Verify the Boyle’s law using the quills tube and thereby calculate the atmospheric

temperature.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A quill tube (a thin glass tube having a column of dry air trapped inside by a thread of mercury), a meter
ruler and a clamp stand.
➢ Method
• Attach the tube to the stand with its closed end on the table and inclined to the horizontal. Measure the height
ℎ from the table to the top end of the tube and the length 𝑙 of the air column and note down these values.
Change the inclination of the tube by adjusting the stand and measure the
corresponding 𝑙 values for six values of ℎ and plot the graph using those
corresponding values.

ℎ – vertical height from the table to the top end of the tube

𝑙 – length of the air column

𝐿 – length of the tube

𝐴 – internal area of cross section of the tube

𝑥– length of the mercury thread

𝐻 – atmospheric pressure (Hg cm)

𝜌 – density of mercury

𝑲 𝑲
According to Boyle’: 𝑷 = (𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 + 𝑯)𝝆𝒈 =
𝑽 𝑨𝒍

𝒙𝒉 𝑲
(𝑯 + ) 𝝆𝒈 = 𝑨𝒍
𝑳

𝟏 𝑨𝒙𝒑𝒈 𝑨𝑯𝝆𝒈
𝒍
=( 𝑲𝑳
)𝒉+ 𝒌
𝟏 𝑨𝒙𝒑𝒈 𝑨𝑯𝝆𝒈
Gradient of the graph 𝒍 against h = Intercept =
𝑲𝑳 𝒌
𝑰𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒙
𝑯 = (𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕) × 𝑳

➢ Important points
• A thin tube with a small diameter of 2mm is used to obtain a long mercury thread, even with a small
volume of mercury.
• Here, mercury is used to trap air,
i. Mercury is not transparent. (Opaque)
ii. Do not wet the glass.
iii. Less volatility of mercury.
iv. The ability to build up a significant difference with a small variation of 𝜃.

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 • In this experiment, the test can be done for both h + and - values.
• The test can be easily performed by placing the tube on the meter ruler using rubber bands so that the
closed end is at the zero mark of the meter ruler.
• The trapped gas should not react over experimental time, hence nearly ideal gases such as 𝐻𝑒, 𝑁𝑒 are
most preferable.
• At the end of the experiment, detect the atmospheric pressure using a mercury barometer and compare
it with the value obtained from the graph to confirm the accuracy of the experiment.
• The cross section of the tube should be uniform.
• If a straight-line graph is obtained, the Boyle’s law can be verified.

How to make a Quill tube (a thin glass tube having a column of dry air trapped inside by a thread of mercury)

➢ Method
• Take a narrow glass tube of about one meter in length, internal diameter about 2mm
and open at both ends. Insert a mercury thread about 10cm long into it. Place the
tube horizontally and arrange the thread of mercury to reach the middle of the tube.
Now hold one end of the tube to bunsen flame and seal the end while rotating the
tube.
• The insertion of mercury thread can be done by attaching a rubber tube to one end of the glass tube and
folding it and then by unfolding the rubber tube after inserting the open end into a container filled with
mercury or by using a syringe. Or else, one end of the tube is first heated and sealed and then the open
end of the tube is immersed in a mercury trough to allow the mercury to enter the tube.

Verification of the relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas at constant
pressure. (Charle’s Law)
➢ Materials and apparatus
• Narrow uniform glass tube with thin walls closed at one end having a column of dry air trapped by an
index of mercury at the closed end, a (0 - 100) ℃ thermometer, a tall beaker of water, a stirrer, a tripod,
a wire gauze, a bunsen burner, a clamp stand, a few rubber bands, and a scale calibrated in mm.

➢ Theory
• If the volume of the air trapped in the tube is V and the Kelvin temperature of the gas is T, then
according to Charle’s law in a fixed mass of a gas at constant pressure,

𝑉∝𝑇
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇
If the length of the air column is 𝑙 and the
area of internal cross-section of the tube is A,

𝑉 = 𝑙𝐴
∴ 𝑙𝐴 = 𝑘𝑇
𝑘
𝑙= 𝑇
𝐴

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If the graph of 𝑙 plotted against 𝑇 passes through the origin as a straight line, the relationship between the volume of
the gas and its temperature is verified.

