MCL140

THERMODYNAICS
Prabal Talukdar
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
prabal@mech.iitd.ac.in

MECH/IITD
 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is science of energy
• Meaning of thermodynamics: stems from greek words:
“Therme” means heat, “dynamics” means power.
• 1st law: Energy conservation
• 2nd law: Quality and quantity of energy
• Pioneer: Kelvin, Clausis, Rankine
• Classical and Statistical thermodynamics

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 History
• The first and second laws of thermodynamics
emerged simultaneously in the 1850s, primarily out
of the works of William Rankine, Rudolph Clausius,
and Lord Kelvin (formerly William Thomson).
• The term thermodynamics was first used in a
publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849.
• The first thermodynamic textbook was written in
1859 by William Rankine, a Professor at the
University of Glasgow.

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 Applications

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 Units
• English and metric SI unit

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 System, Control Volumes

Open system – control volume

Closed system – control mass
Isolated system

A closed system with a

moving boundary.
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 Control Volume

An open system (a
control volume)
with one inlet and
one exit.

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 Property of a System
• Any characteristics of a system is called a property e.g. pressure,
temperature, volume, mass etc.

• Intensive: Independent of mass

• Extensive: values depends on size or extent of the system

• Density

• Specific Properties - Specific volume…..

• Specific Gravity
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 State and Equilibrium
• State – In a state all the properties of a system remain same

• Equilibrium – means there is no unbalanced potential (or driving

forces) within the system
– Thermal, Mechanical, Phase, Chemical Eq.

• The state Postulate

– The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by
two independent, intensive properties.
– T = f(P) during a phase-change process;
thus, temperature and pressure are not
sufficient to fix the state of a two-phase system.

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 Continuum

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 Process and Cycles
• Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another is called a process
• Path: the series of states through which a system passes during
process is called the path of the process

• Cycle: A system is said to have undergone a cycle, if it returns to its

initial state at the end of the process
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 Quasi-equilibrium process

Steady/Uniform
Steady flow devices

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 Quasi-equilibrium process

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 Temperature and Zeroth Law
• Thermal Equilibrium ? – attains same temperature – contact
required
• Zeroth law helps us to determine that two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even they are
NOT in contact.

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 Temperature and Zeroth Law
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.

• Third body can be assumed as a thermometer

• The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R. H. Fowler in

1931
• Temperature is a thermodynamic property that determines whether
or not a system is in thermal equilibrium with another system.

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 Temperature scale
All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as
the freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the ice point
and steam point
Two point scale – Celsius and Fahrenheit scale

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 Temperature scale - one point
or two points

Before 1954 After 1954

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 Temperature Scales
• In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale
that is independent of the properties of any substance or substances.
Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic temperature
scale – will discuss more in conjunction with 2nd law
• Kelvin scale (SI), Rankine scale (English)
• A temperature scale that turns out to be nearly identical to the
Kelvin scale is the ideal-gas temperature scale. The temperatures
on this scale are measured using a constant-volume gas
thermometer, which is basically a rigid vessel filled with a gas,
usually hydrogen or helium, at low pressure.
• This thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures, the
temperature of a gas is proportional to its pressure at constant
volume. The relationship between the temperature and the pressure
of the gas in the vessel can be expressed as T = a + bP

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 Ideal gas-temperature scale
• If the ice and steam points are
assigned the values 0°C and
100°C, respectively, then the
gas temperature scale will be
identical to the Celsius scale.
• In this case the value of the
constant a (which corresponds
to an absolute pressure of
zero) is determined to be
-273.15°C regardless of the
type and the amount of the
gas in the vessel of the gas
thermometer.

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 • An absolute gas
temperature scale can be
achieved by assigning a
value of zero to the
constant a . In that case
Eq. reduces to T = bP,
• and thus we need to
specify the temperature at
only one point to define an
absolute gas temperature
scale.
Kelvin scale

Rankine scale

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 Constant Volume Gas
Thermometer
T = bp
T P
=
Tref Pref
T P
=
273.16 Pt .p.w .

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 Pressure
Normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called pressure

Variation of pressure with depth

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zontal direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law, after
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). Pascal also knew that the force applied by a

Pressure
fluid is proportional to the surface area. He realized that two hydraulic
cylinders of different areas could be connected, and the larger could be used

Patm

Water

B C D E G
A F

PA = PB = PC = PD = PE = PF = PG = Patm + rgh Mercury

PH ≠ PI
H I

FIGURE 1–43
The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the
points are interconnected by the same fluid.

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ometer
id column to aof manageable
height h is in level, heavy
F2 fluids
F1 equilibrium,
static andsuch
2 is as
Fit A2
pressure P1 ! P2 are
differences S anticipated.
! S ! (1–2
ere.
F2
!
Then
erF1shown
A2
A
the
in
pressure
Fig. Manometer
at point
(1–22)
1–45
2
A1is determined
A2 directly
that is used to measure the
F1 A1
area ratio A2/A1 is
1
the gravitational called
effects of the ideal
gases are mechanical
negligible, theadvantage of th
P 2 ! Patm
ulic lift.advantage
Using # rgh
a hydraulic car jack with a piston (1–23)
area ratio of A2/A1
anical of the
tank and at position 1 has the same value. Further-
yr example,
stonof area
the fluid
ratioa in
person /Acan
oftheA2tube. lift athat
!Note 1000-kg car by applying a force of ju
the cross-sectional
luid does not vary in the horizontal direction within
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gf
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effect
y applying on N).
the differential
a force of justheight h, and thus the pres-
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uid.2 However,
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diameter at point
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olumn
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the surface and it is
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Then ■
THE
the
risepressureMANOMETER
at point 2 is determined directly
is negligible.
otice from Eq. 1–18 that an elevation change of "z in a fluid at re
eponds
of "z
P2to !in"P/rg,
Paatmfluid
# rgh at restsuggests that a fluid column
which (1–23) can be used
dMeasuring
ure column
pressure Pressure
can be used withtoaAManometer
differences. device based on this principle is called
the fluid
this
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and is commonly used has and moderate pre
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Adifferential
manometerpres-height
mainly and thusofthea pres-
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To to that the surfacelevel,
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nsider the manometer shown in Fig. 1–45 that is used to measure th
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at is used to measure the
 Measurement of Pressure
Pgage = Pabsolute - Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabsolute

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 Multifluid Manometer

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