Practicql Research

CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Midterm 1st Semester – A. Y. 2023-2024
UNIT I. NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

Research comes from the middle French word recherché, which means “the act of searching closely.” It is a
combination of the prefix re--, which means “again,” and the word search, which means “to look for.” To summarize,
research is the process of looking for information once again. Its main objective is to answer questions and acquire new
information, whether to solve a problem or to shed light on confusing facts.
TOPIC 1.1 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH

In conducting research, scientific procedures must be applied to obtain reliable and accurate information.
Knowledge that came from research that employs scientific method is characterized by the following:
1. Empirical Approach – Knowledge is gained through direct observation and experimentation. Only those data derived
from scientific procedures are considered factual.
2. Observation – Your awareness of your environment constitutes ideas, but if you rely on your awareness alone, it
results in information bias, decreasing the validity of your findings. To increase the veracity of the information you
gained from observation, you have to measure it carefully using an appropriate instrument.
3. Inquiry – Knowledge comes from inquiries that are answerable. Questions must be answered through scientific
investigations and must generate tangible proof. A question is unanswerable when it is deemed impossible for
realistic exploration, no matter how intriguing it may be. Therefore, a question that yields knowledgeable information
must have an obtainable answer based on the current scientific procedures available.
4. Hypothesis – an educated guess or an attempt to explain a phenomenon. It must be testable for analysis and
interpretation. For example: “There is a significant increase of voters when registration is duly advertised.” Any result
that comes from it guarantees scientific foundation.
5. Experiments – The given hypothesis should assure testability in a crafted condition for the accuracy and reliability of
results. The process of experimentation itself is a proof of scientific procedures. The findings are considered truthful.
6. Analyses – For findings to be reliable, the data gathered are subjected for analysis through statistical methods. The
statistical treatment to be employed depends on the design of the study, type of data, and given questions. Statistics
should be used in order to present numerical evidence of the degree in which the results are considered valid and
reliable. It minimizes the chance of having a faulty conclusion about the object of investigation.
7. Conclusion – A conclusion must be objective and supported by meticulous analysis of data. Avoid adding more to
what is literally available. Otherwise, the present data will be contaminated with your subjective analysis.
8. Replication – This means doing the same study once again to a different set of participants to test the soundness of
the obtained result. Its purposes are the following:
a. Establishment of reliability of findings. The previous data that were proven will have a stronger belief factor.
b. Discovery of new knowledge. Replication generates additional information or brand-new data that will improve
your knowledge acquisition and enlighten your confusion.
c. Ascertainment of the generalizability of results. This means that the results of the study can be applied to other
groups of participants and, therefore, do not only limit to the original samples.
Goals of Research
1. Description. This refers to the way in which the phenomena being studied is defined, classified, and categorized.
The goal of describing is to provide essential information.
2. Prediction. It entails stating the possible consequences of present events based on existing knowledge of something
else. The purpose of prediction is to control one’s action and behavior through careful planning derived from a
given set of information.
3. Understanding/Explanation. The process of analyzing information to find out the causes behind phenomena. To
understand and explain data, a relationship between events must already be established; one should cause the
effect to the other; and other explanations of causality between them must be ruled out.
Importance of Research
Research is essential for the following reasons:
1. Knowledge is established.
2. Perceptions are correction.
3. Phenomena are validated.
4. Present solutions are tested for effectivity.
5. Problems are solved.
TOPIC 1.2 ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Ethics are norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. As an important
human activity, research has also its own set of ethics. Research ethics establishes the moral integrity of the researchers
which is crucial as it ensures that the research findings are valid and trustworthy.
1|PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
The following is a general summary of some ethical principles that researchers must observe.
a. Honesty – Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify,
or misrepresent data.
b. Objectivity – Avoid bias in all aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required (experimental design,
data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other
aspects).
c. Integrity – Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
d. Carefulness – Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work. Keep good
records of research activities such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies.
e. Openness – Share data, results, ideas, tolls, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
f. Respect for intellectual property – Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
g. Confidentiality – Protect confidential communications and personal information of your respondents, if any.
h. Social Responsibility- Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
i. Legality- Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
j. Animal Care- Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary
or poorly designed animal experiments.
k. Human Subjects Protection- When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable
populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Plagiarism refers to the act of using another person’s ideas, words, processes, and results without giving due
credit. It should not be tolerated as the unauthorized use of original ideas and works constitutes a violation of
intellectual property rights.
TOPIC 1.3 CONSTRUCTS AND VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
Constructs are mental abstractions derived from the combination of concepts, or your mental representation of
the world around you. In research, both are used interchangeably, owing to the fact that they are basically ideas based
on your observation and experience. But for the purpose of clarification, concepts are more general, whereas constructs
are more particular. The former is usually free from description, whereas the latter has one or more descriptions. In the
process of research, concepts and constructs are called variables.
For example:
Concept: age, sex, height, weight, attitude, pollution, education
Construct: age – young or old; sex – male and female; height – small, average, tall; weight – light, heavy; attitude –
good, bad; pollution – land, air, water; education – grade school, high school, college
Variables are constructs that can be understood differently because of their differences in values. For example,
height is a variable because there are different descriptions of height: small, average, and tall. Variables can be observed
directly or indirectly.
KINDS OF VARIABLES
1. Independent variables are manipulated variables that cause a change in another variable. These are the treatments
or conditions that produce a varied response or effect. In the research entitled “Peace-loving Learning Environment
Reduces Test Anxiety Level of Grade School Students,” the phrase “peace-loving learning environment” is the
independent variable because it is a condition.
2. Dependent variables are those that are affected by independent variables. They are the responses or effects that
result from the treatment or conditions employed.
For example, a student is interested in determining the effects of exposure to different colored lights (e.g., yellow,
green, and red) on the growth of plants. The independent variable is “exposure to different colored lights” because
this is the variable being manipulated. Plant growth is the dependent variable because this variable changes as a
result of manipulating the independent variable.
affects
Exposure to different
Plant growth
colored lights
(Dependent Variable)
(Independent Variable)
Relationship between Independent and Dependent Variables
3. Confounding or extraneous variables are not included in the study but cause effect on the dependent variable.
These are the variables that are minimized to lessen their impact on the expected response.
4. Discrete variables assume a distinct point on a scale. For example, the number of puppies that a mother dog can
have is always a whole number. It could be four or five puppies but never a 5.5 puppies; there is no such thing.
5. Continuous variables can assume a continuous scale rather than distinct points on a scale. For example, height could
be five feet, six feet, or 5.5 feet. The same argument could be extended for the time it takes for a swimmer to
complete one lap in an Olympic-size swimming pool; it could be 43 seconds or 43.6 seconds.
TOPIC 1.4 VARIABLES AND THEIR LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
Levels of Measurement are the association of the values that are linked to a variable.
1. Nominal scales are just concerned with the names and categories of responses. They do not intend to quantify the
data. Variables like gender, religion, and hair color are some examples.
2. Ordinal scales refer to the order or rank of a measurement. This scale is expressed through sequential and numerical
order and therefore allows a comparison of degree. Some examples are the following: first, second, and third; and
good, better, and best.
3. Interval scales use equal units of measurement and intervals to know the distance between them more than the
sequence. An interval scale does not use zero as its base point, though. Quantitative data are usually measured by
interval scales. Examples include temperature (the difference between 26°C and 25°C is the same as the difference
between 28°C and 27°C); the time of day in a 12-hour clock (the difference between 6 p.m. and 5 p.m. is the same as
the difference between 3 p.m. and 2 p.m. precisely because an hour is a universally known quantity.
4. Ratio Scales are the highest level of measurement. It has the properties of a nominal, ordinal, and interval scales.
Variables will be more accurately measured because a ratio scale uses zero as its base point. A true zero is the point
where none of the qualities being measured exists.
A good example of a ratio scale is the number of months (or years) of work experience of a person after college
graduation. This variable has the property of being nominal because it identifies a category or classification (number
of months or years). This is also an ordinal scale in the sense that the measurement is ordered and ranked (e.g., one
year, two years, and three years). This is also an interval scale because the difference between two points in the
scale has the same meaning; that is, the difference between four years and three years of work experience is the
same as the difference between six years and five years of work experience. This is because year is an established
quantity. This variable is also a ratio scale because it has a true zero point in the scale. A value of “0” means that a
respondent has reported that he or she has no work experience yet.
TOPIC 1.5 MAJOR APPROACHES USED IN RESEARCH

