TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MOMBASA.

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING.

Unit Name: MICROPROCESSOR TECHNOLOGY

Unit Code: EEE2206

Lecturer: Madam OTENGO

Lab Technician: Mr. KUMBU

Name: JOSEPH WAMUTITU NJOGU

Reg No: DTEE/648J/2021

Name: GILBERT ABIERO OBALLAH

Reg No: DTEE/636J/2021

Submission Date:

Title: Digital Modulation.

LAB ONE
INTRODUCTION
Digital modulation is the process of encoding digital data onto an analog carrier
signal to transmit the data over a communication channel. There are several types
of digital modulation, including:
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
varied to represent the binary data. For example, if the carrier signal has a high
amplitude for a '1' and a low amplitude for a '0', then the modulation scheme is
referred to as on-off keying (OOK).
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied to represent the binary data. For example, if the carrier signal is a high
frequency for a '1' and low frequency for a '0', then the modulation scheme is
referred to as binary FSK (BFSK).
Phase Shift Keying (PSK): In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is varied to
represent the binary data. For example, if the carrier signal is shifted by 180
degrees for a '1' and not shifted for a '0', then the modulation scheme is referred to
as binary phase shift keying (BPSK).
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): In QAM, both the amplitude and phase
of the carrier signal are varied to represent the binary data. For example, if the
carrier signal can have four possible amplitudes and four possible phases, then the
modulation scheme is referred to as 16-QAM.

BASIC THEORY.
1.) Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
In this form of modulation, the sine carrier takes 2 amplitude values,
determined by the binary data signal. Usually, the modulator transmits the
carrier when the data bit is "1", it completely removes it when the bit is "0"
(fig 2.1). There are also ASK shapes called "multi-level", where the
amplitude of the modulated signal takes more than 2 values.

The demodulation can be coherent or non-coherent. In the first case, more

complex as concerns the circuits but more effective against the noise effect,
a product demodulator multiplies the ASK signal by the locally regenerated
carrier. In the second case, the envelope of the ASK signal is detected via a
diode. In both cases, the detector is followed by a low pass filter, which
removes the residual carrier components, and a threshold circuit which
squares the data signal (fig 2.2).

The main factors characterizing the ASK are:

• it is mainly used for radiotelegraphy
• it requires not complex circuits
• it is much more sensible to disturbances (high possibility of error)
• called Fb the bit transmission speed, the minimum spectrum Bw of the
modulated signal is higher than Fb
• The efficiency of transmission, defined as the ratio between Fb and BW, is
lower than 1 • the Baud, defined as the modulation or symbol speed, is
equal to the transmission speed Fb.

The ASK demodulator consists of the sections represented in fig 2.4:

• a full wave envelope detector (ASK DEM)
• a low pass filter
• a threshold circuit (with output across TP29) in case of asynchronous data,
which are not re-timed
• A clock extraction and data re-timing circuit, in case of synchronous data
(data output on TP31, clock on TP32).
 The filter, the clock extraction circuit, and the data re-timing one are used to
demodulate also other kinds of signals.

2.) Frequency shift keying (FSK)

In this modulation the sine carrier takes 2 frequency values, determined by the
binary data signal (fig.1). The modulator can be carried out in different ways;
among the most used we can mention:
• a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• A system transmitting one of the 2 frequencies, as a function of the data,
signals a frequency divider controlled by the data signal.

The most used demodulation technique is the one using a PLL circuit (fig.2). The
FSK signal across the PLL input takes two frequency values. The error voltage
supplied by the phase comparator follows such variations, and so, it constitutes the
NRZ binary representation (high and low level) of the FSK input signal. The PLL
demodulator is followed by a low pass filter, which removes the residual carrier
components, and a squarer circuit which forms the proper data signal.

The main factors characterizing the FSK are:

 applications of the data transmission modems (ITU-T V21, ITU-T V23, BELL
103, BELL 113, BELL 202), in digital radio transmission, in the cellular telephone
system ETACS (information transmission across the Control Channel)
• it requires circuits of average complexity
• high probability of error, but lower than the ASK
• called Fb the bit transmission speed, the minimum spectrum Bw of the
modulated signal is higher than Fb
• the transmission efficiency, defined as the ratio between Fb and Bw, is lower
than 1
• The Baud or Baud rate, defined as modulation speed or symbol speed, is equal
to the transmission speed Fb.

Figure 1: FSK Modulation

 Figure 2: FSK Demodulation with PLL

FSK Modulator

The block diagram of the FSK modulator is shown in fig.3. The FSK signal is
generated utilizing 2 ASK modulators, which outputs are combined with an added.

The two sine carriers at 1200 and 1800 Hz are applied separately to the 2
modulators. The data reach one of the two modulators in direct form, and the other
in negated form.

In this way, a modulator supplies a sine wave when the datum is "1", and the
second when the datum is "0". The FSK signal is obtained by adding the two
outputs (fig.3).
The 6dB-attenuator makes the signal amplitude half and is activated.
 Figure 3: FSK Modulator

2.) Phase shift keying (PSK)

In this kind of modulation, the sine carrier takes 2 or more phase values, directly
determined by the binary data signal (2-phase modulation) or by the combination
of a certain number of bits of the same data signal (N-phase modulation).

