Lecture in Research 2022 GENERIC Part 1 1

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CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Philip Bautista Magtaan, RCrim, PhD Crim

Associate Professor III
Copyright, 2022
by:
Philip B. Magtaan
All Rights Reserved
The content of this lecture notes or any part hereof may not be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including
copying, recording, storage in any informational retrieval system, or otherwise
without prior permission of the author.
Any unauthorized copying, reproduction, or dissemination of any part of this note
shall be prosecuted in accordance with the law.
Author can be reached at +639275034477 or philip041187@gmail.om or

fb.com/philip041187 or @philipmagtaan (IG)
2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

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PREFACE
This lecture notes focuses on how writing research paper/thesis is done,

and the applicable statistical tools, understanding the different parts of the
thesis, their interplay, and the governing rules in writing a technical paper, the
development of a research problem, the instrument, the data gathering methods,
and the treatment of the data collected.
This also covers the presentation, demonstration, proposal and defense of
the study conducted. It includes the research methods, and designs applicable to
the conduct of criminological research, the conduct of qualitative and
quantitative research in the fields of Criminology and Criminal Justice, data
gathering, data analysis and interpretation, conclusions, and recommendations of
the study conducted.
PBM

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author expresses his profound gratitude and appreciation to the

reference materials used in compiling of this notes most especially to the
following:
My former and current deans;
My colleagues in the academe and in the Philippine National Police;
To my loving wife, Maria Racy Alcantara-Magtaan, who also support and

inspire me to my endeavor and career in teaching.
To all the HEIs in Batangas where I am connected and for having me as

part-time instructor and for inspiring to produce this lecture notes for students so
that they will be competitive in this subject in the board examination.
Above all, to the Almighty God for wisdom and bountiful blessings.
Dr. Philip

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DEDICATION
This piece of work is
humbly dedicated to you
who reads
this lecture.
This is also dedicated to
LUIS BRIAN ALCANTARA-MAGTAAN
and
LENNEL BRENTT ALCANTARA-MAGTAAN.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Philip Bautista Magtaan is a graduate of BS Criminology at Lipa City

Colleges on 2007 and became a holder of PRC License Number 0032404 on the
same year. In 2010, he obtained his MS Criminology Degree at Metro Manila
College in Novaliches, Quezon City with the thesis entitled “EFFECTIVENESS
OF FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION AS PERCEIVED BY POLICE
INVESTIGATORS OF BATANGAS PROVINCE”. The author also obtained the
degree Doctor of Philosophy in Criminal Justice major in Criminology at De La
Salle University – Dasmariñas in 2021 with High Distinction. His dissertation is
entitled “DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-CULTURAL PROFILES AS
CORRELATE TO ADMINISTRATIVE OFFENSE OF THE MEMBERS OF
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE IN CALABARZON” which was awarded as
outstanding dissertation on the same year. This dissertation was also published
in the international journal.
Aside from being a Police Officer, he is a part-time College Instructor at
Lipa City Colleges (2007-2014), University of Batangas-Lipa Campus (2014-
2015), Koleheyo ng Lungsod ng Lipa (KLL), Tanauan Institute, Lyceum of the
Philippines University-Batangas, FAITH Colleges, and guest lecturer in different
review centers and PNP Training Centers. As police officer, he obtained different
training and been assigned in various positions particularly investigation,
intelligence and police operations.
In his decade of teaching, he is teaching various subjects in BS
Criminology, Graduate Studies in Criminal Justice and Licensure Examination
Review Classes.

