 Experimental Predicted a black-box model to build a connection of surface topographies before and after the running-in process
Numerical based on LS-SVM. Influenced the surface topography after running in more by the initial surface topography than by
the work condition.
Zamota & Aulin [212,213] 2014 Experimental Investigated improvement of tribotechnical characteristics of the main engine’s pairings at electrochemical-
2017 Numerical mechanical running-in
Stempflé & Njiwa [214] 2015 Numerical Presented application and validation in situ approach to the running-in wear assessment of thin soft and hard coatings
Experimental currently used in MEMS manufacturing.
Sun et al. [215] 2015 Attractor analysis Investigated the attractors of friction vibration by applying the chaos theory and the evolvement mechanism of the
method friction vibration chaotic attractors in the running-in process.
Experimental
Turner et al. [216] 2015 Numerical Investigated the running-in behavior of internally plasma-treated silicone tubing, distinguish the factors that
Experimental contribute to its existence, and develop means by which to eliminate the running-in process.
Cheng et al. [217] 2015 Numerical Studied the real-time change of surface roughness at different small regions of piston rings during running-in process,
Experimental showed that the wear process was uneven, the operating cycle except for the vicinity of top dead center and bottom
dead center, the minimum oil film thickness ratio increases.
Akbarzadeh et al. [218, 2015 Experimental Conducted several experiments to investigate the effects of nanoparticles on running-in operating conditions. Zinc
219] oxide and 0.5% copper oxide generally had the best performance, which reduced the initial friction coefficient,
steady-state friction coefficient, and weight loss up.
Blau [220] 2015 Theory Discussed non-linear wear behavior how the wear rate, non-steady-state behavior, modeling and testing of wear can
be improved.
Ismail et al. [221,222] 2015 Finite Element Simulated a rolling-sliding contact using FEM to analyze the change in surface topography and contact. Shown the
2016 Method contact pressure reached a stabilized value after a certain number of rotations, indication the end of the running-in
and the beginning of the steady-state.
Allmaier et al. [223–225] 2015 Numerical Investigated temperature effects and the influence of running-in mixed lubrication in dynamically loaded journal
Experimental bearings.
Scherge et al. [226–228] 2015 Experimental Controlled the running-in process by finding the appropriate energetic corridor that provided the system to enter the
2016 third-body regime; the identification of the initial power density to set the boundary conditions correctly.
Hanief & Wani [229–231] 2015 Numerical Proposed surface roughness model non-linear as an explicit function of time for running-in and steady-state by GN,
2016 Experimental keeping other system parameters constant. ANN model developed and was compared with statistical methods, MSE,
and MAPE. Used Cu–Zn alloy for validation of the model.
Clarke et al. [232] 2016 Experimental Investigated the running-in of hardened steel surfaces under rolling/sliding mixed lubrication conditions.
Mortazavi & khonsari 2016 Dimensional Predicted linear relationship between the dimensionless wear loss, initial surface roughness and running-in time.
[233] Analysis
Rosenkranz et al. [234] 2016 Experimental Examined wear tracks by light microscopy, white light interferometry and scanning electron microscopy in order to
study the underlying friction and wear mechanisms.
Chi et al. [235] 2016 Experimental Investigated the characteristics of friction and wear transition from the running-in to the steady-state stage for an Al-
based composite, using SEM, EDS and CLSM. Reason for the low COF was the formation of a transfer film and boric
acid, increase COF by the abrasion of pulled-out TiB2 particles.
Andersson et al. [80] 2016 Experimental Presented comparison between the ground and superfinished gears, the changes in surface parameters from initial,
after running-in.
Brink et al. [236] 2016 Experimental Studied the tribological behavior of polished and lapped disks with lubrication to link the impact of initial near-
surface microstructure to the running-in, turned out the quality of the running-in depends on the equilibrium between
material strengthening and softening.
Sosa et al. [81–83] 2016 Numerical Focused on in situ surface topography characterization of running-in of involute gears.
2017 Experimental
Akchurin et al. [237] 2017 Numerical Developed a model for the simulation of wear particles formation in mixed lubricated sliding contacts, based on a
Experimental half-space algorithm coupled with a numerical elastohydrodynamic lubrication solver and the load-sharing concept.
Knauder et al. [238] 2017 Experimental Investigated the impact of running-in on the friction of an automotive gasoline engine and, in particular, on its piston
assembly and valve train.
Hu.X et al. [239] 2017 Experimental Used atomistic simulations to study the nanoscale, the size, shape, and crystallographic orientation of crystalline
Numerical silicon, found amorphization rates an important role in nanoscale wear during the running-in process.