1. Qualitative approach aims to provide description of characteristics, kind, and quality of a subject, while interpreting
and attempting to understand an event. The purpose of qualitative research is to share the perspective that was
obtained from the subjects by using narrative descriptions from in-depth interviews. It is mostly done in social
sciences studies. Examples include the lived experiences of male convicts, emotions of people who suffered from the
loss of a loved one, and the perspective of a politician regarding morality.
Advantages
o It provides descriptions about the real experience of the people in the situation being studied.
o The participants can elaborate their answers.
o Researchers can have a rich explanation about abstract factors such as customs and traditions, family roles, and
socioeconomic status for greater understanding.
Disadvantages
o Statistical procedures to measure kinds and qualities are not encouraged.
o Few and chosen samples are used to participate in the study.
o The fact that it is dependent on the subjective view of the researcher in describing a situation leads to a certain
level of bias, lacking objectivity in the description,
o Results are limited to selected people. Generalizability of the findings is lacking.
2. Quantitative approach tests hypotheses and makes predictions through measured amounts, and ultimately describes
an event by using numerical figures. Statistical analysis is therefore applied to interpret the numbers obtained from
the data.
Advantages:
o It uses confirmatory scientific method because it tests hypotheses.
o A certain level of bias is removed.
o Generalizability of findings is high.
o This approach can be applied to larger populations
Disadvantages:
o Interpretation of the results will be based only on the findings derived from statistical data.
o Explanations and descriptions are narrow.
3. Mixed Methods Approach involves collection and analysis of data using both quantitative and qualitative approaches
Qualitative approach provides a richer explanation because the instruments allow elaborative answers but lacks
objectivity due to lack of numerical value. Using quantitative method will strengthen the results obtained from
qualitative data.
Advantages
o Description is made easier because it has both subjective and objective data.
o Beneficial to both qualitative and quantitative studies because its findings will increase the validity and reliability
of the variables under investigation.
Disadvantages
o Takes a lot of time to complete the study.
o Discrepancies in findings are difficult to resolve because it provides few guidelines in applying both methods.
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH: An Overview
Quantitative methods center on objective measurements and numerical analysis of data collected through
questionnaires or surveys and generalizing the results across groups of people. The overarching aim of quantitative
research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models to explain the observable
phenomenon.
Main Characteristics
o The data are usually gathered using more structured research instruments.
o The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
o The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
o The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
o All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.
o Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
o The project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate casual
relationships.
o The researcher uses questionnaires or other forms of research tools to collect numerical data.
Types of Quantitative Research
I. Descriptive research involves the collection of data to either test a hypothesis or describe the variables mentioned
in the study. Data, which are typically numeric, are collected through surveys, interviews, or observations. For
example, if you want to describe the process of photosynthesis, you have to observe the occurrence of the event,
write your observations, and integrate the data for description.
II. Causal-comparative research attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables. The
independent variable usually involves a demographic (gender, race, social status) in which the researcher has no
control of. The researcher will test how the independent variable will cause a significant effect on the dependent
variable, which is the outcome of the study. Example: Low percentage of jobless people (independent variable)
reduces the poverty rate of the country (dependent variable).
III. Experimental research is similar to causal-comparative that it also measures the effect of the independent
variable (cause) to the dependent variable (effect). However, the researcher can control the independent
variables in the study, wherein the participants are randomly assigned.
A. Quasi-experimental designs are alternatives to determine the causes and effects between two variables that
cannot be subjected to experimental control. Most of the time, this design is used on a naturally given
phenomenon and its effect on the people who are experiencing the occurrence. One example is when you
want to know the effect of a calamity on its victims.
TOPIC 1.6 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Define the research problem.
The first step in the research process is to identify a research topic and transform it into a researchable problem or
question that can be investigated. In identifying a research problem, you may confer with people knowledgeable in
your field of interest or read published journals.
2. Do the review of related literature.
Obtaining background information about the research topic is the main purpose of the review of related literature. A
review of related literature, such as peer-reviewed journal articles, helps establish the rationale, significance, and
justification in pursuing the research study.
3. Formulate hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an educated guess that serves as the tentative answer to the posed research questions at the
beginning of the inquiry process. The hypothesis directs the researcher to the data gathering procedures to be used
in the study as well as the data analysis that can be employed to interpret the findings.
4. Prepare the research design.
The research design is the “blueprint” of the research. It provides the details of how data will be collected, analyzed,
and interpreted. It also includes the instruments that will be used to collect data.
5. Collect data.
Collecting data is regarded as the most important step in the research process because it involves obtaining the
necessary information to answer the posed research question. Data can be collected by conducting surveys,
interviews, or observations. It can also be obtained from participants (demographics), documents and related
literature.
6. Analyze and interpret data.
Data analysis paves the way to make sense of the collected data by transforming them into appropriate tables and
graphs. An appropriate data analysis ensures the validity of the conclusions of the study.
7. Write the research report
After the collection and analysis of data, a researcher should report the findings of the study into a comprehensive
research paper. This process allows one to see the connections of the research questions, research design, data
collection, and data analysis.
8. Report the research findings.
The usefulness of any research rests on its dissemination for public consumption. It is the responsibility of
researchers to communicate their findings through research forums and other public discussions as well as through
the publication of the research itself.
TOPIC 1.7 IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

Characteristics of a good research topic
A. Topic of interest to the researcher.
B. Decide on must be valuable and worthwhile. Do not explore a topic or ask a question that can be answered by
browsing through the internet. You must opt for a topic that is significant and relevant to the consumers of
research.
C. It must be feasible and doable. The data collection and analysis needed to answer your research questions should
be attainable and workable.
Writing a Research Title
1. Set a 10 – 12 word limit for titles.
2. Summarize the main idea or issue, if not the argument of the paper.
3. Identify the primary variables and the relationship among them, as well as the theoretical issues underlying
these.
4. Identify the population(s) used.
5. Do not use words such as “study of” or “an experimental research in,” as these words or phrases are redundant.
6. Only include words that provide important and sufficient information about the research.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