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Policies on Thesis Writing
1. Topics must be related to the field of criminology, crime causation, law enforcement,
curriculum development and other professions in the field of criminal justice.
2. The statement of the problem must cover a body of knowledge, existing phenomena
and be supported by related literature and studies.
3. The conduct of research is a group effort and they must present their manuscript at
the end of the semester for pre-oral and final defense, respectively.
4. The group is composed of ___ members per group selected at the discretion of the
research professor.
5. The students will propose a topic and develop a topic from their chosen interest in
the field of criminology and criminal justice. They should prepare a plan or GANTT
chart so that the deadline will be met and accomplish all the tasks.
6. The research professor will be the resident adviser in the conduct of the study. As an
adviser, he/she will manage the time for consultation in the development of the
study. He/she will align the problem to the contents of the study. The adviser
ensures that the research follows the standard format set forth by the institution.
During the defense, the adviser will help the students in answering and justifying the
study. And finally, guide the students to finish the research before the end of the
school year.
7. The panel of examiners must ensure the quality of research and conforms to the
standard set by the institution. They will give constructive comments on the
improvement and refinement of the study by determining the appropriate
significance in the field of criminology, statement of the problems, verify the results
and evaluate the recommendation given based on the results of the study.
8. The statistician or anyone who is selected by the students is responsible to apply the
correct statistical tools to achieve the objectives of the study.
9. The grammarian will make sure that the use of grammar is correct prior to its final
output and subsequent submission to the Dean of College and School Library.

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Thesis Contents
1. Preliminary Sections
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Acknowledgment
d. Dedication
e. Table of Contents
f. List of Tables
g. List of Figures
h. List of Appendices
i. Thesis Abstract
2. Narrative Parts
a. Introduction
i. Background of the Study
ii. Conceptual or Theoretical Framework and Paradigm of the Study
iii. Statement of the Problem
iv. Hypotheses
v. Scope and Limitations
vi. Literature Review
vii. Definition of Terms
b. Methods
i. Research Design
ii. Population and Sampling Techniques
iii. Research Instrument
iv. Data Gathering Procedures
v. Statistical Tools
vi. Ethical Consideration
c. Results and Discussion
i. Conclusion
ii. Recommendations
d. References
e. Appendices
f. Curriculum Vitae
3. Style and Format

a. Margin
Top – 1.50’
Bottom – 1.00’
Left – 1.25’
Right – 1.00’
b. Font and Spacing
Font style – Times New Roman or Arial

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Font size
Paragraph – 12
Title – it depends as long as the title become an inverted triangle
Paragraph
Title – Center
Body – Justified
Indention – 0.5”
Spacing
Before and after – 0 points
c. Line Spacing
Table text – single space
Paragraph – double space
Abstract – 1.5 space
d. Page
– position of page number is Top of Page (Right Align)
– hide the page number of the first page of every section
– pages in title page up to abstract must be (i, ii, iii, …)
– pages in Introduction onwards must be (1, 2, 3, …)
4. Title page (see sample)

5. Prepare the approval sheet (see sample)
6. Acknowledgment (see sample)
7. Dedication (see sample)
8. Table of contents
9. Thesis Abstract
 State the brief objectives
 Method Used, Data Gathering Instrument, Respondents of the Study
 Statistical Tools Used
 Summary of Conclusion
 Summary of Recommendations

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THE NATURE AND RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH
Research has been recognized as a vital tool for solving man’s multifarious
problems and in making his life richer and fuller.
The Meaning of Research

The word research is derived from the prefix re, which means to repeat or redo,
and the root word search, which means to find or look for. From the etymology of this
word, research literally means to repeat looking for something, which had been existed
before. Let us examine how research has been defined by experts.
 Research is concerned with finding answers (Mason & Bramble, 1989). It is a
systematic, organized search for knowledge or answers to questions.
 It is a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing. Schumacher
(1989)
 It is the process of obtaining knowledge through techniques, where truth,
accuracy, validity, reliability, and other criteria can be ascertained (Genato, et al,
1993)
 It is a critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation, having for its aim
the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of
accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of newly discovered facts or
the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws (Leedy, 1993)
 It is a systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve problems
(Emory, 1995)
 It is a systematic and empirical approach to answering questions (Bieger and
Gail, 1996). It is concerned with understanding a phenomenon, within the
context of our theories and experiences regarding the phenomenon.
 It is the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an
investigation of new facts, leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods,
or improvements.
Characteristics of Research