➢ Method
• Attach the tube to the scale so that the closed end of the tube coincides with the zero of the scale and
fix the thermometer placing its bulb close to the middle of the air column. Set the apparatus as shown in
the figure and note down the reading of the thermometer and the length of the air column. Heat the
water in the beaker while being stirred. When the temperature has increased by about 10 ℃ move the
burner towards and away from the beaker. Repeat this process to keep the beaker in a constant
temperature (Refer the Sinhala medium note and the discussion for a better understanding about the
process.), stir the water and maintaining a constant reading of the thermometer note down the reading
of the thermometer and the length of the air column again when the mercury index becomes still.
Continue the heating of the water in the beaker while being stirred and obtain six pairs of readings in
this manner at ever 10 ℃ rise of temperature.
➢ Important points
• It is more suitable to note down the length of the air column on two occasions, once when
the temperature is rising and next when temperature is falling. This would minimize the
error due to the sticking of the mercury index to the wall of the tube.
• By bending the tube as shown in figure to increase the length of the air column in the
narrow uniform tube or by connecting a small glass bulb to the end of the tube the
sensitivity of the apparatus can be increased and this would enable to obtain a good spread
between the readings.
• If 𝑉 is the volume of the air trapped inside the bent portion of the tube and A the area of
internal cross section of the tube,
𝑨𝒍 + 𝑽 = 𝒌𝑻
𝒌 𝑽
𝒍 = ( )𝑻 −
𝑨 𝑨
• Due to the use of a small tube with a thin wall, when water is stirred well, the temperature of the air
column can be brought closer to the temperature of water.
• The system is stirred well to maintain a uniform temperature distribution across water and to equalize
the temperature trapped in the air column to the temperature of water.
• The mercury thread should be closer to the middle of the tube.
o When located at the bottom, the percentage error in measuring the length of the trapped air
column increases.
o When located at the top, while heating mercury thread(film) can escape from the tube.
• When the system heats up, the volume increases as the mercury film expands, but its pressure does not
change as its density decreases. (The weight of the mercury thread is constant.)
• Trapped air should not be subjected to reactions during the experiment.
• It is best to maintain the initial length of the air column at a value greater than 10𝑐𝑚 at the beginning.
• It is best to use single atomic gases such as 𝐻𝑒, 𝑁𝑒 to bring trapped gas closer to ideal gases.
• Here a tall water beaker is used to keep the trapped air in water always.
• Here a wire mesh is placed over the tripod to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the bottom of
the beaker. And the system is stirred well before taking the readings. This is to maintain a uniform
temperature distribution throughout the water and to remove air bubbles in the tube.
• Wax is not used to seal the end of the tube. This is because if wax is used, when the system heats up,
the wax will melt, and the air column will open to the atmosphere.

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 •When measuring the length of the air column at a certain temperature, the system maintains this
temperature for about 2 minutes by moving the burner away and towards the system after the desired
value has been reached, and while maintaining that the mercury is not oscillating, the length of the air
column is measured.
• The cross section of the tube should be uniform.
• Water or alcohol droplets cannot be used to trap air, because their saturated vapor pressure is high and
varies greatly with temperature. (Saturated vapor does not follow gas laws.)
❖ Past papers – 2018

Determination of the specific heat capacity of a solid substance by the method of mixtures.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A calorimeter, a boiling tube, a quantity of lead shots, a (0 -100) ℃ thermometer, a water heater, a
tripod, a wire gauze, a triple beam balance and a (0 – 50) ℃ thermometer, sufficient water, a stirrer.

Boiling tube
Lead shots

Bunsen burner

➢ Method
• Measure the mass (𝑚1 ) of the well-polished surfaced calorimeter with the stirrer. Fill up to about half of
the calorimeter with water at room temperature and measure the mass (𝑚2 ) again. Put a sufficient
amount of the substance (lead shots) of which the specific heat capacity (𝐶3 ) is to be found into the tube
and heat it with the help of the water heater. After heating till the water boils, measure and record the
temperature (𝜃2 ) of the lead shots when it becomes constant. Now put the heated lead shots instantly
into the water in the calorimeter, stir the mixture well and note down the maximum temperature (𝜃3 )
of the mixture. Use the (0 – 50) ℃ thermometer for this measurement. Finally measure the calorimeter
with its contents and note down the mass (𝑚3 ).
➢ Order of measuring the readings and calculation of readings that obtained.
• Mass of the calorimeter and stirrer = 𝑚1
• Mass of the
(𝐦𝟑 − 𝐦𝟐 )𝐂𝟑 (𝛉𝟐 − 𝛉𝟑 ) = (𝐦𝟐 − 𝐦𝟏 )𝐂𝟐 (𝛉𝟑 − 𝛉𝟏 ) + 𝐦𝟏 𝐂𝟏 (𝛉𝟑 − 𝛉𝟏 ) calorimeter and stirrer
with water = 𝑚2
• Initial temperature of water = 𝜃1
• Temperature of the heated lead shots = 𝜃2
• Maximum temperature of the mixture = 𝜃3
• Mass of the calorimeter with its contents = 𝑚3