It sets the tone of your research. It introduces your research topic, the history behind it, and current understanding
about it. This introduction also offers a brief description of other research done on the topic, what other authors say
about it, and what was discovered about it.
The following are three suggested steps to follow in writing the nature and background of the study
1. Present the general statement of fact related to the study. You may use the definition of terms in stating general
knowledge.
2. Indicate a more specific statement about the issues or problems already proven in other related researches. You
may compare or contrast the methods and findings discussed in the related studies.
3. Use statements that lead to the need for more investigation. You must emphasize the rationale of doing your
research by using statements such as the following: "Previous investigations related hardly provide evidences that
may explain the existence of such phenomena; hence, the dearth of information motivated the researcher to
conduct this study."
Here is another proposed approach in writing the Background of the Study: (Creswell, 2014) “Deficiencies Model”
1. Research Topic: The first sentence of your study has two purposes: (1) get the interest of the readers and (2) state
the research topic. The first sentence has a “narrative hook” to entice readers to keep on reading.
2. Studies that have tackled the problem: After stating the problem, you can discuss existing research about the
topic. Although there is a separate chapter for the Review of Related Literature, you can also summarize and
introduce some relevant studies and present their key ideas and findings in the background of the study.
Presenting this existing literature in the beginning situates your proposed study in the broader literature on the
topic and shows how your research contributes to it.
3. Deficiencies in the previous studies: After presenting a summary of the existing literature about your research
topic, it is crucial to identify their “deficiencies” (Creswell, 2014). These deficiencies could be areas overlooked by
other researchers, perspectives of underrepresented groups, methodological shortcomings, and potential
implications of the studies. It does not make much sense if you will only replicate a study. You need to show that
what you are proposing is either new or an innovation over the previous studies. In writing this section, many
authors often use the following phrases: “little has been known about”, “limited research”, and “what remains to
be explored” (Creswell, 2014).
FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Once you have a topic of interest, a problem statement, and a tentative title to your study, the next step is to
formulate your research questions.
o The research question should be researchable. A researchable question is one that can be answered by collecting
and analyzing data.
o The research question should point toward the data gathering procedures to be employed in the study. It should
provide structure, direction, and guidepost to the researcher as the study is conducted.
o The research question should specify the samples or participants of the study. These are the people whom the
researcher intends to investigate.
o The research question should specify the variables of the study. The independent and dependent variables, and the
presumed relationship between them should be identified.
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
In this section, describe the parameters of your research (2-3 paragraphs). These pertain to the following:
o Topical focus of the study
o Research participants
◦ Research population traits: sex, race, socio-economic status, profession, etc.
◦ Sample size of your research
o Research site
o Time frame of the research
o Methodological limitations
You may use the following key phrases in writing this section such as:
o “The coverage of this study…”
o “The researcher limited this research to…”
o The study covers the …”
o “The study does not cover the …”
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Instructions. Make a draft of the background of research of your topic by proposing a research that is useful in daily life.
Follow the standards in making a quantitative research proposal. Be guided by the given criteria below.
Rubrics for Background of the Study
Points 5 points 7 points 10 points Score
Research title/Research Research title is vague and Research title is not so Research title is clear
Topic inappropriate for the clear and inappropriate for and appropriate for the
strand. the strand strand
Background of Study Rationale for the research is Rationale for the research Rationale for the
vague. is not so clearly stated. research is clearly
0-20% of the sources cited 25-50% of the sources cited stated.
are from general online are from general online More than 50% of the
search engines search engines articles are from general
online search engines.
Research Research Research Research
Questions/Statement of questions/statement of the questions/statement of the questions/statement of
the Problem/Objectives problem/objectives of the problem/objectives of the the problem/objectives
of the Study study are vague and not study are aligned to the of the study are
aligned to the topic. topic. comprehensively aligned
to the topic.
*Hypothesis/ *Hypothesis/Hypotheses *Hypothesis/Hypotheses *Hypothesis/Hypotheses
Hypotheses are stated incorrectly need minimal revision. are well-written.
Scope and delimitation Scope and delimitation of Scope and delimitation of Scope and delimitation
of the study the study are vague. the study are discussed. of the study are well-
defined.
Significance of the Study There are minimal potential There are several potential There is an ample
benefits of the research. benefits of the research. amount of potential
benefits of the research.
TOTAL
UNIT 2. LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a comprehensive classification and evaluation of what other researchers have written about
your topic. Usually, an exciting literature review presents conflicting results of previous studies, which could then be a
research gap that will be filled by your study. Literature reviews identify areas that could be studied when you can
establish that there seems to be a lack of attention on a given topic. Whether there is a lack of study on your topic or
there are contradicting views about it, your literature review forms the very significance of your paper. It gives
justification as to how your research will fit into the existing body of knowledge.
TOPIC 2.1 HOW TO SELECT RELEVANT LITERATURE
A literature review is your critical analysis of available resources and not just a summary of what is available so far
about your chosen topic. Careful selection and review of the materials are significant in establishing what has been
pointed out as research gaps. It is best to find literature which was published in the last five years. As to how many
materials you need to review largely depends on what the review is for and the level of study. An undergraduate who is
doing a thesis should review about 20 to 50 materials. A master’s thesis should be over 50 and a doctoral dissertation
should use over 75. This is the general rule.
TOPIC 2.2 WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
Here, your arguments are expounded through not only a summary of carefully selected materials but an analysis
thereof as well.
The literature review is one whole essay that has its own introduction, body, and conclusion. Just like in an essay,
you start with your thesis statement and explore on this in the body. You don’t just summarize the results of studies in
this section; you also give your analysis of these materials. Remember that exciting literature reviews present
contrasting results or arguments as well as the lack of studies on your topic. This section usually has two parts: the
theoretical framework and the review of related studies together with the hypotheses, although it may be organized in
several ways based on the manner or style of writing it.
Here’s a review of what should be in your literature review and how it would be organized.
1. Remember to select and analyze studies that have been done about your topic. Choose scholarly literatures.
2. Choose a consistent way of organizing your literature. Organization involves the ordering of the review itself.
Should it be chronological, thematic or conceptual, or methodological? You should know how to cite these
materials.
3. Present how the previous studies relate to one another. Present also the limitations of these researches. This
would be your basis in establishing that there is a need to do your research given the contrasting results or the lack
of a study about your topic.
4. Discuss how your own research fits into the literature.
TOPIC 2.3 ILLUSTRATING AND EXPLAINING THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical or conceptual framework is as important as the other sections of your paper. In the process of topic
and literature selection, you have also come across various theoretical or conceptual frames.
The theoretical framework connects present study with existing theories that will be used as bases for the conduct
of research from literature review to hypothesis writing and to data treatment and analysis. Usually, you start writing
this section by stating the theory and its proponents. After which, you discuss the basic premise of the theory. Last, you
contextualize the theory by relating it with the current problems of your own research.
The relationship between and among your variables is presented in the conceptual framework. A diagram may be
prepared to vividly describe the input, process, and output of your research work.
Writing the Research Hypothesis
The most rigorous for of quantitative research stems from testing a theory.
When you begin to state the relationship between your variables and the effect they could possibly have on each
other, you are writing the hypothesis of the study. Your hypothesis is derived from the literature reviews. A hypothesis
is a proposed explanation about a phenomenon made on the basis of limited evidence and a starting point of your
investigation. Remember, hypotheses are meant to be tested empirically (i.e., statistically or quantitatively).
o Your hypothesis must be clearly written. It must address one problem or issue at a time. Use the same pattern
of word order (of your variables) in your hypothesis. You may start with the independent first, and then
conclude with the dependent variable.
o If you are doing a test of relationship (correlational study), the type of relationship (positive or negative) must
be provided in the hypothesis. You must provide the indicators (i.e., those which give or indicate the presence
or absence of the variable) of your variables so that the levels of measurement are defined.
o Choose a form of hypothesis based on the type of study. There are two types: null and alternative.
1. A null hypothesis represents the traditional approach as it makes a prediction that there is no relationship
or significant difference between groups on a variable in the general population. Usually, it is stated this
way: “There is no difference (relationship) between the groups on (variable/s).”
2. Alternative hypothesis is popular in journal articles.
a. Directional hypothesis – the researcher makes a prediction about the expected outcome based on prior
literature review.
o For a test of difference, it is stated this way: “Group 1 will have a higher or lower (variable) than Group
2.”
o In experimental studies, the intervention should also be provided, as in this statement: “Group 1 will
have a higher or lower (variable) than Group 2 after (name the intervention)”.
o For a test of relationship, the type or direction of the relationship must be provided. Does a change in X
lead to a change in Y? If X increases, what id the expected behavior of Y? The hypothesis can be stated
this way: “As (independent variable) increases, (dependent variable) decreases.” (negative
relationship)
o If the relationship moves in a similar direction, it is called a positive relationship as in the following
statement: “As (independent variable) increases/decreases, (dependent variable) also
increases/decreases.”
b. Nondirectional hypothesis – the researcher makes a prediction, but the exact change (higher, lower,
increase, decrease, strong, weak, more, less) as in directional hypothesis, is unknown. Usually, it is
stated this way: “(Variable) is related to (variable).”
Situating the Theoretical Framework / Conceptual Framework in the Literature Review