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1. Systematic – It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a

researcher has to observe in solving a problem.
2. Objective – It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have
to be gathered by the researcher before making any conclusion or proposing any
solution to an identified difficulty or problem.
3. Comprehensive – If a researcher is serious about understanding a
phenomenon, he has to examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before
making a generalization or conclusion.
4. Critical – This means that procedures employed by the researcher must be able
to withstand critical security by other researchers.
5. Rigorous – It is rigorous as procedures to be followed in solving a problem
should be relevant, appropriate, justified, and strictly observed.
6. Valid – Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these are based on
actual findings.
7. Verifiable – Research is said to be verifiable as other researchers can check on
the correctness of its results by replicating the study, based on the methods and
procedures employed by the researcher.
8. Empirical – Research is empirical as generalization drawn by a researcher is
rooted upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences or observations.
Purpose of Research
1. To serve man
2. Good life
3. Understanding
4. Improve judgment
5. Add to his power
6. Reduce the burden of work
7. Relieve suffering
8. Increase satisfaction
The Types of Research

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There are different ways of classifying research. Based on who undertakes

research, research can be either academic research or a research project.
1. Academic research is one conducted by an individual in fulfilling the
requirements for the conferment of an academic title or degree. Baby theses
master's theses, feasibility studies, and doctoral dissertations fall under this type
of research.
2. A research project is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of

individuals as part of their professional work or assignment.
Types of Research based on Research Design

1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavors to describe
systematically, factually, accurately and objectively a situation, problem or
phenomenon.
2. Correctional/associational research. In this type of research, the
investigator tries to probe the significance of the relationship between two or
more factors or characteristics.
3. Explanatory research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify
why and how a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
4. Exploratory research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator
is after probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research
problem.
5. Experimental research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into
the cause of an effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or
more treatments or conditions.
6. Ex-post facto/causal-comparative research. It is this type when the
investigator delves into analyzing the possible effect of a factor that cannot be
manipulated and controlled.
7. Historical research. This research attempts to reconstruct the past objectively
and accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use
of data taken from the past.

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8. Ethnographic research. This type of research is done when the researcher is

concerned with explaining or describing a phenomenon holistically, with the use
of multiple data collection techniques.
Types of Research according to Data Collection

a. Qualitative - Involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results
through statistical summary or analysis.
 Concerned with understanding human behavior from the actor’s own frame
of reference
 Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation
 Subjective
 Close to the data: the ‘insider’ perspective
 Grounded, discovery-oriented, expansionist, descriptive, and inductive
 Process-oriented
 Valid: ‘real’, ‘rich’, and ‘deep’ data
 Ungeneralizable
b. Quantitative - Involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain
their findings.
 Seeks facts or causes of the social phenomenon without regard to the
subjective states of the individuals
 Obtrusive and controlled measurement
 Objective
 Removed from the data: the ‘outsider’ perspective
 Ungrounded, verification-oriented, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential, and
hypothetical-deductive
 Outcome-oriented
 Reliable: ‘hard’ and replicable data
 Generalizable
Types of Criminological Research

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1. Action Research (to develop new skills or new approaches and to solve
problems with direct application to the workplace or other applied setting)
2. Survey (descriptive) Research (to know of interest “what is”; typically
employs questionnaires and interviews to determine attitudes, opinions,
preferences, and perceptions of interest to the researcher)
a. Close-ended Questionnaire (pre-categorized by the researcher’s
words)
b. Open-ended Questionnaire (in respondent’s words)
3. Observational Research (collecting direct information about human behavior)
4. Historical Research (investigating documents and other sources that contains
facts that existed in the past; “What was”)
5. Evaluation Research (to study processes and procedures for the improvement
of a system)
Features Common to All Researches

1. Universality – could be carried out by any competent person other than yourself.
2. Replication – Should be repeatable
3. Control – Parameters are important
4. Measured – data could be measured, evaluated or quantified.
Distinct Characteristics of Research