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 ➢ Important points
• The calorimeter is made up of copper, so its conductivity is high, therefore temperature in every part of
the vessel quickly reaches the same value.
• The calorimeter is cylindrical so that the liquid can be stirred easily, and the heat loss is reduced by
reducing the surface area.
• When the stirrer is made of the same material as the calorimeter, it can be considered as a part of the
calorimeter and record the heat it transfers.
• The initial volume in the calorimeter should be about half of its volume.
• The starting volume of water in the calorimeter should not be too large.
o Then there is no significant temperature change in the system after the addition of lead shots.
o Water can be spilled out during stirring and addition of lead shots.
• The starting volume of water in the calorimeter should not be too less.
o Direct release of heat into the environment due to inability of the existing water volume to
cover the lead shots.
o Increasing the empty volume of the calorimeter and taking different temperatures at different
places. (Unable to maintain a uniform temperature distribution.)
o Greater heat loss to the environment due to higher final temperature. (Evaporation also occurs.)
• Small pieces of lead should be used to quickly dissipate the heat from lead into water.
• When large pieces of lead are applied,
o Because they take a longer period to heat the water, the longer the test is performed, the
greater the thermal damage to the environment and therefore more errors occur. Then the lead
shots get a lower value for its specific heat capacity. And the final temperature decreases
slightly.
• When lead powder is applied,
o They float in water releasing heat directly into the environment.
o Sticking to the calorimeter or the stirrer.
o Due to the high surface area, large heat loss when adding lead powder to the calorimeter can
cause defects.
• Lead shots are heated to the boiling point of water because it is an easily obtainable higher fixed point.
• After keeping the temperature of the thermometer constant for a longer time, the lead shots should be
added to the calorimeter. (To ensure that the lead shots are heated to the relevant temperature.)
• Once the hot liquid is inserted it must be stirred efficiently so that heat spreads quickly throughout the
calorimeter. Also, after adding lead shots, it should be stirred rapidly. Or if they fall close to the
thermometer as soon as the hot material is inserted, the thermometer can instantly represent a high
temperature.
• It is a mistake not to include the heat transferred by the thermometer.
• Minimize the heat transfer with the environment.
o Cover with thermal insulation material around the calorimeter.
o Finely polish the outer surface of the calorimeter.
▪ This minimizes heat loss from radiation.
• Take the calorimeter with its external covering to the place where the lead shots are being heated. If not
place a heat insulated obstacle between the water heater and the calorimeter.
• When the lead shots are being transferred to the calorimeter, care should be taken to prevent splashing
out of the water in it and to observe the thermometer reading very carefully. Since lead is a good
conductor, the mixture reaches the maximum temperature very soon.

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 • This method can be used to determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid by using the liquid in place of
the water and a substance of known specific heat capacity as the solid substance.

•Cooling refinement (Cooling correction)

o By any means, heat loss from the system to the environment cannot be completely prevented.
Therefore, the cooling correction is carried out in the experiments of the method of mixtures.
o Prior to performing the test, a control test should be applied to a known mass of water to obtain
an approximate amount of lead shots required to increase the temperature by about 10 ℃ from
the room temperature.
o The initial temperature of the system is lowered by 5 ℃ before mixing the heated substance.
The heated substance is then added to the water and mixed well so that the temperature of the
mixture rises by 5 ℃ above the initial temperature.
o The heat gained by the mixture during the 5 ℃ below the initial temperature is expected to
compensate with the heat lost by the mixture during the 5 ℃ above the initial temperature.
Therefore, the amount of heat exchanged with the environment can be considered as zero.
o However, care should be taken to have the initial temperature of the system a few degrees
above the dew point. Unless dew is deposited on the calorimeter. Then after adding lead shots
dew takes heat from, it and evaporates. That is, heat transfer takes place between the
environment and the system.
• A thin plastic cup can be used very successfully instead of a calorimeter in this experiment. This is
because its heat capacity is low, and its surface emission coefficient is low.
• This test is not suitable for finding specific heat capacities of insulating materials. This is because their
heat energy takes longer time to flow into the water. Then the heat loss to the environment increases.
• Here the (0 -100) ℃ thermometer is used to measure the temperature during the heating of the lead
shots and the (0 - 50) ℃ thermometer to measure the temperature in the calorimeter. Since the average
temperature after adding lead shots to the calorimeter is less than 50 ℃, the (0 - 50) ℃ thermometer
can be used to measure the value more sensitively.
❖ Past papers – 2002/2007/2011