Wagner et al. [240] 2017 Experimental Evaluated the effects of contact pressure and initial composite roughness of case carburized steel under boundary
lubrication, used the information to determine an optimal load and time for the running-in.
Hu.Y et al. [241,242] 2017 Numerical Developed a wear model to predict cylinder liner surface topography evolution during mixed lubrication running-in,
used to solve cavitation effects by the mass-conservation-based Elrod-Adams model, FBNS algorithm.
Lohner et al. [243] 2017 Experimental Investigated the influences of lubricant additives on the COF and on surface condition after running-in of lubricated
line contacts of discs and gears, introduced the boundary friction power as a criterion for defining the running-in
conditions of gears.
Žemlička et al. [244] 2017 Experimental Studied running-in phase on hard nc-TiC/a-C. Found the changes in the COF to be dependent on the roughness of the
coating at any stage.
Anil et al. [245] 2017 Experimental Investigated the influence of initial roughness and surface oxidation on the wear rate on the basis of contact
temperature rise and oxide thickness, observed that running-in wear rates were low and related to roughness.
Liu et al. [246] 2017 Experimental Investigated the running-in tribological behavior of Pb-free brass under the lubricated condition and its effect on
grain refinement, found the curve of COF exhibits two steep falls during the initial stage, while the real-time wear
rates at these moments were relatively high.
Albers & Reichert [247] 2017 Finite Element Linked the FE with Archard law, investigated the influence of the surface roughness, manufacturing processes and
Method wear depth.
Mallipeddi et al. [84–86] 2017 Experimental Examined the effect of running-in on surface characteristics of ground spur gears, compared gear surface
2019 characteristics generated by grinding, honing and superfinishing of casehardened steel. The most influential factor
was surface roughness.
Ding et al. [248–251] 2018 Experimental Investigated on spatial distribution and evolution features of the running-in attractor based on the approach of 3D
Numerical histogram of phase points.
Grabon [252] 2018 Numerical Presented an approach used of the three-Gaussian model to the description of the height distribution of plateau honed
cylinder liner surface topography after the initial stage of wear, and compared with the existing two-Gaussian
approach.
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Table 1 (continued )
Authors [Ref.] Year Method Remarks

Honda et al. [253] 2018 Experimental Investigated the correlation between the COF and the number of wear particles during the running-in using an online
particle counter, compared the sliding distance at the repletion of running-in judged using the particle numerator, the
friction coefficient.
Beskopylny et al. [254] 2018 Numerical Investigated spatial distribution and evolution features of the running-in attractor based on the approach of 3D
Experimental histogram of phase points.
Zhang. G et al. [255] 2018 Numerical Proposed SVMR model to predict running-in wear volume, with field surface topography parameters and working
conditions, shown that Sku had the largest influence on running-in wear volume, Sdq the second, and Svk the least.
Hutt et al. [256] 2018 Experimental Presented the use of acoustic emission to study the running-in and subsequent micropitting of a pair of hardened steel
surfaces under mixed lubrication conditions.
Grützmacher et al. [257] 2018 Experimental Performed tests on a ball-on-disk under lubricated using an additive-free poly-alpha-olefine oil under a contact
pressure to determine multi-scale surfaces positively affect the frictional and wear performance.
Jenson et al. [258] 2018 Experimental Analyzed the evolution of hardness and tribofilm growth during the running-in of 16MnCr5 steel under varied contact
pressure and initial composite roughness conditions.
Schmidt et al. [259] 2018 Finite Element Predicting the increasing wear starting from a line contact to a distinct parabolic wear shape for a dry-running tilted
Method shaft-bushing bearing.
Zhang. Y et al. [260–262] 2018 Stochastic model Predicting wear profile and surface height probability density function under mixed lubrication condition.
Ting & Ji [263] 2018 Experimental Studied the variation of friction vibration under different loads, shown the amplitude of friction vibration signals gets
larger with the increase of load at each moment.
Torabi et al. [87] 2018 Numerical Developed a line contact thermo-elastohydrodynamic to study the behavior of the cam-follower, solved Reynolds
equation to predict the hydrodynamic pressure, shown parameters affected by the rotational speed and thermal
effects.
Zhang. P et al. [264] 2018 Experimental Investigated the various tribochemical running-in processes at the Si/SiO2 interfaces, the removal of outmost silicon
atoms.
Akbarzadeh & Khonsari 2018 Experimental Evaluated the running-in, the transient friction characteristics of piston ring with different surface treatments using
[265] custom-made engine testing, Comparison between five different types of piston rings: with no textures; with textures
only; with coating only; first textured and then coated; first coated and then textured.