1. Research originates with a question.
2. Research demands a clear articulation of goals.
3. Research requires a specific plan or procedure.
4. Research usually divides the principal problem into manageable sub-problems.
5. Research deals with facts and their meaning.
6. Research is, by its nature, circular.
Ethical Considerations in Research

1. Veracity/Accurate Analysis and Reporting (obligation to tell the truth, not to lie or
deceive others)

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2. Privacy (obligation to maintain the state or condition of limited access to a

person)
3. Anonymity and Confidentiality (obligation not to divulge information discovered
without the permission of the subject)
4. Fidelity (obligation to remain faithful to one’s commitments, which includes
keeping promises and maintaining confidentiality)
5. Informed consent (seeking permission to the person/guardian)
6. No Harm (obligation not to inflict harm/endanger either physical or psychological
or socially)
7. Voluntary Participation
8. Avoiding Deception (reveal the real purpose of the research)
The Research Process

1. IDEA-GENERATING PHASE. Research begins with an idea in which the
research has an interest. It is in this phase wherein the researcher has to identify
topics that interest him most.
2. PROBLEM-DEFINITION PHASE. As the ideas generated in the first phase are
very general or vague, the researcher has to refine them. This is the problem
definition phase.
3. PROCEDURES-DESIGN PHASE. After identifying the problems and
hypothesis, the researcher has to decide on the methods and procedures he will
use in the collection and analysis of data.
4. DATA-COLLECTION PHASE. After preparing the research plan, the researcher
has to proceed with gathering the data from the subjects of the study. It is in
this phase where the procedures, devised in the previous step, are implemented
by the researcher rigorously.
5. DATA-ANALYSIS PHASE. In this particular phase, the researcher analyzes the
collected data from the previous step, based on his data analysis plan.
6. INTERPRETATION PHASE. Having analyzed the data, the researcher
continues to make sense out of them by interpreting the results in terms of how
they aid in responding to the research problem posed at the beginning of the
study, and how this answer contributes to knowledge in the field.

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7. COMMUNICATION PHASE. After completing the data analysis and

interpretation phases, the researcher has to prepare a written or oral report of
the study conducted, either for publication or presentation to colleagues or a
panel of experts. This report has to include a description of all the above steps in
the research process.
The Research Problem

A Problem (Dewey) is any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real
or artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking. The problem is the heart of
any research project. Without a focused research problem, there is no research.
These factors are briefly discussed below:
1. NOVEL. When considering a research topic, the research has to focus on one
which has not been investigated before.
2. RELEVANT. The results of the study on given problems should be of practical
value to the researcher and the significant others in the field.
3. INTERESTING. The research needs to consider his interest in the choice of a
research problem.
4. FEASIBLE. This means that a problem that an investigator is going to work on
can be completed without an undue amount of time, money or effort.
5. RESEARCHABLE. Data can be collected to answer the problem posed by the
researcher.
6. ETHICAL. A problem is said to be ethical when it does not involve physical or
psychological harm or damage to human beings or organizations.
Characteristics of Good Research Problem

S – specific
M – measurable
A – attainable
R – realistic
T – time bounded

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Sources of Research Problem

1. Actual problem encountered.
2. Technological changes and curricular development.
3. The graduate academic experience.
4. Consultation.
5. Specialization.
6. Analysis of an area of knowledge.
7. Consideration of existing practices and needs.
8. Repetition and extension of the investigation.
9. Off-shot of studies underway.
Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation (why)
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated (what)
3. The place or location where the research is to be conducted (where)
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered (when)
5. Population from whom the data are to be collected (who)
Guidelines in the selection of research problem or topic:

1. The research topic or problem must be chosen by the researcher himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be
able to find difficult funding for his research.
6. It is researchable and manageable that is:
a. Data are available and accessible.
b. Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability.
c. Answers to the specific questions (subproblems) can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted
and rejected. Equipment and instruments for research are available and
can give valid and reliable results.

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7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time.