To verify the relationship between the pressure and the absolute temperature of a gas at
constant volume
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A beaker of water
• A constant pressure gas apparatus with a pressure gauge
• (0 - 100) ℃ thermometer
• A bunsen burner
• A tripod
• A wire gauze
• A stand
• A stirrer

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 ➢ Method
• Place the bulb of the constant volume apparatus, the thermometer, and the stirrer in the water in the
beaker. Heat the water in the beaker while stirring and when the temperature has risen about 10 ℃
remove the burner and when the temperature becomes still note down the temperature reading and
the pressure gauge reading. Continue to heat the water in the beaker and at every rise of 10 ℃ of
temperature take relevant readings 6 times.

➢ Important points
• The temperature of the water in the heater should be raised very slowly and water should be
continuously stirred.
• The temperature of the air in the tube connecting the bulb and the gauge and the temperature of the air
in bulb do not exist at the same value, the resulting error can be minimized by using a bulb with a large
volume and a capillary tube as the connecting tube.
• The pressure is measured by heating the system and taking the bunsen burner away and towards the
system by keeping the system at the required temperature and checking for any variations in the
pressure gauge and making sure that there is no such variation.
• The system should be stirred well during the experiment. The reason is,
o To maintain the same temperature throughout the water beaker at some point.
o Removal of air bubbles deposited externally in the flask.
• A wire mesh is laid over the tripod to maintain a uniform temperature throughout the bottom of the
water beaker.
• In this test a heating oven cannot be used instead of a bunsen burner. The heat supply cannot be
controlled at any point.
• The experiment is more successful if the flask can be filled with nearly ideal gases such as 𝐻𝑒, 𝑁𝑒 instead
of normal air.
• When immersing the flask in a water beaker, the volume of air should be such that it is below the
meniscus of water.

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 Determination of the specific heat capacity of a liquid by the method of cooling.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A calorimeter having a polished outer surface and containing a lid and a stirrer, a (-10 – 100) ℃
thermometer, an electric fan, a stop clock, a triple beam balance, sufficient water, and the liquid.
➢ Theory
• Considering two warm bodies cooling in a continuous stream of air, if the nature and the areas of
their surfaces and the excess temperatures of the bodies over that of the surroundings are all
identical, then their mean rates of loss of heat will be equal.

• When two liquids of the same volume are allowed to cool under the same conditions using the same
calorimeter, the mass of the empty calorimeter with the stirrer is 𝑚1 , the mass of the calorimeter with
water is 𝑚2 , and the mass of the calorimeter with the liquid is 𝑚3 . Time taken by calorimeter with water
to cool from 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 is 𝑡𝑤 . Time taken by the calorimeter with liquid to cool from 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 is 𝑡𝑙 . Specific
heat capacity of calorimeter metal is 𝐶, specific heat capacity of water is 𝐶𝑤 and specific heat capacity of
liquid is 𝐶𝑙 . Since the mean rates of heat loss are the same,

[𝐦𝐥 𝐂+(𝐦𝟐 −𝐦𝟏 )𝐂𝐰 ](𝛉𝟏 −𝛉𝟐 ) [𝐦𝟏 𝐂+(𝐦𝟑 −𝐦𝟏 )𝐂𝟏 ](𝛉𝟏 −𝛉𝟐 )
=
𝐭𝐰 𝐭𝐥

𝐶𝑙 can be calculated by solving the above equation.

➢ Method
• Measure the mass (𝑚1 ) of the empty calorimeter with the stirrer. Fill up about one centimeter from the
top of the calorimeter with water heated to about 70 ℃, close with the lid and suspend from the stand.
Allow the calorimeter to cool by the continuous flow of air from the electric fan placed near the
calorimeter. While stirring the water continuously observe and note down its temperature at 30 s
intervals till the temperature falls about 40 ℃. Finally measure the mass (𝑚2 ) of the calorimeter and
note it down. Now remove the water from the calorimeter, wipe it well, fill it with an equal volume of
heated liquid and repeat the experiment in the same manner. After recording the readings measure the
mass (𝑚3 ) of the calorimeter with the liquid.
• Draw smoothly the curves of the temperature against time on the same coordinate axes for both water
and liquid. From these temperature – time curves obtain the times taken by the liquid and water
separately to cool within the same temperature interval. Using standard values for 𝐶𝑤 and 𝐶 calculate
the specific heat capacity (𝐶𝑙 ) of the liquid as explained in the theory.

