Respiratory System

● Breathing is an involuntary process that happens with the help of the respiratory system.
● Breathing is the process that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and
removes carbon dioxide. Land animals get oxygen from the air. We breathe in to allow
oxygen to move into our bloodstream and we breathe out to remove carbon dioxide from
our blood. The oxygen is carried in the blood to all cells of the body.
● Air flows into your body through the nose or mouth and enters a specific pathway for air.
These pathways carry air into our lungs. Then these split off where they become smaller
and smaller. In the end, the pathways are attached to small air sacs where the
exchange of oxygen from the air for carbon dioxide occurs.

★Parts and Functions of the Respiratory System

➔ Nasal Cavity (Nose and Mouth)
● The nose is what we normally
use to inhale and exhale. It has
two holes called nostrils through
which air passes. The skin lining
both nostrils is embedded with
tiny hairs called cilia, which act
like a filter to catch dust and
other small particles in the air we
breathe. The mouth is what we
use to breathe when we need
more air than what can be taken
in through the nostrils, as when
we pant or puff when we are
exhausted.

➔ Pharynx
● The pharynx is the opening just behind the nose and mouth and is part of
both the respiratory and digestive systems. Both food and air pass through
the pharynx; it is lined with tissues called tonsils which can partially obstruct
the passage of either of the two. Like when swallowing, respiration is
interrupted. The pharynx ends in the esophagus and the larynx.

➔ Larynx
● The larynx is also known as the "voice box" because it houses the vocal
chords and the different muscles used in producing sounds. The
epiglottis, a cartilage found at the top of the larynx, aids in closing it tightly
to prevent the passage of food or liquids.
 ➔ Trachea
● The trachea, also referred to as the windpipe, is a tube through which
respiratory gas transport takes place. It is lined with ciliated cells to push
particles out, and cartilage rings to guard it against pressure when
breathing. The end of the trachea is split into two tubes called the
bronchi.

➔ Bronchi
● The bronchi are large tubes that connect to the trachea and directs the air
to both lungs. They have several thin-walled branches called bronchioles.
These bronchioles lead to air sacs called alveoli, where most of the gas
exchange happens.

➔ Lungs
● The lungs are the most essential organ for respiration. They consist of a
cluster of bronchioles and alveoli, blood vessels, and elastic tissue.
Their main function is to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream, and to
excrete carbon dioxide into the air.

➔ Diaphragm
● The diaphragm is a muscle located below the lungs, attached to the
sternum which helps in respiration. It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that
contracts involuntarily. Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and
flattens and the chest cavity enlarges. This contraction creates a vacuum,
which pulls air into the lungs. Upon exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes
and returns to its domelike shape, and air is forced out of the lungs.

★Breathing Process
➔ Inhalation (Breathing in / inspiration)
● When you breathe in (inhale), your diaphragm contracts (tightens) and
moves downward. In this way, it could provide a bigger space for your
lungs to expand in the chest cavity. Also, the intercostal muscles help
widen the area in the chest cavity. They contract to pull your rib cage
both upward and outward when you breathe.
● As your lungs expand, air enters the nose and mouth, traveling towards
your windpipe and into your lungs.

➔ Exhalation (Breathing out / expiration)

● When you breathe out (exhale), your diaphragm relaxes and moves
upward into the chest cavity. The intercostal muscles also relax to
decrease the area in the chest cavity.
● As the space in the chest cavity reduced, carbon dioxide is pushed out
of your lungs and windpipe, and then out of your nose or mouth.
Circulatory System
● The function of the circulatory system is to transport oxygen and nutrients to the body
cells and to carry deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood and carbon dioxide back to the
heart and lungs.
● Its major parts are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels. The heart is a muscular
pump which keeps the blood flowing to each part of the body. The blood circulates
through a closed system—that is, blood in the circulatory system stays inside the
vessels.

❖ Blood: Fluid Transport

● Blood is a tissue made of fluid, cells, and
fragments of cells. The fluid or the flowing
portion of the blood is termed plasma.
Plasma is straw-colored fluid and makes
up about 55 percent of the total volume
of blood. Red and white blood cells and
platelets are suspended in plasma.