8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation timely
and of current intent.
9. The results are practical and implementable.
10. It requires original, critical and reflective thinking to solve it.
11. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved physical, social or legal.
ACTIVITY 1 – Research Article

Directions: Follow the following instructions and provide comprehensive
answer.
1. Look for Research Article/s related to your interest using
www.scholar.google.com. Provide the reference using APA format.
2. From the research article given, identify the TOPIC.
3. From the research article given, provide the research TITLE.
4. From the research article given, provide the OBJECTIVES of the STUDY.
5. From the research article given, provide the LOCALE/PLACE of the
STUDY.
6. From the research article given, provide the YEAR when the study
conducted.
7. From the research article given, identify who are the RESPONDENTS or
PARTICIPANTS of the Study.
8. From the research article given, identify the VARIABLES of the STUDY.
9. From the research article given, identify the TOOL in GATHERING the
DATA.

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THE RESEARCH TITLE
Characteristics of a Research Title

a. The title is formulated before the start of the research work.
b. The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale, the population
and the period when the data were/will be gathered.
c. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or
to be studied.
d. It must be as brief and concise as possible.
e. Avoid using the terms “An Analysis of”, “An Investigation of” and the like.
f. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted
pyramid, all words in capital letters.
Determining the purpose of the study

1. Purpose or Objective – written in statement form with the infinitive to
 used to develop something
 furnishes why the study is being done
2. Problem – written in question form
 usually for determining differences, significance, etc.
 addresses what will be studied
3. A problem statement should specify the population and the variables that are
being studied.
4. A variable is a characteristic or attribute that differs among the persons, objects,
events, etc. that are being studied. To ensure objectivity in the study of an
identified problem, the researcher has to be clear as to what variables are to be
examined or investigated. The most commonly used classifications of variables
include independent, dependent, intervening and moderating variables.
 Independent Variable. The cause is supposed to be responsible for
bringing about changes/s in a phenomenon or situation.
 Dependent Variable. The outcome of the changes/s is brought about by
changes in the independent variable.

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 Intervening Variable. A variable whose existence is inferred but that

cannot be manipulated or controlled.
 Moderator Variable. A variable that may or may not is controlled but
affects the research situation.
ACTIVITY 2 – Research Article

Directions: Follow the following instructions and provide comprehensive
answer.
1. Look for Research Article/s related to your interest using

www.scholar.google.com. Provide the reference using APA format.
2. From the research article given, provide the research TITLE.
3. From the research article given, provide the OBJECTIVES of the STUDY or
the Statement of the Problem.
4. From the research article given, identify the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE/S.
5. From the research article given, identify the DEPENDENT VARIABLE/S.
6. From the research article given, identify the INTERVENING VARIABLE/S.
7. From the research article given, identify the MODERATOR VARIABLE/S.

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THE IMRAD FORMAT OF RESEARCH
IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Result [and] Discussion) is a mnemonic

for a common format used for academic ['scientific'] research papers. While used
primarily in the hard sciences, like physics and biology, it is also widely used in the social
and behavioral sciences. The IMRAD format is also known as the APA format, as the
American Psychological Association employs the IMRAD headings in its APA style sheet.
IMRAD is simply a more 'defined' version of the "IBC" [Introduction, Body, Conclusion]
format used for all academic writing.
INTRODUCTION
This section of the research must contain the following:
1. Background of the Study
2. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Null Hypotheses
5. Scope and Limitation of the Study
6. Literature Review
7. Definition of Terms
METHODOLOGY
This section of the research must contain the following:
1. Research Design
2. Population and Sampling Techniques
3. Research Instrument
4. Data Gathering Procedures
5. Statistical Tools
6. Ethical Consideration
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section addresses the results of data analysis. Tables and figures should be
presented, summarized, analyzed, interpreted and supported by related literature and/or

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studies. This will also discuss the findings concerning the objectives of the study and the
topic being studied and investigated to draw an implication for the solution of the
problem.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This part of the research summarized the findings and recommends a solution to
the identified problems. This may also include an action plan and recommended courses
of action to solve the identified problems or to sustain the existing performance.
REFERENCES
It is the list of books, journals, articles and online documents that are cited in the
development of the study. It requires the use of American Psychological Association
(APA) style of citations and references.
APPENDICES
These include letter request and all communications used in order to accomplish
the study, laws and ordinances which become the framework of the study, survey
questionnaire and its statistical data analysis and all other documents that are important
in the completion of the study.