In 2-phase PSK modulation, called 2-PSK, or Binary PSK (BPSK), or Phase

Reversal Keying (PRK), the sine carrier takes 2 phase values, determined by the
binary data signal (fig.1). A modulation technique is the one using a balanced
modulator. The output sine-wave of the modulator is the direct or inverted (i.e.
shifted of 180°) input carrier, as function of the data signal.

Constellation Diagram
The modulation states of the PSK Modulator are represented with points in a
vectorial diagram. Each point is a modulation state, characterized by a phase and
an amplitude. This representation is called constellation diagram, or more simply
constellation.

Main aspects
The main aspects characterizing the 2-PSK are:
 • use of digital radio transmission
• it requires circuits of average-high complexity
• high possibility of error but lower than the FSK
• if Fb is the bit transmission speed, the minimum spectrum Bw of the
modulated signal is higher than Fb
• the transmission efficiency, defined as the ratio Fb and Bw, is lower than 1
• The Baud or Baud rate, defined as the Modulation speed or symbol speed,
is equal to the transmission speed Fb.
2-PSK Modulator

The block diagram of the 2-PSK modulator is shown in fig.2. The sine carrier
(1200 Hz) is applied to an input of the balanced modulator 1; a data signal
(indicated with I) is applied to the other input. The circuit operates as balanced
modulator, and multiplies the two signals applied to the inputs. Across the output,
the sine carrier is direct when the data signal is to low level (bit "0"), inverted
(shifted 180°) when the bit is "1". The 2- PSK signal then enters the adder, used for
FSK/QPSK/QAM modulations, and exits via a separator stage. The 6dB attenuator
makes the signal amplitude half, and is activated only by the QAM. To block the
operation of the balanced modulator 2 in 2-PSK mode, the data input of the
modulator 2 must be set to J3=b.

Figure 1: 2-PSK Modulation

4) Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a digital modulation scheme that uses
both amplitude and phase to transmit data over a communication channel. QAM
can be used with different numbers of states or levels, which is referred to as the
modulation order. The higher the modulation order, the more data can be
transmitted over the channel in a given amount of time.
In QAM, the carrier signal is a combination of two sine waves that are 90 degrees
out of phase with each other, which is known as a quadrature carrier. The digital
data is then mapped onto a constellation diagram, which is a graph that shows the
amplitude and phase of the signal for each symbol. The amplitude and phase of the
carrier signal are then modulated based on the location of the symbol in the
constellation diagram.
For example, in 16-QAM, there are 16 possible symbols that can be transmitted,
each of which is represented by a different combination of amplitude and phase
values. The constellation diagram for 16-QAM is typically a square with 4 points
on each side, representing the 16 possible symbol combinations. The amplitude
and phase of the carrier signal are then modulated based on the location of the
symbol in the constellation diagram.
QAM is commonly used in digital communication systems, such as cable and
satellite TV, wireless LANs, and digital cellular networks. The higher modulation
orders, such as 64-QAM and 256-QAM, are commonly used in high-speed data
transmission applications, such as broadband internet and digital cable TV.
However, higher modulation orders can be more sensitive to noise and
interference, and may require more complex signal processing and error correction
techniques to maintain reliable communication.

Apparatus or Equipment.
1.) PS2-PSU/EV Power supply.
2.) Module holder base
3.) Experiment module MCM31
4.) Oscilloscope

Objectives.
 To describe the ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) modulation and
demodulation
 To describe the FSK modulation and demodulation (Frequency
Shift Keying)
 To carry out a FSK connection
 To describe the PSK modulation and demodulation
 To carry out a PSK connection, with absolute modulation
 To examine the noise effect on the connection
Procedure.
 Power the module
 set the circuit in ASK mode, with 24-bit data source and without data
coding (connect J1c-J3d-J4J5-J6a; set SW2=Normal, SW3=24_bit,
SW4=1200, SW6=ASK, SW8=BIT, ATT=min, NOISE=min)
 set an alternated data sequence 00/11 and push START
 Connect the oscilloscope to TP6 and TP16 to display the data signal and the
ASK signal.
 adjust the phase of the carrier (PHASE) to make the zero of the sine wave
correspond to the starting of the bit intervals
 Use the 1800Hz frequency as carrier (set SW4=1800) Q1 what can you

detect?

Results or Observation.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this lab experiment explored the fundamental concepts of
digital modulation techniques. The first part of the experiment involved
amplitude shift keying (ASK), which showed how a digital signal can be
transmitted over a noisy channel by varying the amplitude of the carrier
wave. The second part of the experiment involved phase shift keying
(PSK), which demonstrated how phase changes can be used to represent
digital information. The final part of the experiment involved frequency
shift keying (FSK), which showed how changes in frequency can be
used to represent digital information. By comparing and contrasting the
three modulation techniques, we were able to observe their strengths and
weaknesses in terms of bandwidth efficiency, complexity, and noise
tolerance.
Overall, this lab experiment provided valuable insight into the different
types of digital modulation and their applications. We learned that the
choice of modulation technique depends on the specific requirements of
the communication system and the channel conditions. Understanding
digital modulation is crucial in modern communication systems and will
continue to play a vital role in shaping the future of telecommunications.