Your literature review is composed of the review of relevant or related studies, the hypotheses, and the theoretical
framework. As in any material, the way the theoretical and conceptual frameworks are written depends on the style and
manner of writing the entire manuscript. Look at the example below.
Example 1
Conceptual Framework
To address students and teachers’ difficulty in chemistry achievement, different researchers proposed different
teaching approaches/models. Edelson (2001) developed a model called Learning-for-Use (LfU). The LfU model is divided
into three stages, namely, (a) motivate, (b) construct, and (c) refine. This model has six learning processes: (1)
experience demand, (2) experience curiosity, (3) observe, (4) receive communication, (5) refine, and (6) reflect. At the
same time, the LfU model applies to technology-supported curriculum. On the other hand, Lavoie (1999) proposed the
Predictive/discussion-based learning cycle (HPD-LC), where there is an additional phase or stage before or at the
beginning of a three phase (exploration, term introduction and concept application) of learning cycle (Figure 1).
Modified Useful Learning (MUL) approach is a combination of the Learning-for-Use model developed by Edelson
(2001) and Hypothetico-Predictive Reasoning by Lavoie (1999). The modification made by the researcher is divided into
two primary points. First, the hypothetico-predictive reasoning is incorporated in the motivation stage. The purpose of
including HPD-LC in the motivation stage is to have a significant change in the students’ process skills, logical-thinking
skills, science concepts, and scientific attitudes. Second, the MUL has three learning activities to achieve the three
learning processes. The learning activities of MUL approach is designed with the use of real-life situations instead of
technology-based activities while the Learning-for-Use approach has six learning activities (design strategies) to achieve
the six learning processes. In this model, having six learning activities is possible in presenting a single lesson because it
is designed with the use of technology or computer with database. With this, data and information are easily obtained
unlike MUL approach which uses only real-life situations. In addition, the researcher sees to it that the number of
learning activities (3) fit to the facilities of the school. Rodrigo (2002) pointed out that, “The Philippines is one of the
many developing nations that had turned to information and communication technology (ICT) as a tool to improve
teaching and learning” (Rodrigo, 2002, p 1). Unfortunately, the Philippine educational system experiences problems in
technology. Most of the public schools and some of the private schools do not have enough computers. In addition,
Edelson (2001) pointed out that “However, the as-yet limited ability of a computer to understand the knowledge needs
of a learner means that the computer as a judge of what information to present and when remains more promise than
reality” (p. 378).
LfU approach could be one of the most effective approaches provided that the schools have enough facilities
(laboratory equipment, computers and other database technology). Since our educational setting has lack of sufficient
digital technology, MUL approach may serve as an alternative solution which can be utilized in the absence and shortage
of classrooms, laboratory equipment and computers both in public and private schools. Moreover, some educators
encourage science teachers to make use of practical applications to impart the concepts and process skills among
learners. Thus, MUL could be one effectual alternative to traditional teaching methods.
This study hypothesized that the Modified Useful-Learning approach has a positive effect on students’
achievement, critical thinking skills and attitude compared to traditional teaching approach. Under MUL approach, the
students’ achievement in chemistry, critical thinking and attitude towards chemistry are enhanced because students
have direct experience and observation on the different activities. This is in contrast with the traditional teaching
approach where the highlight is the teacher discussion and demonstration. Furthermore, using the Modified Useful-
Learning approach students have direct interaction with one another and with the teacher, and are actively involved in
the construction of knowledge to make it useful or meaningful for them.
Example 2
Conceptual Framework of the Study
In view of the literatures presented, figure 1 shows how test anxiety correlates to students’ achievement, process
skills and attitude towards science.
Achievement in Science
Test Anxiety in
Moving Integrated Science Process Skills
Examination
Attitude Towards Science
Instruction: Make a draft of your related literature and conceptual framework on your chosen topic. Be guided by the
given criteria below.
Elements 10 Points 20 Points 30 Points Score
Review of Review of Related Review of Related Review of Related Literature is

Related Literature is Literature is sufficient, but comprehensive and all literature
Literature minimal. there are some literature reviews are relevant.
reviews that were not
relevant
Theoretical The relationships The relationships between The relationships between
and between variables variables are not so clearly variables are clearly presented.
Conceptual are vague. presented.
Framework
TOTAL
UNIT 3. UNDERSTANDING DATA AND SYSTEMATIC WAYS TO COLLECT DATA

TOPIC 3.1 THE RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design is a plan to presents how the researcher intends to study an empirical question (Johnson
and Reynolds 2012). It is often confused with the methodology, which discusses the approach used in data collection
alone. The research design on the other hand, broadly encompasses the entire research process – from the formulation
of the research question, the review of related literature, the development of the framework, and the selection of data
gathering and analysis techniques. Choosing the appropriate research design depends primarily by the research
question.
1. Descriptive Research Design
Descriptive research “paints a picture” with words and numbers (Neuman 2007, 364). If you intend to
empirically present the traits and characteristics of a target population, utilize a descriptive research method design. An
example is a census report which provides accurate and precise description of a country’s population, complete with
demographics (age profile, gender distribution, socioeconomic classifications, etc.). Other examples are comparative
reports on crime rates for various cities and product marketing surveys that documents people’s preferences for a
certain product (Barbie 2010).
Other examples of research topics that entail descriptive research designs are:
1. Socioeconomic characteristics of residents of a community.
2. Attitudes of students toward quality of teaching.
3. Types of services provided by an agency.
4. Problems faced by refugees or immigrants.
Studies that adopt a descriptive research design puts emphasis on collecting, organizing, and presenting the
target population through one or more variables. Data collection may be accomplished through primary data gathering
using surveys, filed observations, interviews, etc. It may also use secondary data gathering approaches such as the use of
databases or secondary source such as datasets produced in other studies.
The main method of analysis used in descriptive research design is descriptive statistics. This means it typically
uses measures such as the mean, the mode, and the median to describe data. It may also engage in organizing,
classifying, or creating typologies of the different groups in the population it is studying. It also commonly uses visual
aids where data is summarized and presented through visual representations, such as tables, graphs, and charts for
easier comprehension and analysis.
2. Correlational Research Design
Correlational research is used to establish or explore relationships, associations, or interdependence between
two or more aspects of a situation (Kumar 1996). It is generally concerned with empirically establishing and statistically
measuring the nature, degree, and direction of relationships between two or more variables of interest using techniques
of statistical analysis. A correlational research design is appropriate for studies examining associations to explain how
changes in one variable correlate with the values of another.
Examples of research questions investigated using correlational research design are:
1. What is the impact of social media campaign in the number of votes received by a candidate?
2. How does capital investment influence poverty incidence in a particular region?
3. What is the relationship of Information and Communications Technology adaptation to political participation?
4. How does one’s home environment affect one’s educational achievements?
Research studies that adopt a correlational design also present and describe the data similar to a descriptive
design. However, it puts emphasis on investigating relationships between two or more variables. These relationships
may range from simple association to casual relationships between two or more variables. This is typically the type of
research design where you will encounter dependent and independent variables.
The primary method of analysis in correlational design is hypothesis-testing which is central to inferential
statistics. Analysis uses bivariate analysis such as chi-square test of independence, chi-square goodness of fit test,
Pearson’s correlation, and simple linear regression.
3. Experimental Research
Experimental research is the most appropriate method for testing cause and effect relationships. Experimental
research involves observation for a scientific purpose, usually to test cause-and-effect relationships between variables
under conditions which, as far as possible, are controlled by the researcher. It involves the use of scientific observation,
but more than observation, it involves the manipulation and control of phenomena.
A classic experimental research design involves the selection of subjects (a sample) who are randomly allocated
to either an experimental group or control group, in which only members of the experimental group are exposed to the
variable that is the purpose of the study, while the control group do not come into contact with the variable, and so as a
control within the experiment.
Experimental studies are also known as longitudinal or repeated-measure studies, for obvious reasons. They are
also referred to as interventions, because you do more than just observe the subjects.
Obviously, which type of research design you use for your study will rely upon the aims and objectives of your
study – which in turn are encapsulated within the research question/hypothesis.
To write the research design for your research, it is customary to first mention the research methodology used.
Definitions or descriptions of the methodology may be lifted from authors. The section should end with a short
discussion on why you have chosen that particular methodology by relating it to your topic and the objectives of your
study.
Topic 3.2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS