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WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
1. Background of the Study
This presents the general idea of the research paper. CARS (creating a
research space) model for writing an introduction is a good avenue for the readers of
research articles and academic essays to facilitate their reading and comprehension. It
includes a review of related literature and studies, scope and delimitation as
well as the significance of the study, which are indicated in the three-move format.
Note: Minimum of 4 pages and maximum of 6 pages.
Organization of Paragraphs
 General Statement
 The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution
 Reason for choosing the topic and the problem
 The research gaps (from the previous research cited)
 Geographical conditions of the study locale
 Brief discussion of the variables of the study
 Brief significance of the study
 Rationale of the Study/Expected Output
2. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework and Paradigm

This section explains the theory or the concept that will guide the study. The
connection between the theoretical or conceptual framework with the present study
should be clearly stated. By doing so, the researcher clarifies the relationship existing
between or among the independent and dependent variables.
The theoretical framework of a study is the structure that can hold or support
the theory of research work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem
under study exists. Thus, the theoretical framework is but a theory that serves as a
basis for conducting research.

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After formulating the theoretical framework, the researcher has to develop the
conceptual framework of his study. The framework is a tentative explanation or
theoretical explanation of the problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of a
hypothesis.
A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It
depicts more vividly what the conceptual framework wants to convey. A paradigm may
take different diagrammatic forms, some are in a form of graphical presentation and the
common is the Input-Process-Output presentation. The flow of the study will be
explained based on the relationship of each variable from one another and to come up
with the outcome of the study.
3. Statement of the Problem

It contains the identification of the problems that can be solved by having the
proposed study.
Guidelines in formulating the general problem and the specific sub-problems

or specific questions:
a. The general statement of the problem and the specific subproblems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.
b. It is customary to state-specific subproblems in the interrogative form.
c. Each specific question must be unequivocal, that is, it has only one meaning.
d. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions, that is,
answers to each specific question can be found even without considering the
other questions.
e. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena.
f. Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to
other specific questions.
g. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the development of the
entire study.
h. Summing up the answers to all specific questions will give a complete
development of the entire study.

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i. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of

the whole research problem or study.
j. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this
should be broken up into as many subproblems or specific questions as
necessary.
4. Hypotheses
This section contains a discussion of the major assumptions regarding the
relationships of the variables being studied.
The hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena, or
events which have occurred or will occur. It states the researcher’s expectations
concerning the relationship between the variables in the research problem. It is a
testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables that
furnishes the predicted answer to the questions.
The use of the null hypothesis has been recommended by researchers and
statisticians on the ground that errors in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis can be
easier avoided if the expectations are in the null form.
Moreover, they claim that since it is a statistical hypothesis, it is intended for
testing. It suits statistical techniques that can determine whether the obtained
relationship or difference is due to chance or true relationship or difference.
The researcher can use null or alternative hypotheses. The null hypothesis says
"there is no difference", meaning the independent variable does not affect the
dependent variable while the alternative hypothesis says "there is a difference",
meaning that, the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
Guidelines in the formulation of the explicit hypotheses:

a. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if
not absent. The specific questions serve as the hypotheses.
b. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis
is easier than a hypothesis in the operational form.
c. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are
based.