❖ Blood Vessels: Pathways of Circulation

● The Circulatory System has three types of blood vessels: Arteries, Veins, and
Capillaries.

➔ Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart towards the rest of the body.
They carry oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood except pulmonary arteries,
which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygenation. The arteries
branch off from the heart. They branch off into smaller arteries called
arterioles. Arterioles enter tissues, where they branch into the smallest
blood vessels, the capillaries.

➔ Veins
Veins carry blood from the rest of the body back towards the heart. They
carry deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood excluding pulmonary veins,
which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

➔ Capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that move blood to and from
the cells of the body. These vessels are so small that blood cells must move
through them in single file. Its walls are very thin that materials can easily
diffuse into and out of them.
❖ Heart: The Vital Pump
● Thousands of blood vessels in
your body would be of little use
if there is no organ that will
move blood through them. The
heart moves blood through
the vessels.The main
function of the heart is to
keep blood moving
constantly through the body.

● The largest structures in the heart are the four chambers. The two smaller
chambers are the right atrium and left atrium, and the two larger chambers are
the right and left ventricles. The ventricles are separated by a thick wall of
tissue called septum. The heart valves are flaps of tissue that prevent blood
from flowing backwards. They open when the atria or ventricles contract, and
shut when it relaxes.

❖ Types of Circulation
● Circulating blood follows two separate pathways that meet at the heart. These
pathways are called pulmonary and systemic circulation. All of your blood
travels through both of these pathways.

➔ Pulmonary Circulation
● Pulmonary Circulation occurs only
between the heart and the lungs.
The main function of this circulation is
to carry deoxygenated (oxygen-poor)
blood to the lungs, where it picks up
O2, expels excess CO2 and water,
and carries oxygenated (oxygen-rich)
blood back to the heart. Each lung is
supplied by its own pulmonary artery
and pulmonary vein.

➔ Systemic Circulation
● Systemic Circulation occurs between the
heart and the rest of the body, except
for the lungs. The main function of this
circulation is to carry oxygenated blood
to all cells and transport deoxygenated
blood back to the heart. Systemic
circulation starts when blood leaves the
left ventricle. The blood then flows
through the torso, arms, legs, and head,
and then reverts to the heart.
➔ Coronary Circulation
● Coronary Circulation consists of the blood vessels
that supply blood to, and remove blood from, the heart.
The vessels that provide blood high in oxygen levels to
the heart are called as coronary arteries.

❖ Blood Flow in the Heart

1. Deoxygenated (oxygen-poor) blood from the body
enters the right atrium.
2. Blood then flows through right Atrioventricular (AV)
valve going to right ventricle.
3. Contraction of right ventricle pushes the pulmonary valve
open. With that, blood moves through pulmonary valve to pulmonary trunk.
4. Then it is dispersed by right and left pulmonary arteries to both right and left lungs, where it drops
off Carbon dioxide (CO2) and picks up oxygen (O2).
5. Oxygenated (oxygen-rich) blood from lungs returns thru pulmonary arteries going to left atrium.
6. From there, it flows through left Atrioventricular (AV) valve into left ventricle.
7. Contraction of left ventricle makes the aortic valve open. This makes blood flow to aorta.
8. It is then disseminated to every structure in the body, where it unloads O2 and loads CO2.
9. Blood reverts to the heart thru vena cava.

❖ Homeostatic Relationship of the Respiratory and Circulatory System

● The respiratory and circulatory systems work closely together to maintain
homeostasis in the face of constant change. Every time you exercise, lie down to
rest, or simply stand up, you change your needs for oxygen and nutrients. As a
result, your heart speeds up or slows down and you breathe faster or slower,
depending on your activity.
❖ Diseases of the Respiratory System
1. Asthma
- a common, continuing respiratory condition that causes difficulty breathing due to
inflammation of the airways.
2. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- the development of sputum makes the infected suffer from difficulty in breathing.
3. Chronic bronchitis
- a disease that makes the bronchial tubes swell.
4. Emphysema
- another form of COPD that causes damage to the air sacs in the lungs or alveoli.
5. Lung Cancer
- bumps are shaped in the lungs that cause cancer.
6. Tuberculosis
- mycobacterium targets the lungs and damages the other parts of the body.
7. Pneumonia
- the swelling of alveoli is caused by bacteria, virus, or fungi.
8. Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)
- this new disease comes from a type of coronavirus named SARS-CoV-2. Symptoms show
up to 14 days. Some are asymptomatic that no symptoms show, but they are already
infected and can spread the virus if not in isolation.