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 • This experiment can also be used for low excess temperatures such as in the range 20 ℃ - 30 ℃ and no
continuous flow of air is required here. However, an environment of still air has to be maintained
around the calorimeter. In the calculation it is more accurate to find the rate of fall of temperature
relevant to a specific excess temperature as shown than finding the mean rate of fall of temperature
over a temperature range.
• Here at temperature 𝜃 a horizontal line is drawn. At the points of intersection of the line with the curves
tangents to the curves should be constructed. (Using a plane mirror.) If the gradient of the tangents is 𝛼1
and 𝛼𝑤 .

𝑑𝜃
( ) = tan αl
𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝑑𝜃
( ) = tan αw
𝑑𝑡 𝑤
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
( ) = [𝑚1 𝐶 + (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝐶𝑤 ] ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 𝑤
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
( ) = [(𝑚3 − 𝑚1 )𝐶1 + 𝑚1 𝐶] ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑙 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
( ) =( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
[𝑚1 𝐶 + (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝐶𝑤 ] ( ) = [𝑚1 𝐶 + (𝑚3 − 𝑚1 )𝐶𝑙 ] ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑤 𝑑𝑡 𝑙
The value of 𝐶𝑙 can be calculated from the above equation.

•How tangents are drawn to the curve

o At a point on the curve, place a narrow plane mirror perpendicular to the curve and mark the
position of the mirror with a pencil until the curved part near the mirror and its reflection
appear to be in the same line without a sharp bend. Create a perpendicular to that straight line
as you go through. This line is the tangent to the curve.
• Here the calorimeter is filled with about 90 % of liquid. This is because the calorimeter maintains a
uniform temperature distribution across the outer surface of the calorimeter by approximately
equalizing the surface and liquid temperatures.
• The system must be stirred well before obtaining each temperature reading. This is because the
temperature of the liquid is measured as the temperature of the outer surface of the calorimeter.
Hence, in order to equalize the temperatures the system is stirred well.
• The calorimeter is hung by insulating wires to prevent the heat loss from conduction.
• The calorimeter is closed with an insulating lid to prevent heat loss from evaporation from the surface of
the liquid.
• If Aniline is used as the other liquid, it will not be heated to a temperature above 70 ℃. This is because
Aniline ignites when heated to a higher temperature.
• A polished calorimeter can be used to minimize heat loss from radiation.
❖ Past papers – 2006/2017

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 Determination of specific latent heat of fusion of ice by the method of mixtures.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A calorimeter, a square net stirrer, sufficient quantity of ice (0 ℃), filter papers, a thermometer, an
electronic balance or a four-beam balance.
➢ Method
• Measure the mass (𝑚1 ) of the calorimeter with the stirrer and then fill about 2⁄3 of the calorimeter
with water at room temperature and measure its mass (𝑚2 ) again.
• Measure the initial temperature (𝜃1 ) of the system(water). Wipe out water from small pieces of ice
using filter paper and put those one by one into the water in the calorimeter while stirring, taking care
to insert one piece after the previous one has dissolved. Use a square net stirrer to prevent the ice from
floating in water.
• When the temperature of the water has fallen sufficiently (by about 5 ℃) stop adding ice, stir the
mixture well and record the lowest temperature of the mixture (𝜃2 ). Finally measure the mass of the
calorimeter with its contents again (𝑚3 ).
➢ Readings and calculations
• The mass of an empty calorimeter with a stirrer = 𝑚1
• Mass of the calorimeter with water = 𝑚2
• The initial temperature of the system = 𝜃1
• Minimum temperature of the system when mixed with ice = 𝜃2
• Mass of the calorimeter with final contents = 𝑚3
• Specific heat capacity of water = 𝐶𝑤
• Specific heat capacity of calorimeter metal = 𝐶𝑙
• Specific heat capacity of fusion of ice = 𝐿

Heat lost by water and calorimeter (with stirrer) = Heat gained by ice

𝒎𝟏 𝑪𝟏 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) + (𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 )𝑪𝒘 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) = (𝒎𝟑 − 𝒎𝟐 )𝑳 + (𝒎𝟑 − 𝒎𝟐 )𝑪𝒘 (𝜽𝟐 − 𝟎)