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d. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating
his conclusions.
5. Scope and Limitations of the Study

This section sets the limitation and/or coverage of the study.
Guidelines in writing scope and delimitations:

a. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study
b. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed
c. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the
data belong
d. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected; this must
be large enough to generalize significant
e. The period of the study
6. Literature Review
It involves the critiquing or looking over again what other researchers have done
in relation to the problem to be studied. This can broaden the researcher’s knowledge
base in the research area, ensuring clarity and focus of the study and also provide the
researcher insights on the weakness and strength of previous study. Researcher can
arrange the literature and studies in a chronological order, factor approach or country
origin approach. Cited literatures and studies should indicate the author of the article
and the year of publication.
In writing the literature review, the researcher must use thematic approach by
starting with the general topic down to the variables of the study.
Guidelines in writing Literature Review

a. The text of the review should be brief and to the point.
b. Have a plan on how to present the review.
c. Emphasize relatedness.
7. Definition of Terms

P a g e | 21
It identifies and defines relevant terms significant to the study for further
understanding and interpretation.
Guidelines in defining terms:

a. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the
study are defined.
b. Terms should be defined operationally, that is, how they are used in the study.
c. The researcher may develop his definition from the characteristics of the term
defined.
d. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper
articles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must
acknowledge his sources.
e. Definitions should be as brief, clear and unequivocal as possible.
f. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is used for the first
time.

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THE APA FORMAT 7th and 8th EDITION
Introduction
Excellence in writing is critical for success in many academic and professional
pursuit. American Psychological Association (APA) style is a set of guidelines for clear
and precise scholarly communication that helps authors, both new and experienced,
achieve excellence in writing. It is used by million of people around the world in
psychology and also social sciences, and other disciplines for the preparation of
manuscripts for publication as well as for writing student papers, dissertations, and
theses.
In October 2019, the American Psychological Association (APA) introduced the
7th edition of the APA Publication Manual, which replaces the 6th edition published in
2009. In that time a lot of things have changed. Citing online material has become more
common, the use of inclusive and bias-free language is increasingly important, and the
technology used by researchers and students has changed. The 7th edition addresses
these changes by providing better and more extensive guidelines.
APA in-text citations

In-text citations are brief references in the running text that direct readers to the
reference entry at the end of the paper. You include them every time you quote or
paraphrase someone else’s ideas or words to avoid plagiarism.
An APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and the year of
publication (also known as the author-date system). If you’re citing a specific part of a
source, you should also include a locator such as a page number or timestamp. For
example: (Smith, 2020, p. 170).
Parenthetical vs. Narrative citation

Parenthetical citations include the author(s) and the date of publication
within parentheses. Narrative citations intertwine the author as part of the sentence
with the date of publication (in parentheses) following.
 Parenthetical citation: According to new research … (Smith, 2020).
 Narrative citation: Smith (2020) notes that …

P a g e | 23
Multiple Authors and Corporate Authors

The in-text citation changes slightly when a source has multiple authors or an
organization as an author. Pay attention to punctuation and the use of the ampersand
(&) symbol.
Author Type Parenthetical Citation Narrative Citation
One author (Smith, 2020) Smith (2020)
Two authors (Smith & Jones, 2020) Smith and Jones (2020)
Three or more authors (Smith et al., 2020) Smith et al. (2020)
Organization (Scribbr, 2020) Scribbr (2020)
Missing information
When the author, publication date or locator is unknown, take the steps outlined
below.
Missing element What to do Parenthetical citation
Author Use the source title. * (Source Title, 2020)
Date Write “n.d.” for “no date”. (Smith, n.d.)
Page number Either use an alternative locator or (Smith, 2020, Chapter 3) or
omit the page number. (Smith, 2020)
*Format the title in the same way as in the corresponding reference entry (either
italicized or, if the title in the reference entry is not italicized, placed in quotation marks).
Use title case capitalization. For court cases, use italics in the in-text citation but not in
the reference entry.
Multiple citations for one sentence

There are inherent risks in drinking tap water (Lee & Richards, 2016; North et
al., 2017; Zebra, 1999).
APA references