Suppose you are trying to assess the level of voter participation of Filipinos. To pursue your research, you need
to specifically define “Filipino” and set an appropriate population survey. Population in sampling does not necessarily
point to the “population” in the demographic sense, i.e., “the residents of Ifugao”. Population is signified by the capital
N in numerical functions.
Population, or the sampling universe, is the group you want to generalize. It is the aggregation of the subjects
you are looking at. It consists of all the members of the group you’re interested in. The keyword is all. Examples could all
senior high school students, all women, all Christian, etc. Despite being broad, it is important to define your population
carefully and clearly. Keep in mind that it must be relevant to your purpose and hypotheses.
As much as you would want to cover your entire population, it is rarely achieved. Attempting to do this will incur
tremendous cost in time, effort, and time. A more practical approach to data collection is the selection of a few
members of the population, called the sample. It is the subset from the population you wanted to examine. While data
collection from a sample lessens practical cost, it increases the probability of committing a sampling bias or a sampling
error. A sampling error is committed whenever you select a sample that is not representative of the population. This
may be intentionally done if you seek to achieve a particular outcome. However, this is ethically questionable.
For example, you want to prove that Filipinos, in general, disagree to a Divorce Law. You intentionally commit
sampling bias by interviewing people who disapprove a law on divorce. Another factor that could drive you to commit a
sampling bias is convenience. To make data collection faster, easier, or more convenient, you end up taking shortcuts
that compromises the integrity of your sample. In most cases, sampling bias is committed unconsciously because of
insufficient knowledge on sampling procedures and techniques. It can be avoided by discussing the different sampling
methods and when it is appropriate to use them.
Identifying the Population and Choosing a Sample Frame
An essential part of data collection is identifying the population from which you will draw a sample from. The
population covers large groups such as country population (e.g., female population of the Philippines), people (e.g.,
Filipinos, college students), cities (e.g., in Metro Cebu), organizations (e.g., Catholic Educational Association of the
Philippines or CEAP), and groupings of individuals (e.g., all Grade 12 students of a school).
10 | P R A C T I C A L R E S E A R C H 2
You need to determine whether you’ll collect population or sample data. We typically use population data when
the population is relatively small, and we can get needed information from most members. When a group is large, and
we cannot practically get information from most members. We use sampling.
Probability sampling provides the researcher the ability to generalize about a population (Barbie, 2010).
Quantitative research recommends the use of probability sampling, a method based on probability theory. Through
probability theory, you can accurately estimate the parameters of the population or the aggregate description of
variable A in population B.
1. Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling (SRS), each element of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Though
it is considered as a basic sampling method, drawing a truly ransom sampling can be challenging. The necessary tools for
SRS are the complete list of all elements in the population and a random table – a list of random numbers which may be
computer-generated. To draw a random selection, each element of the population is assigned a number. For example,
your target consists of 1,000 units and you want to draw a sample of 150. Each of the 1,000 elements must be labelled 1
to 1,000. Then, from the random numbers table, we select the corresponding label of our unit. There are no rules in
dictate where and how you will start the selection process, as long as you do not intentionally look for a specific number.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
In this sampling technique, a list of all the elements in the population is also prepared but instead pf using
random numbers to draw the sample, a sampling interval is used. The formula in computing the sampling interval is
K=N/n (population size/sample size). Meaning, you select every kth element in your population list. Hence, if you want
to draw a sample size of 15 from a population of 250, we simply divide 250 by 15, giving us a sampling interval of about
17 (16.667, wounded off. Thus, if you start at the 3 rd element, you will get the 20th, 37th, 54th, and so on entry. This
sampling technique is a systematic way of randomly drawing a sample, but it is equally precise as the sampling random
sample. Systematic random sampling is often used on long population lists.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
When one randomly selects a unit of population, characteristics present (or absent) in the sample may not be
representative of the true proportion in the entire population. Stratified random sampling reduces the sampling errors.
The function of stratified random sampling is organizing the population into homogenous subsets or grouping the
elements in the population according to shared characteristic/s. The researcher selects the appropriate number of
elements for each identified subset or group, ensuring that each selected element is proportionately represented in the
total population. This is done by computing for the sampling fraction – the desired size of the sample divided by the
population size, or n/N.
Assume that you have 300 students – 150 in grade school, 100 in middle school, and the rest are in senior high
school. We want to survey 120 students. Doing the necessary computations will give us a sampling fraction of 2/5.
Hence we must sample two-fifths of every subset or group (grade school, middle school, and senior high school),
respectively.
4. Cluster Sampling
Clustered sampling is a multistage sampling method adopted when it is either impossible or impractical to
compile an exhaustive list of the elements found in the target population. For example, say your primary sampling unit is
the religious sects of a community. The list of religious sects is compiled and then sampled through stratified sampling.
Then you come up with the list of the members per sample (religious sect). Your secondary sampling unit, the list of
members per religious sect, is also sampled using the simple random, systematic, or stratified.
Compared to probability sampling, nonprobability sampling follows a sample based on your subjective
judgement. In this case, the probability of an element from the population to be selected as a sample is unknown,
limiting the researcher to making inferences about the population.
5. Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is guided by your main purpose or reason for conducting the study. Thus, you select the
elements you think are useful for your study. This sampling technique is also called as “judgmental sampling” or
“subjective sampling”.
Samples that require purposive sampling include deviant or extreme cases, homogenous or widely
heterogenous subject, experts, or subjects required by the theory or framework adopted. A researcher who wants to
evaluate the cybersecurity adoption frameworks of the Philippine government is likely to interview IT and security
experts active in Philippine cybersecurity. Purposive sampling us recommended for both qualitative and mixed method
studies.
6. Convenience Sampling
Elements selected through convenience sampling are those easily accessible to you. Contrary to the rigorous
sampling process of non-probability sampling techniques, convenience sampling saves the researcher time and relative
costs.
An example is quick polling, often conducted in malls. Malls are preferred venues for sampling because of the
number of the people frequenting the place, helping the researcher achieve the desired sample easily. Convenience
sampling is also called “haphazard” sampling, since it does not permit any representativeness of the sample. While you
easily get the data, information of general value is not obtained.
7. Snowball Sampling
There will be instances where your target subjects and data may be difficult to locate. This is familiar problem
with studies too focused, unique, or new. An appropriate nonprobability sampling technique to adopt is the snowball
sampling where the data is collected from a few known members of the target population. These known members will
then be asked to provide information that will help locate other members of the desired population
Snowball sampling is also known as “accidental sampling”. To illustrate, say you want to study about fraternities
a particular school. Members of such organizations are unlikely to reveal themselves publicly. Thus, you need to get a list
of fraternity members from known subjects. Data obtained from snowball sampling, however, may have questionable
representativeness.
8. Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is often likened to proportionate or stratified sampling. Both sampling techniques necessitate
stratification of the population. Sampled elements should be proportionate to their representation in the population. To
begin with quota sampling prepares a table or matrix listing the characteristics of your target population. From this
table, you calculate the appropriate number of samples, such that the total sample will have the same distribution of
characteristics (stratification) assumed to be present in the total population (Babbie 2010).
To create a quota sample, first, select the predetermined characteristics (or stratification) and divine the
population accordingly. Second, calculate the quota needed for each stratum. Third, invite subjects until the quota per
stratum is attained.
For example, the target population for your study is 10,000 government employees. You were able to stratify
the population into 6,000 males and 4,000 females. If your desired sample is 100, you will need to sample 60 male
government employees and 40 female government employees. What distinguishes quota sampling from probability
sampling techniques is the way the sample is drawn. This can be done on purpose, by convenience or through
snowballing.
TOPIC 3.3 DESIGNING SURVEY INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Two of the more popular research instruments in social science research are survey and interview. Surveys are
administered. The researcher allows the respondents to answer predetermined set of questions. Interviews, on the
other hand, are usually conducted face-to-face, or through means that allows the respondents and the researcher to
engage in a discussion regarding a particular subject.
Survey and Survey Questionnaires
Surveys are the preferred mode of data collection in social science research, particularly in quantitative studies.
Surveys often take the form of questionnaires which may be given personally, by telephone, by mail, or by electronic
means. It is pursued when the population is of analysis used are individuals or persons. The intent of survey research is
to generalize information gathered from the sample and use it to make inferences about the target population.
Through surveys, the researcher can collect quantitative or numerical descriptions of trends, attitudes, and
orientation, behaviors, and opinion about the sample. The subjects’ responses are taken as is, eliminating the idea of
right or wrong answers. Surveys allow the researcher to obtain sensitive information once the respondents are assured
of confidentiality and anonymity.
Basic Principles in Designing Survey Questionnaires
1. Constructing and administering surveys is subjected to standards and ethics.
2. Surveys must be clear and unambiguous.
3. Double-barreled questions, or those that have multiple parts, should be avoided.
4. Questionnaires are reviewed to identify ambiguous items
5. Pilot-testing is a must to determine possible problems the researcher and respondents may encounter.
Types of Survey Questions