❖ Important points
• Things to consider when adding ice cubes.
o Add one piece of ice at a time.
o Ice cubes should be added so that water does not spill out.
o When adding ice cubes, the 0 ℃ water should be removed by using a filter paper. (Here, if 0 ℃
water is added, 𝐿 gets a lower value.)
• Ice cubes should be completely immersed in water using a square net stirrer. Or because ice floats on
the surface of water, it absorbs heat directly from the atmosphere to melt. (This causes an error in the
calculation.)
• The final minimum temperature of the system should be maintained above the dew point. If the
temperature drops below the dew point, heat is released directly into the calorimeter during deposition
of dew. (Approximate dew point must be found before the experiment.)
• As ice adds to the calorimeter and continues the test, the temperature of the calorimeter drops below
room temperature. The system absorbs heat from the environment. This error can be minimized by
covering the calorimeter with thermal insulating materials.
• Since the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is much higher than the specific heat capacities of the
calorimeter and water, the mass of the ice added must be found vey accurately because ice mass

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 needed for the experiment is very small. (The most possible reason for the error in mass measurement
is the addition of liquid water with ice.)
• Here, as in previous experiments, cooling correction is used to reduce heat transfer.
• The initial temperature of the system is raised to about 5 ℃ above the room temperature and the final
minimum temperature of the system is brought to about 5 ℃ below the room temperature.
• In this experiment, heat absorption from the external environment can occur. Since this is not included
in the calculations, the value obtained for 𝐿 is low.
• Small ice cubes must be used in this test.
i. If a large ice cube is used :
o In the middle if the ice cube ice may exist at temperatures below 0 ℃. (This gives a
higher value for 𝐿.)
o The final minimum temperature of the test is difficult to control. (Temperature goes
below the dew point.)
o The longer it takes to complete the test, the greater the heat transfer with the
environment. Therefore, errors can occur.
ii. Ice powder cannot be used :
o Then a large mass of water is added to the system with it.
❖ Past papers – 2005/2012

Determination of the specific latent heat of vaporization of water

by the method of mixtures.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A calorimeter, a stirrer, a steam generator, a steam trap, a bunsen burner, a tripod, a wire mesh, a four-
beam balance or a chemical balance, thermal insulating materials, a thermometer and asbestos or
rigifoam sheet (insulating sheet), (0 - 50) ℃ thermometer.

➢ Method
• Measure the mass (𝑚1 ) of the calorimeter with the stirrer. Fill about 2⁄3rd of the calorimeter with water
at room temperature and measure the mass (𝑚2 ).
• Measure the initial temperature of the system (𝜃1 ).
• As the steam continues to be emitted from the steam generator through the steam trap, place the
calorimeter as shown in the figure and allow the steam to hit the water surface.
• Stir the mixture well and after its temperature has risen by about 10 ℃ stop mixing the steam.
• After stirring to reach the maximum temperature note down the temperature (𝜃2 )
• Finally measure the mass (𝑚3 ) of the calorimeter with its contents.

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 ➢ Readings and calculations
• Mass of the calorimeter with the stirrer = 𝑚1
• Mass of the calorimeter with water = 𝑚2
• The initial temperature of the system = 𝜃1
• Final temperature of the system after adding steam = 𝜃2
• Final mass of the system = 𝑚3
• Specific heat capacity of water = 𝐶𝑤
• Specific heat capacity of the calorimeter =𝐶

Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by calorimeter and water

(𝒎𝟑 − 𝒎𝟐 )(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽𝟐 )𝑪𝒘 + (𝒎𝟑 − 𝒎𝟐 )𝑳 = (𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 )(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )𝑪𝒘 + 𝒎𝟏 𝑪(𝜽𝟐 − 𝜽𝟏 )

➢ Important points
• In this test the calorimeter is not well covered with a lid to minimize heat transfer between the system
and the environment. This is because if the calorimeter is closed with a lid, the steam that stays in it will
add heat to the water by releasing heat into the outside environment through the lid and becoming
water droplets. But the latent heat emitted when that steam becomes water is not included in that
equation. The test is therefore erroneous.
• An asbestos plate will be placed between the bunsen burner and the calorimeter to prevent heat
reaching the calorimeter directly from the bunsen burner.
• If steam condenses and water is added to the calorimeter in any way, the water will not receive any
latent heat, and the specific latent heat of evaporation is much greater than the specific heat capacity of
water, resulting in a large percentage error.
• Since the specific latent heat of evaporation is much greater than the specific heat capacities of water
and the calorimeter, the steam mass should be measured accurately. If there is a small error in taking
this pile, the percentage error in the end result is very high.
• A polished calorimeter is placed in an external container surrounded by a thermal insulation material to
minimize the error occurred due to heat loss. But the compensation method is high in accuracy. When
testing under those methods, it should be done under constant environmental conditions. The use of
heat prevention methods is also not required.
• In this test, the initial temperature
is brought to about 5 ℃ below the
room temperature and the final
maximum temperature of the
system is brought to about 5 ℃
above room temperature by adding
steam. Thus, the lower
temperature at which the water is
carried should be higher than the
dew point. This compensation
method is not a method of
minimizing heat loss. This allows heat to be lost and replenishes that damage.
• Tube A;
o This is used to check the water level in the steam generator.
• Tube B;
o This is used to verify the pressure in the steam generator is at the atmospheric
pressure.
o If the pressure in the steam generator exceeds the atmospheric pressure, the boiling
temperature of the water in it will change by more than 100 ℃.