Federici et al. [266] 2018 Experimental Investigated the running-in of a commercial brake friction material under dry sliding conditions to understand the
role of different surface finishing of hard coatings.
Zhou et al. [267–270] 2018 Numerical Predicted the surface wear and roughness parameters during running-in under lubricant, attractor.
2019 Experimental
Lijesh & Khonsari [271] 2019 Numerical Developed a model for determining the onset of steady-state ts, shown the transient wear behavior during the
Experimental running-in dependent on the initial surface roughness.
König et al. [272] 2019 Experimental Predicteded the wear in journal bearings from wearing-in towards steady-state wear in the mixed-lubrication regime.
Numerical
Ghatrehsamani et al. [9,10, 2019 Numerical Predicted wear coefficient and Friction coefficient at the end of the running-in period by the CDM model and
273] 2020 Experimental predicted wear coefficient by CDM model during running-in in dry sliding contact.
Ziegltrum et al. [274] 2019 Experimental Studied the influence of running-in and tribofilms on different failures and friction of spur gears.
Jia et al. [275] 2019 Experimental Investigated a method for the wear and lubrication state prediction after a running-in process, studied important
implications for the strategy design of the running-in process in various industrial applications.
Linjamaa et al. [276] 2019 Experimental Studied running-in behavior of traditional leaded tin bronze and its environmentally sustainable alternative, bimetal
bismuth on the journal bearings under slow sliding speeds observed reduction of friction both bearing materials.
Prajapati & Tiwari [277] 2019 Experimental Demonstrated the evolution of surface topography using a white light interferometer during running-in and RCF tests
under boundary or mixed lubrication, concluded RMS roughness, Sq was negatively correlated with R, Sal and
positively with Sds and Sdq.
Sun & Zhu [278] 2019 Experimental Analyzed the COF signals, the morphology of phase path reconstructed from scalar time series. Shown the
Numerical morphology of the phase trajectory follows the improvement rule of “convergence–stabilization–divergence”.
Fukagai et al. [107] 2019 Experimental Investigated the traction coefficient using surface texture of a freshly turned wheel during the running-in, observed
traction coefficient decrease with the increase in magnitude of the wheel surface texture. The change of the
subsurface hardness and the microstructure dependent on the initial surface texture.
Wu et al. [279] 2019 Experimental Investigated the running-in in two periods, the interface matching period and the plastic deformation period of a dry
friction pair made of Cu-based powder metallurgy material and 65Mn steel, recognition two running-in indexes,
including equivalent changing rate H and coefficient of variation D.
Yan et al. [280] 2019 Experimental Proposed a method for running-in at low speed to achieve self-lubrication of Si-SiOx against SiO2 microspherical tip
at nanoscale. Useful for understanding the nanotribological behaviors of Si material.
Hintikka et al. [281] 2020 Numerical Achieved the results that the running-in phase can be used to reduce gross-sliding phase friction, reduce fretting
Experimental induced cracking, eliminated Non-Coulomb friction by running-in.
Cao et al. [282] 2020 Experimental Provided guidelines on surface morphology for getting maximum pitting fatigue life for interacting systems.
Li et al. [283] 2020 Experimental Used telematics data to find the influence of running-in, classified to evaluate the relation between running-in
behaviors and fuel economy.
Voelkel et al. [284] 2020 Experimental Described the running-in behavior of wet multi-plate clutches, demonstrated the test method on three different
tribological systems from DCT and automatic AT application using paper friction linings.
Ruggiero et al. [285] 2020 Experimental Described a statistical approach to highlight the running-in phase and the most significant time intervals during the
steady-state measurement of kinetic friction coefficient.
Zambrano et al. [286] 2020 Experimental Analyzed the running-in period of austenitic stainless steel AISI 316L and Hadfield steel during the abrasive wear.
Argatov & Chai [287] 2020 Theory Estimated the duration of the wearing-in process and showing that the effect of friction extends the wearing-in period.
Hansen et al. [288] 2020 Experimental Investigated topography transformations of rolling-sliding in running-in under non-conformal EHL contacts.

system can be optimized.
Akbarzadeh and Khonsari [105] determined the operating condi­
tions that yield the minimum value of surface roughness, Ra, at the end
of the running-in stage. The smaller the Ra at the end of the running-in
period, the smoother is the contacting surfaces. As a result, there are less
asperity-to-asperity contacts, thus yielding lower friction and wear.