1. Open-Ended Questions
These types of questions do not have predetermined options or answers. The respondents are allowed to
answer the questions freely. The responses must be recorded verbatim – especially because coding and analysis will
rely in the subject’s exact responses. Open-ended questions often need probing and follow-up questions to clarify
certain items in the subject’s response. These questions typically ask the “how” and “why” of something.
Example: Why did you choose to vote for the candidate X? Kindly explain. __________________________
2. Dichotomous Questions
Dichotomous questions have two possible answers, often either yes/no, true/false, or agree/disagree. These
questions are used when the researcher wants to clearly distinguish the respondent’s opinion, preference,
experience, or behavior.
Example: HIV/AIDS is transmitted through saliva. True False
3. Multi-response Questions
There are certain questions that necessitate the respondents to provide more than one answer. For example, a
typical advertising survey would ask the question, “How did you find out about the particular service or item?” A
respondent may have encountered more than one of the probable ways.
Example How were you able to know about the graduate program of Development Policy offered in
Ifugao State University? Check all that applies.
Print Advertisement By word of mouth (friends, families, etc.)
IFSU Website Telephone Inquiry
IFSU Social Networking Page Physical appearance/inquiry
Others, please specify: ___________________________________________
4. Matrix Questions
There are instances where several questions you intend to ask have the same set of possible answers. Thus, it is
possible to construct a matrix of items and answers for the sake of streamlining the survey.
Example: Beside each of the qualities of a good leader, based on the I4 Juan Framework, kindly indicate
how well the person in inquiry manifests the said quality with 1 being lowest and 5 as the
highest.
Qualities/Rating 1 2 3 4 5
Integrity
Inclusiveness
Information-Driven
Innovative
Sample of a Matrix Question Set
Shown above is a numerical scale (matrix). The respondents are required to choose from a number of categories
that determine their preferences.
Another common scale is the Likert Scale which tries to assess the subject’s agreement/disagreement or
approval/disapproval on a five point scale – with one being the most positive answer, and the other end being the
most negative answer. The categories correspond to the numerical values 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and are encoded as their
numerical equivalent (Singh 2007, 75). The total score per item is determined. From here, you formulate your
inference.
Example: The new performance-based incentive system encouraged me to work over-time
(5) Strongly Agree (4) Agree (3) Undecided (2) Disagree (1) Strongly Disagree
5. Contingency Questions
Contingency questions are intended for certain respondents only, depending on the provided answer. A familiar
example would be a follow-up question provided after a respondent agrees to a certain item. A respondent is asked
whether they used any illegal drugs or substances. Only those who answered “yes” are required to answer the
succeeding items.
Example: 4. Have you ever tried illegal drug and/or substances?
Yes No
4.1. If yes, what illegal drugs and/or substances have you used? Check all that apply.
Crystal Meth Cocaine Heroine
Marijuana Ecstasy Others, please specify: ____________________
TOPIC 3.4 DATA ANALYSIS

Start your quantitative data analysis by reviewing your research questions. After planning how you will collect
your data, it is now time to plan how you will analyze your data. There are basically two types of statistical procedures:
descriptive and inferential.
1. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics organizes and summarizes the data in a form of numerical summaries (e.g., frequencies,
contingency tables, measures of central tendency, and measures of variability, representing numerical summaries in
tables) and graphical summaries (e.g., bar graphs or pie charts, histograms, scatterplots, time series plots). Descriptive
Statistics uses various summary measures and graphing techniques that help organize and summarize data for easy
understanding. In this manner, researchers can describe single variables or the association of different variables with
one another. However, descriptive statistics do not allow the researcher to conclude beyond the data used or analyzed.
There are two ways to present a data in descriptive analysis: the measure of central tendency and measure of
spread. The measures of central tendency are ways of describing the central position of a frequency distribution for a
group of data. This central tendency can be described using the mean, median, and mode. Measure of spread is the
ways of summarizing a group of data by describing how spread out the data is.
Descriptive statistics helps describe the raw data by using the following standards.
- Frequency counts -Percentages -Measures of central tendency (i.e., mean, median, and mode)
- Measure of variability (i.e., range, standard deviation, and variance) -Use of pie charts and bar graphs
Frequency Counts and Percentages
Frequencies or counts tell you how many times something had occurred. In the context of the survey instrument, a
frequency count refers to how many of the participants belong to a certain category of a given demographic variable
(e.g., male or female). Frequencies also tell how many times a certain item is rated according to the scale used in the
instrument.
However, reporting frequencies is a bit limiting and might be unable to give the “trend” in the data. A useful
mathematical tool to use is transforming these frequency data into percentage (%). Reporting that “50% of the sample
are male” has definitely more meaning than saying “five out of ten participants are male.”
The formula for percentage is % = part x 100. In using this formula, the units of the part and the whole must be
whole
consistent so that they will cancel each other out. Thus, percentage is a unitless expression. Percentage is simply telling
you the proportion out of the total based on 100.
It is more useful if the frequency data and percentages be reported alongside each other. This way you have a better
appreciation of the frequency distribution. The table below gives the frequency distribution of the demographic
variables and the corresponding percentages for a sample (n) of 130 participants from the self-concept study.
As can be seen in the table, out of the one hundred thirty (n=130) participants who answered the self-concept
inventory, 73 or 56.2% are female. Thirty-seven percent of those who answered the self-concept inventory belong in
college. The distribution of the participants who are in grade school, junior high school, and senior high school is equal.
The three grade levels represent 23.8% each with 31 participants per grade level. 34.6% (or 45 participants) of the 130
have an age range of 21-25.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
A measure of central tendency describes how data sets are grouped together around a central value. Measures of
central tendency give a picture of what is typical in the sample or what are the most apparent and representative
characteristics of the sample. In descriptive statistics, the most common measures of central tendency are the mean,
median, and mode.
Mean
The mean or average is the most common form of reporting central tendency. Obtaining an average is simply taking
the sum of all the answers divided by the total number of those who answered. The result is an “averaged” value that
takes into account all values. For example, given five high school friends with daily allowances of Php 80, Php 120, Php
90, Php 110, and Php 100, the mean of their daily allowance is Php100. This is computed as (Php 80 + Php 120 + Php 90 +
Php 110 + Php 100)/5.
While the mean is the most common measure of central tendency, it has its limitations. It is strongly influenced by
extreme values. When an outlier is extremely high, the tendency of the mean is to become higher than what is actually
representative of the group or population. On the other hand, when the outlier is extremely low, the mean becomes
lower. These leads to overestimating or underestimating a population. For example, five high school friends may have
daily allowances of: Php 80, Php 120, Php 90, Php 110, and Php 1,000. Their mean allowance is a Php280 – Php 180
above the previous average. This gives us the wrong impression that the members of the group can afford to spend
around Php280 everyday – when in fact, only the one with Php 1,000 allowance can.
The mean is also useful for summarizing results from rating scales. In the self-concept inventory, a value to each
category can be assigned; thus, “not at all,” “a little bit,” “somewhat,” “very much,” and “extremely” can be assigned a
value of 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. Given this, it is now possible to compute for the mean rating of each item. The mean
rating (MR), also known as the weighted mean, average for the values of each item assigned to a weight.
The formula for computing the mean rating is:
f ( 1 ) +f ( 2 ) + f (3 )+ f ( 4 ) + f (5)
mean rating (MR) =
N
Let us compute for the mean rating of the statement “I feel confident about my abilities,” using the frequency given
in the following table.
Self-concept statements Not at all A little bit Somewhat Very much Extremely Total*
f % f % f % f % f % n %
1. I feel confident about 5 3.8 11 8.5 26 20.0 60 46.2 28 21.5 130 100%
my abilities.
2. I believe that I am 4 3.1 13 10.0 23 17.7 58 44.6 32 24.6 130 100%
doing well.
3. I feel good about 5 3.8 11 8.5 24 18.5 52 40.0 38 29.2 130 100%
myself.
Using the formula for mean rating and substituting values from said table, we have:
( 5 )( 1 ) + ( 11 ) ( 2 ) + ( 26 ) ( 3 ) + ( 60 )( 4 ) +( 28)( 5)
MR=
130
485
MR= =3.73
130
A summary of the calculated mean rating is given in the table below:
Self-Concept Statements Mean Rating
1. I feel confident about my abilities. 3.73
2. I believe that I am doing well. 3.78
3. I feel good about myself. 3.82
The mean rating of 3.82 is expressed in terms of the rating scale used. It is interpreted as “very much like me.”
Median
The median is the midpoint of a distribution, arranged from lowest to highest. Exactly half of the observations are
below the median value and the other half is above the median value. When the total number of observations is an odd
number, the median can be found by simply determining the middle number. On the other hand, datasets with even
observations, the median is computed by finding the two middle numbers, adding them, and dividing the sum of those
by two. Examples are provided below.
A. Even observations (10) 7 8 11 17 25 33 39 44 46 50
B. Odd observations (9) 7 8 22 14 25 33 39 44 46
Like the mean, the median also gives us an idea of the “average” or “typical” value of a given group or population.
Compared to the mean, the median is not affected by outliers. Regardless of the lowest or the highest value in a given
set of values is, the median remains the same for as long as the order and the total number of values remain the same.
Referring to the two examples above, notice that in Example A, the middle values are 25 and 33. To get the median,
just add 25 and 33 then divide the sum by two. Thus, (25 + 33)/2 = 29. The median for example B, on the other hand, can
be easily spotted. Because there are a total of 9 observations, an odd number, we simply look for the 5 th value in the list.
Mode The mode is the most frequently reported case or incident. This is useful if you are doing a survey or asking a
question where the responses are limited to four or five. Consider a question like this:
What is your favorite movie genre?