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 o If the rate at which steam is removed from pipe C is not sufficient and steam
accumulates in the generator and an increase in internal pressure occurs, the water
column can be observed to be rise through pipe B.
o Then the bunsen burner can be removed to reduce the rate at which the steam is
produced and bring back the pressure in the steam generator to atmospheric pressure.
o If this safety pipe is shortened, hot water can be thrown out. Therefore, this pipe should
be of sufficient height.
o If a large amount of steam comes out of the pipe, it is not sink in water.
• Tube C;
o This is the pipe that takes the steam out of the steam generator. The bottom end of the
steam generator should be well above the water level.
o This should be well thermal insulated. Or as steam passes through the tube, it releases
heat into the external environment and turns into water. This can cause a large amount
of water to accumulate in the pipe.
o If water is accumulated in this way, the pipe should be slightly raised and send water
into the steam generator itself.
• Steam trap;
o The steam leaving through the tube C is not added directly to the calorimeter, but it is
collected through the steam trap to remove the water that condenses during that
passage.
o The ends of the inlet and outlet pipes should be slightly apart from each other. If they
get too close, the steam can escape before the steam trap fills with steam.
o The inside end of the tube carrying the steam out of the trap should be slightly above
from the bottom of the trap. Or else water that condenses in the trap can go to the
calorimeter.
o Do not send steam to the calorimeter until the trap is full of steam and the steam is well
out of it.
o The end of the tube of the steam trap should be placed close to the water surface so
that the steam hits the Water surface well. If the ends are submerged in water, the
proximal part of the water cools, allowing the steam to condense in the tube before
entering into the water.
• In this test, if condensed water is added to the calorimeter, the value of 𝐿 is lower.
❖ Past papers – 2000/2014

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 Determination of relative humidity of air using a polished calorimeter.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• 2 calorimeters with polished outer surfaces, a sufficient amount of ice chips, a stirrer, 2 (0 - 50) ℃
thermometers, a sheet of glass, 2 stands.
➢ Method
• Wipe out well the outer surface of the calorimeters and fill about half of one calorimeter with water. Fix
the thermometers 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 as shown in the figure. Also fix the sheet of glass in front of the
calorimeters to prevent your exhaled air reaching the calorimeters.
• Insert ice chips into water in the calorimeter one after the other while stirring.
• Observe the beginning of the
tarnishing of the calorimeter
surface due to depositing of
dew by comparing the surface
with the outer surface of the
other calorimeter.
• In the situation where dew
begins to deposit, observe,
and note down the reading
(𝜃1 ) of the thermometer 𝑇1
inserted into the calorimeter
containing water.
• Now stop adding ice and continue stirring to allow the temperature of the water to rise. When the shine
of the calorimeter begins to reappear indicating the vanishing of dew, observe the reading (𝜃2 ) of the
same thermometer 𝑇1 and note it down.
• Finally observe and record the room temperature (𝜃𝑅 ) from the thermometer 𝑇2 .
➢ Readings and calculations
• Temperature at which dew deposits = 𝜃1
• Temperature at which dew vanishes = 𝜃2
• Room temperature = 𝜃𝑅
(𝜃 +𝜃 )
Dew point = 1 2 2
• Then find the saturated vapour pressure 𝑃0 at dew point
and the saturated water vapour pressure 𝑃 at room
temperature using the following saturated vapour
pressure table. Relative humidity can be calculated by
substituting those values for the equation in the figure
above.

➢ Important points
• Here a well-polished calorimeter is used not to minimize
the heat loss but to observe the dew deposition on the
outer surface.
• The temperature should be recorded as soon as the dew
deposits on the outer surface begins, and in practice this
is slightly lower than the dew point.
• The temperature should be measured again as soon as
the maximum dew starts to drop, and here the
temperature we are measuring is slightly higher than the dew point. But by taking the mean value, the
dew point can be reached correctly.