❖ Diseases of the Circulatory System

1. Atherosclerosis/Arteriosclerosis
- makes the arteries hard caused by high consumption of a fatty diet that leaves fat deposits
on the lining of the blood vessels. These fat deposits make the arteries rigid.
2. Heart Attack
- is caused when the heart is blocked from blood supply due to a blood clot.
3. Myocardial ischemia
- the buildup of fat deposits congests the blood flow to the heart.
4. High cholesterol
- cholesterol-rich food excessive consumption may lead to hypertension.
5. Heart Failure
- the unstable behavior of the heart cannot pump sufficient blood for the body’s needs.
6. Stroke
- can happen if a vessel that supplies blood to the brain either becomes blocked by a blood
clot or bursts. These stop blood flow and prevent oxygen from getting to the brain.
7. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)
- the elevation of blood pressure in the vessels gets too high that it can trigger other
diseases.
8. Anemia
- the insufficient supply of red blood cells in the blood can make you feel easily tired.
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance
● A Mendelian pattern of inheritance refers to reproducing organisms sexually. We know that
in Mendel’s principles of heredity each parent gives one of two possible alleles for a trait.
However, Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern of inheritance wherein traits do not
segregate following Mendel’s law. These laws describe the inheritance of traits linked to
single genes on chromosomes in the nucleus.

★ Incomplete Dominance
- Snapdragon flower is an example of this pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are
present resulting in an intermediate phenotype.

Example:

A cross between a homozygous red-flowered

plant (FRFR) and a homozygous white-flower
plant (FWFW) will produce offspring with
pink flowers (FRFW) as shown in the
F1 generation.

(phenotypic ratio of 1:2(blended traits):1).

In conclusion: Incomplete Dominance means

having 2 traits of the parents blended and
there is no prominent trait inherited from the
parents.

★ Codominance
- A heterozygote condition wherein both traits are present simultaneously, rather than one
fully determining the phenotype. A speckled chicken is a good example of dominance.

Example:

A cross between a black and white chicken will produce

chicken with both black and white feathers. The alleles
for black feathers in some varieties of chicken is
codominant with the allele for white feathers.

In conclusion: Codominance means inheriting 2 traits

from the parents at the same time on an offspring.
Photosynthesis
● Photosynthesis is a process in which
plants and other photosynthetic organisms
use Water and Carbon dioxide in the
presence of light and chlorophyll to
produce Glucose and Oxygen.

Equation: chlorophyll
CO2 + H2O —————> C6H12O6 + O2
sunlight

❖ Cross Section of a Leaf

Lower Epidermis - Outermost tissue on

the lower side of a leaf.
Upper Epidermis - Outermost tissue on
the upper side of a leaf.
Palisade Layer - Rows of elongated
cells in the upper center of a leaf.
Cuticle - Waxy substance covering the
epidermis.
Stomata - Opening between two guard
cells on the lower side of a leaf.
Guard Cells - Two sausage-shaped cells
surrounding each stomata.
Vein - Provides structural support for leaf
and contains xylem and phloem.
Spongy Layer - Irregular-shaped cells in the lower center of a leaf.
Air Space - Space found in the spongy layer.
Xylem - Transports water and minerals to the cells of the leaf.
Phloem - Transports sugar and other products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts.
Mesophyll - Contains chloroplasts and the site of photosynthesis.
❖ Chloroplasts
A chloroplast is an organelle
within the cells of plants and
certain algae that is the site of
photosynthesis.

❖ Phases of Photosynthesis

● 2 Sets of Reactions

1. Light - Dependent Reactions 2. Light - Independent Reactions

- Light Reactions - Dark Reactions
- Photo Phase - Synthesis Phase
- Hill Reaction - Calvin Cycle

Light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light
energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma,
uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P from CO2.