- Romance - Comedy - Drama - Horror
- Suspense - Science fiction - Action
The most frequently reported answer tells you about the preference of moviegoers. This information might be
useful to movie theater owners, film importers, and film producers because this is definitely the kind of film that
moviegoers will likely watch. Thus, the mode is useful if you wish to report the most frequently repeated answers.
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
Measures of variability deal with the spread of a measurement. This is equivalent to asking how far apart the scores
or measurements from each other or from the mean are. Typical measures of variability are range, standard deviation,
and variance.
Range
Range is simply the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in a given set of numerical values.
This simply tells you the maximum and minimum value for a set of measurement. Consider the scores of 10 students in a
20-item test.: 12,13,16,18,17,19,20,3,7, and 8. Note that the lowest score is 3 and the highest is 20. The range is the
difference between the highest and the lowest score; thus, range = 20 – 3 = 17
This means that the class has different abilities since the distribution of scores is far apart from each other. The group
has varying abilities as measured by the 20-item quiz.
Standard Deviation and Variance
Standard deviation tells you how far the measurements are from the mean or how a given set of scores deviates
from the mean. The formula for standard deviation is:
standard deviation (SD) =
where X is the individual score, X is the mean, and n is the total number of data set.
Let us apply the formula to a set of scores in a 10-item quiz.
Scores in a 10-item Quiz
Student Score, X Difference from the
Mean, (X – X )
1 3 3.61
2 5 0.01
3 7 4.41
4 3 3.61
5 7 4.41
6 5 0.01
7 7 4.41
8 5 0.01
9 4 0.81
10 3 3.61
x = 4.9 Σ ( x −x )2 = 24.90
Applying the formula for standard deviation, we have:
√ √
❑
(X −X )2 = (24.90)
SD = ∑ n−1 ∑ 9 = 1.67
A standard deviation of 1.67 means that the individual l scores lay closely on the mean which is 4.9. On the other
hand, if the standard deviation is high, this implies that the individual scores are far apart from the mean. A high
standard deviation also means that the data set has a wide variability; that is, individual data from members of the
sample vary greatly.
Variance is simply the square of the standard deviation. The formula for the variance (SD 2) is:
2
( X− X)
SD2 = ∑
n−1
Computing for variance of the previous example, we have:

❑
( X− X)2 (24.90)
SD2 = ∑ = = 2.77
n−1 10−1
This number tells you that the variance is small and that the individual scores do not greatly vary from each other.
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Inferential statistics draws inferences about the relationship of two or more variables; it also uses samples to
generalize a population. While there are so many techniques under inferential statistics, the module will only limit itself
to some commonly used statistical techniques. For correlational research design, Pearson’s R coefficient or correlation
and multiple regressions can be used to analyze parametric or numerical data, and Spearman rank or Kendal
correlation can be used for ordinal nonparametric data. Contingency coefficient C and sample logistic regression are
used for nominal nonparametric data.

For quasi-experimental or causal comparative and experimental research designs, if you are looking for
differences between samples for parametric or numerical (continuous) data, one sample t-test is used if one sample
population is used. If two samples were used, a paired samples t-test and for repeated measurements can be used if the
data is paired and independent samples t-test can be used if the data is not paired. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) can
be used for both paired and unpaired samples. If there are more than two samples, ANOVA and multiple analysis of
variance (MANOVA) can be used.
Figure. Comprehensive Flowchart for Determining Appropriate Statistical Test
Topic 3.5. WRITING THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. REVISITING THE RESEARCH QUESTION
The first step in planning the methodology chapter is to revisit the primary research question and assess
whether it is descriptive or correlational. The rule of thumb for assessment is simple. If the primary research question
requires you to describe and explain a situation, event, problem, and / or phenomena, then a descriptive design is most
suitable for your project. If the research question requires you to determine whether or not there is relationship
between two or more measurable aspects of a situation, event, problem, and / or phenomenon, then correlational
research.
2. DEFINING AND OPERATIONALIZING THE KEY CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES

Once we have decided on the method, the next step is the definition and operationalization of the key variables.
In quantitative research, the key variables may be drawn from the research questions-either explicitly as measurable
traits or indicators, or implicitly as measurable aspects of key concepts.
Variables refer to something that we take on different values. It is a concept that varies and can be measured such as
quantity, amount, or intensity. In practical terms, measurability is the distinguishing factor between concepts and
variables (Kumar 1996). Concept need to be defined and operationalized first and expressed as measurable variables
before they can be used in quantitative research project.
For example, many people have general conceptual understanding of the term “poverty”. Dictionaries define
this as the state of being poor or lacking material wealth. The United Nations gives us the following definitions of
poverty:
“…..Poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of
basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough feed and clothe a family, not having a
school or clinic to go to, not having the lad on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to
credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness, and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means
susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or
sanitation (Administrative Committee on Coordination-United Nations 1998, 3.)
In context of quantitative research, operationalizing a concept involves adopting specific working definition that
guides how data is observed, measured, and collected. In most cases, the process of identifying indicator is one step in
the operationalization of a concept. Indicators are a set of criteria reflective of the concept. Below is an example of the
concept-variable process.
Concepts Indicators Variables Working Definition

Poverty A. Income distribution A. Inequality a) GINI coefficient (0 as perfect equality and 100
(GINI Index) as perfect inequality)
B. Population living in B. Living b) %of population living in slums in terms of

slums Environment urban population
Table _. depicting the Concept -> Variable Process
(indicators and measures were obtained from data.worldbank.org)
3. DETERMINING THE LEVEL AND UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

Quantitative research involves classifying variables as either categorical or continuous, or as nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio. In addition to the level of measurement, the researcher should establish at what the level you collect
the data (information at the individual, family, barangay, organization, city, country level, etc.) and how many
observations they need. These are referred as the units of observation or analysis.
4. IDENTIFYING THE POPULATION AND CHOOSING A SAMPLING FRAME
An essential part of data collection is identifying the population form which you will draw a sample form. The
population covers large groups such as country populations (e.g., female population of the Philippines, people (e.g.,
Filipino college students), cities (e.g., in Metro Cebu), organizations (e.g., Catholic Educational Association of the
Philippines or CEAP), and groupings of individuals (e.g. all Grade 11 students of a school).
You need to determine whether you’ll collect population or sample data. We typically use population data when
the population is relatively small and we can get need information from the most members. When a group is large and
we cannot practically get information from the most members, we use sampling. Sampling is a method of collecting a
smaller subset of members that is representative of the larger population being studied.
5. CHOOSING THE METHOD FOR COLLECTING DATA
There are many ways of collecting for a quantitative research project. Before deciding which method to use,
determine whether you will collect primary or secondary data. Primary data pertains to first hand collected by you. A
good example is survey data gathered by yourself. Secondary data pertain to second hand information that the
researcher collects from sources produced by others. Examples are statistics taken from the Statistical Yearbook of
government agencies or online databases or organizations like World Bank. Data taken from previous studies and
repurposed for another study is also considered secondary data.
Primary data collection methods include surveys, observations, experiments, and content analysis, among
others. Secondary data collection methods on the other hand include collection of information from datasets and
literature research among others. Each method has advantages and disadvantages.
When picking between the two data collection methods, consider your data’s availability and the means through which
you will obtain it.
Do you need to produce the data through primary data collection method like surveys? There are plenty of
information available in the internet, databases, and the archives of government offices and private organizations.
If what you need is available as secondary data, consider using preexisting data instead. It is possible that information
we need already exists as secondary data but is inaccessible to us.
Second determine how much skill, time, and resources you can allocate to gather data. Generally speaking,
collecting primary data takes more skill, time, and resources than using secondary data. Surveying hundreds of people or
recording observations over a long time requires skills and takes substantial amounts of time and resources. If you have
limited means, time and skills consider using secondary data unless you absolutely require primary data for your
research.
6. OUTLINING THE PLAN OF ANALYSIS
The plan of analysis outlines how you intend to analyze the data you have collected. It is developed around the
research questions and the framework of your research project. In thinking your plan of analysis, carefully consider how
the data can be analyzed in a way that will allow you to answer the research questions. Because we are dealing with
quantitative data, you must be familiar with at least some basic tools for analyzing information.
Instruction: Draft the written research methodology of your research topic by providing the parts for Chapter 2. Be
guided by the given criteria below.
Criterion 5 point 7 points 10 points Score