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 •In this test, if the observer faces the calorimeter and make the relevant observations, if the exhaled air
hits the calorimeter, the dew may be observed before the dew deposits on the outer surface. This is
because the density of water vapour in the exhaled air is higher than in the inhaled air. Then it saturates
even if it hits a slightly cool surface. To prevent this, a glass plate is placed between the observer and the
calorimeter.
❖ Past papers – 2003/2016

Determination of the thermal conductivity of a metal by Searle’s method.

➢ Materials and apparatus

•
Searle’s apparatus, 2 (-10 - 110) ℃ thermometers, 2 (0 - 50) ℃ mercury thermometers, a steam
generator, a constant pressure apparatus, vernier caliper, 1000 𝑚𝑙 beaker, a stop clock, an electronic
balance, or a triple beam balance.
➢ Method
• First open the wooden box and using the vernier caliper measure 2 diameters (𝑑1 , 𝑑2 ) of the conducting
rod in two directions normal to each other to get the mean diameter. (2 perpendicular readings in three
places for a more accurate value.) Also using the vernier caliper measure distances (𝑙1 ) from inside and
(𝑙2 ) from outside between the thermometer 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 (-10 - 100) ℃ with the help of the outer jaws and
the inner jaws of the caliper. Close the box now to provide heat insulation.
• Add a little mercury to the tube where 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 thermometers are placed to ensure a good thermal
contact with the thermometer and mount all four thermometers as shown in the figure. Use the upper
inlet of the steam chamber to admit steam so that the chamber will be completely filled with steam
throughout the experiment. Connect the water outlet of the constant pressure apparatus to the 𝑇4
thermometer chamber so that the incoming stream of water would oppose and meet directly the heat
conducted along the rod.
• Note down the readings of the four thermometers at five-minute time intervals. When all these four
readings become constant indicating steady state record the four readings 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 ,𝜃4 . If it is sufficient
to measure the difference between the readings of the thermometers, place the beaker of mass(𝑚)
under the outlet pipe, and measure the time(𝑡) taken to add about 500 𝑚𝑙 by the timer. If the
difference in temperature readings 𝑇3 and 𝑇4 is not large enough, adjust the height(𝐻) to suit the
desired temperature difference.

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 ➢ Readings and calculations
• In steady state, the temperature of the thermometers 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 are 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , 𝜃3,𝜃4 respectively. Let
the mass of water be 𝑚𝑤 , the length of the rod between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 is 𝑙, the diameter of the rod is 𝑑, the
thermal conductivity of the material of which the rod is made is 𝑘 and the specific heat capacity of water
is 𝐶𝑤 .

➢ Important points
• This method can only be use for conductive materials that conduct heat axially over considerable
distances. This method cannot be used for thermal insulation materials such as glass, wood, rubber as
such materials do not conduct heat axially over a considerable distance.
• Constant pressure liquid level device:- This is used to send water through a copper pipe at a uniform
speed. At the beginning, the constant pressure fluid level device is raised and lowered and mounted on
the support until the water continues to flow slowly through the copper tube.
• Constant pressure fluid level device should not be installed at high altitudes. If this is done, the flow of
water through the copper tube will increase and the temperature difference of the water will be very
small.
• A small amount of mercury is added into the holes where thermometers are placed, to allow good
thermal contact with the conductor rod.
• The volume cannot be measured instead of measuring the mass of water collected in this test. This is
because water expands when heated and its density does not exceed 1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Therefore, the mass
of water cannot be obtained by multiplying the volume by 1000.
• The steam must enter through the upper opening of the steam chamber.

𝝅𝒅𝟐 (𝜽𝟏 −𝜽𝟐 )

The rate at which heat flows along the rod in steady state = 𝒌 𝟒 𝒍

𝒎𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (𝜽𝟑 −𝜽𝟒 )
The rate at which heat is removed by water =
𝒕

When the heat loss to the external environment is not considered,

The rate at which heat flows through the rods = The rate at which water removes heat

𝝅𝒅𝟐 (𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 ) 𝒎 𝒘 𝑪𝒘 (𝜽𝟑 − 𝜽𝟒 )

𝒌 =
𝟒 𝒍 𝒕
o Or the steam cannot be retained in the chamber for a longer time. (Because the density of
steam is less than the density of the air, when it enters from below, the steam quickly rises to
the top and leave the chamber.)
o Also, if the steam enters the lower hole, the water will be blocked as the steam will release the
heat and try to move away from the lower hole.
• Some devices have a larger lower mouth and a smaller upper mouth. The steam in such devices can be
sent through the bottom pipe. Then the incoming steam is then adjusted to fill the chamber.
❖ Past papers – 2008/2019

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