P a g e | 24
APA references generally include information about the author, publication date,
title, and source. Depending on the type of source, you may have to include extra
information that helps your reader locate the source.
Features of 7th Edition
1. The publisher location is no longer included in the reference.
o Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons

in personal change. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
o Covey, S. R. (2013). The 7 habits of highly effective people: Powerful lessons
in personal change. Simon & Schuster.
2. The APA in-text citation for works with three or more authors is now
shortened right from the first citation. You only include the first author’s
name and “et al.”.
o (Taylor, Kotler, Johnson, & Parker, 2018)

o (Taylor et al., 2018)
3. Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead of 7) should be
provided in the reference entry.
o Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S.
T., . . . Lee, L. H. (2018).
o Miller, T. C., Brown, M. J., Wilson, G. L., Evans, B. B., Kelly, R. S., Turner, S.
T., Lewis, F., Nelson, T. P., Cox, G., Harris, H. L., Martin, P., Gonzalez, W. L.,
Hughes, W., Carter, D., Campbell, C., Baker, A. B., Flores, T., Gray, W. E.,
Green, G., . . . Lee, L. H. (2018).
4. DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label “DOI:” is no longer
necessary.
o doi: 10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449
o https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1560449

P a g e | 25
5. URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,” unless a retrieval date

is needed. The website name is included (unless it’s the same as the
author).
o Streefkerk, R. (2019, October 11). APA 7th edition: The most notable
changes [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-
seventh-edition-changes/
o Streefkerk, R. (2019, October 11). APA 7th edition: The most notable
changes. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-seventh-edition-
changes/
6. For ebooks, the format, platform, or device (e.g. Kindle) is no longer
included in the reference, and the publisher is included.
o Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and
satellites [Kindle version]. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
o Brück, M. (2009). Women in early British and Irish astronomy: Stars and
satellites. Springer Nature. https:/doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2473-2
7. Clear guidelines are provided for including contributors other than authors
and editors. For example, when citing a podcast episode, the host of the
episode should be included; for a TV series episode, the writer and director
of that episode are cited.
8. Dozens of examples are included for online source types such as podcast
episodes, social media posts, and YouTube videos. The use of emojis and
hashtags is also explained.

P a g e | 26

Lecture in Research 2022 GENERIC Part 1 1

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Philip Bautista Magtaan, RCrim, PhD Crim

All Rights Reserved

Author can be reached at +639275034477 or philip041187@gmail.om or

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

This lecture notes focuses on how writing research paper/thesis is done,

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

The author expresses his profound gratitude and appreciation to the

My former and current deans;

My colleagues in the academe and in the Philippine National Police;

To my loving wife, Maria Racy Alcantara-Magtaan, who also support and

To all the HEIs in Batangas where I am connected and for having me as

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

This piece of work is

humbly dedicated to you

This is also dedicated to

LUIS BRIAN ALCANTARA-MAGTAAN

LENNEL BRENTT ALCANTARA-MAGTAAN.

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Philip Bautista Magtaan is a graduate of BS Criminology at Lipa City

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

Policies on Thesis Writing

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

3. Style and Format

b. Font and Spacing

Font style – Times New Roman or Arial

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

4. Title page (see sample)

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

THE NATURE AND RELEVANCE OF RESEARCH

The Meaning of Research

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

1. Systematic – It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a

The Types of Research

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

There are different ways of classifying research. Based on who undertakes

2. A research project is a type of research undertaken by an individual or group of

Types of Research based on Research Design

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

8. Ethnographic research. This type of research is done when the researcher is

Types of Research according to Data Collection

Types of Criminological Research

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

Features Common to All Researches

Distinct Characteristics of Research

Ethical Considerations in Research

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

2. Privacy (obligation to maintain the state or condition of limited access to a

The Research Process

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

7. COMMUNICATION PHASE. After completing the data analysis and

The Research Problem

Characteristics of Good Research Problem

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

Sources of Research Problem

Elements of a Research Problem

Guidelines in the selection of research problem or topic:

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time.

ACTIVITY 1 – Research Article

2022 © Lecture in Criminological Research and Statistics

THE RESEARCH TITLE