Research Design Research Design is Research Design is Research Design is
inappropriate. appropriate but not well- appropriate and well-
elaborated. elaborated.
Research Research Research Environment is Research Environment
Environment Environment is appropriate but not well- is appropriate and well-
inappropriate. elaborated. elaborated.
Research Research Research Research
Respondents/Subjects respondents/subject respondents/subjects is respondents/subjects is
is inappropriate. appropriate but not well- appropriate and well-
Instrumentation Instrumentation is Instrumentation is Instrumentation is
inappropriate. appropriate but not well- appropriate and well-
Data Gathering Data Gathering Data Gathering Procedure is Data Gathering
Procedure Procedure is inappropriate but not well- Procedure is
inappropriate. elaborated. appropriate and well-
elaborated.
Treatment of Data Statistical Treatment Statistical Treatment is Statistical treatment is
/Statistical Treatment is inappropriate appropriate and sufficient appropriate, sufficient,
/insufficient but not clearly explained. and clearly explained.
Ethical Considerations Ethical Ethical Considerations is Ethical Considerations is
Considerations is not appropriate and follow the appropriate and follow
appropriate and does guidelines but not well- the guidelines and well-
not follow the elaborated. elaborated.
guidelines
TOTAL
UNIT 4: PROPOSAL MAKING

Your major task for the midterms is to present a Quantitative Research Proposal (CHAPTERS 1, and 2) by group. Below
are the complete parts of a research proposal. Be guided by the criteria given.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Attachments /Appendices
INTRODUCTION METHODOLOGY
Rationale Research Design Title Page
Related Literature and Studies Research Respondents Table of Contents
Statement of the Problem Research Environment
Statement of Hypothesis* Samples and Sampling Procedure Research Instruments/Materials of the
Significance of the Study Related Data Gathering Procedure Study
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Research Instrument References
Scope and Delimitation Treatment of Data
Research Paradigm Ethical Consideration Communication Letter
FORMAT AND CONTENTS

The format of the proposal presentation should comprise the following main sections:
▪ Title page
▪ Table of contents
Chapter 1. Introduction. It covers the following aspects of the study:
1. Background – outline a preliminary literature review of the topic.
2. Theoretical or Conceptual Framework / Paradigm of the Study – identify the theoretical concepts, principles and
philosophical assumptions underpinning the study; and/or variables impacting on the research questions and their
inter-relationships.
3. Related Literature and Studies – discuss relevant literature of the study including the gaps of the research and other
relevant studies.
4. Problem or purpose of the Study – describe the problem which gave rise to the research.
5. Research questions or Hypotheses – outline a clear statement of research questions and/or hypotheses that the
research is designed to address.
6. Scope and Delimitation – explain how in-depth your study is to explore the research question and the parameters,
timeframe of the study and the factors and variables not mentioned in the study.
7. Significance of the Study – discuss why the research is significant and whether the research addresses an important
problem. Describe how the anticipated outcomes will advance the knowledge base of the discipline and why the
project aims are novel and innovative.
Chapter 2. Methodology. It covers the following aspects of the study:
1. Research Design. This part identifies the research methods to use in the study (descriptive, correlational, or
experimental, etc.)
2. Research Respondents. It provides clear description of the samples and sampling procedures used in the study. It tells
the reader who the respondents are, and how and why they were chosen.
3. Research Environment. This is a description of the research locale which includes significant features that are relevant
to the study.
4. Samples and Sampling Procedure. This section describes the sample and sampling procedure to be used for the
study.
5. Data Gathering Procedure. This is a detailed presentation of the various phases of the data gathering, from start to
finish. It provides a description of what exactly transpired in each phase. If possible, a flowchart may be used to
supplement the textual presentation.
6. Research Instrument. It presents a detailed description of each research instruments used, and when necessary,
explains in details
7. Treatment of Data. This section states clearly the statistical tools, scales and rubrics used to address the problems
that require quantitative techniques, and the processes and standards used to analyze the qualitative data.
• Research Instrument /Materials– the survey questionnaires or checklist to be used to gather data
• References – include a list of all cited references.
• Letter of communication – a letter containing the permission to conduct the study
Instruction: Present a manuscript of research proposal following the ethical and format standards in writing a
quantitative research paper. Be guided by the criteria below.
RUBRICS FOR THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Criterion 10 Points 30 Points 40 Points Score
Content and Organization of The research paper is not The research paper is
the Research Paper well provided with right Some parts of the provided with well-defined
information of the research paper are or right information of the
following components of well provided with following components of
research. right information of research. It follows the
the following standards of writing
components of research paper.
research.
Completeness of Research Some parts of the research Some parts of the All the parts of the
Paper paper are included research paper are research paper are
and not clearly included and not included and well
elaborated clearly elaborated. elaborated.
Citations and References Citations and references Citations and Citations and references
are not properly used references are are properly used and
and references are up properly used and references are up to date
to date and it uses 20% references are up to and it uses 80% of the
of the references. date and it uses 50% references.
of the references.
Instruments/Materials of the The instruments / Some of the The instruments /
study materials of the study instruments / materials of the study are
are not properly materials of the properly presented and are
presented. study are not ready for the conduct of
properly presented. the study.
Participation and Attendance The members are not Some of the group All the group members are
active during the members are not active and comprehensive
discussion and participating. Partial outputs are submitted on
workshop. outputs are time.
submitted during
the workshop.
TOTAL
References:
Solano, I., and David, O. (2019). Senior high school series practical research 2. DIWA Learning Systems Inc. Pages 1-101.
Torneo, A., and Torneo, H. (2018). Practical research 2: an introduction to quantitative research. Sibs Publishing House,
Inc., (Pages 105-162)
Asunsion, Z., et al. (2014). Thesis writing guide for SMU graduate student

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CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

UNIT I. NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

TOPIC 1.1 SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH

TOPIC 1.5 MAJOR APPROACHES USED IN RESEARCH

TOPIC 1.6 STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS

TOPIC 1.7 IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

UNIT 2. LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Situating the Theoretical Framework / Conceptual Framework in the Literature Review

Elements 10 Points 20 Points 30 Points Score

Review of Review of Related Review of Related Review of Related Literature is

UNIT 3. UNDERSTANDING DATA AND SYSTEMATIC WAYS TO COLLECT DATA

Topic 3.2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS

TOPIC 3.3 DESIGNING SURVEY INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

Types of Survey Questions

TOPIC 3.4 DATA ANALYSIS

What is your favorite movie genre?

Computing for variance of the previous example, we have:

used for nominal nonparametric data.

Figure. Comprehensive Flowchart for Determining Appropriate Statistical Test

Topic 3.5. WRITING THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. DEFINING AND OPERATIONALIZING THE KEY CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES

Concepts Indicators Variables Working Definition

B. Population living in B. Living b) %of population living in slums in terms of

3. DETERMINING THE LEVEL AND UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

Criterion 5 point 7 points 10 points Score

UNIT 4: PROPOSAL MAKING

PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER

FORMAT AND CONTENTS

RUBRICS FOR THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

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