Fig. 13(a) shows the effect of combined load and speed on the surface
roughness variation. Corresponding to each applied load, there is a
speed that results in the maximum amount of roughness variation.
Another relevant parameter in determining the optimum operating
conditions is the friction coefficient at the beginning of the running-in.
Fig. 13(b) shows the effect of load and speed on the initial friction co­
efficient. Fig. 13(c) indicates that corresponding to each applied load, W,
there exists a dimensionless speed, Usum, that results in the minimum

14
M.M. Khonsari et al.
friction coefficient at the beginning of contact. The interesting point
about (a), (b) is that the operating conditions corresponding to the
minimum value of the initial coefficient of friction are fairly close to the
operating conditions corresponding to the maximum value of surface
roughness variation. Thus, another parametric study was conducted to
investigate the effect of initial roughness, Ra, and speed during running-
in, Usum, on the surface roughness variation. Fig. 13(c) shows that based
on the initial surface roughness, Rai, for each applied load, W, there
exists a speed, Usum, which results in the maximum amount of surface
roughness variation. Examination of the results of surface roughness
variation as well as the initial friction coefficient as a function of applied
load, speed, and initial surface roughness suggests that there should
exist a set of operating conditions which will be the most desirable by
the manufacturer and the end-user. Fig. 13(d) shows the optimum
operating conditions surface. Based on the initial surface roughness and
the applied load, the surface predicts the speed which results in the
maximum amount of surface roughness variation.
Shen and Khonsari [106] proposed a numerical method for the shape
optimization of surface textures. They showed that optimum textures for
unidirectional sliding have a chevron-type shape with flat fronts. Opti­
mum textures for reciprocating sliding consist of symmetric
trapezoid-like shapes, and optimum textures can greatly enhance the
load-carrying capacity.
Recently, in order to improve the operating conditions during the
running-in period, Fukagai et al. [107] used surface texture to optimize
the traction coefficient. If the traction coefficient in the wheel/rail
contact is high, the risk of wheel-climb derailment increases. The major
factor causing a reduction in the transient traction coefficient is the
plastic deformation of the surface asperities. An appropriate texture or
surface treatment might reduce the risk of flange climb derailment
during running-in in wheel/rail contact.
In summary, the present work reviews the major applications in the
field of running-in. Table 1 summarizes the published researches in this
field and shows the remarks of each paper. Studies on running-in have
been done for many years; however, due to the complexity of its phe­
nomena, many problems encountered and have not been solved yet.
7. Future research directions
The following recommendations are made for possible future
research:
• Regarding the modeling contact surface, the underlying assump­
tions, including neglecting material imperfection and residual
stresses, elastic deformation etc., need to be investigated in the
running-in period and efforts can be directed to the development of a
more generalized model for contact problems.
• In addition to the simulation of the crack initiation phase, crack
propagation can also be modeled with the use of the thermodynamic
method for the contact problem in the running-in period.
• Running-in behavior of textured surfaces requires further research.
• Examination of the operating conditions in terms of the applied load
and speed during the running-in period to optimize steady-state
friction and wear requires further investigation.
• Analysis of wear particles generated during the running-in process in
situ (that is, via online monitoring) could provide information on the
duration of time it takes for surfaces to run in. This is because the size
of the particles and their magnitude can initially change with time
and eventually reach a steady state, indicating that running-in has
been completed.
• Prediction of the running-in behavior with full consideration of
thermal effects is worthwhile.
8. Conclusions
In this paper, a detailed review of the experiments and simulations
15
Wear 474-475 (2021) 203871
conducted on the running-in phenomenon is presented. Different aspects
of running-in have been investigated so far by different researchers.
One of the key findings in the literature is that it has been shown that
the running-in operating conditions largely affects the steady-state
performance. For instance, the surface roughness at the end of the
running-in regime affects the steady-state friction coefficient, real area
of contact, and wear rate. Therefore, the change in the surface roughness
during running-in is important. This change is due to plastic deformation
of asperity tips as well as the wear particle formation.
Additional research is needed to gain insight into the optimization of
the running-in process in terms of the load, speed, and the length of the
time it takes to reach a steady state. Appropriate mathematical models
and experimental verifications are needed for this purpose. These cases
are similar in dry and lubricated contact. A reliable predictive model,
once verified by experimental data, can be used to accurately determine
the length of the running-in regime as well as the optimum operating
conditions in the running-in, which results in the best steady-state
performance.
In the experimental section, the trend would be toward experimen­
tally determining the optimum operating conditions for the running-in
regime. The results of these experiments can be used to support the
developed model discussed in the previous paragraph.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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