KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

TOPIC

“EFFECTS OF AGGREGATE SIZE ON THE STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF

CONCRETE”

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF THE KWAME NKRUMAH
UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS
DEGREE IN QUANTITY SURVEYING AND CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS (QSCE)
AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT (CTM)

BY

AGNES ADOMAH

5808116

PETER AKWASI OWUSU

5803616

PETER DOE DEGBE

5799416

SUPERVISOR

DR ALEX ACHEAMPONG

JUNE 2020

i
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that this project report is the result of our own work and it has neither in whole

nor in part been prescribed by another degree elsewhere. The sources of the literatures used in this

study have been duly cited and acknowledged.

(STUDENTS)

AGNES ADOMAH PETER AKWASI OWUSU PETER DOE DEGBE

SIGN SIGN SIGN

JUNE 2020 JUNE 2020 JUNE 2020

SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION

I declare that I have supervised these students in undertaking the study reported herein and confirm

that these students have my permission to present it for assessment.

(SUPERVISOR)

DR ALEX ACHEAMPONG

SIGN

JUNE 2020

ii
I confirm that these students have duly undertaken all corrections suggested by the examiners in

conformity of the Department requirements.

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

PROF. BERNARD KOFI BAIDEN

SIGN

JUNE 2020

iii
 ABSTRACT

In construction for commercial structures, in particular, one of the major materials used on site is

concrete. Concrete is a composite material which hardens over time and obtained by mixing

cement, fine and coarse aggregates and water in their right proportions. It has many merits

including low cost, high availability, low maintenance, high compressive strength and high

durability. Production of concrete involves two basic steps which are selection of materials and

the processes involved. Coarse aggregates are important in the volume of concrete and research

indicates that changes in coarse aggregate size can change the strength of concrete, thus, this paper

is aimed at studying the effects of varying aggregate sizes on the strength properties of concrete,

most importantly, its compressive strength. The study conducted various experiments to test for

workability, compressive strength of concrete as well as to study the modes of failure. Literature

scanned revealed that the physical properties of all the materials used in the experimental

investigation on cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate were based on the standard experimental

procedures as per IS code provisions. The study found out that natural sand was used as fine

aggregate often while that of the binding material was Ordinary Portland Cement. After literature

review was undertaken, the results indicated that increases in coarse aggregate sizes increases the

workability as well as the compressive strength of concrete. Also, failure modes in convectional

concrete can be divided into three stages namely initial stage, crack propagation stage and the

failure stage. The study recommends that further detailed research should be conducted on this

topic and also aside aggregate size, the study recommends that future research works should

consider other attributes of aggregate such as type and shape on the strength properties of concrete.

Key words: concrete, concrete mix design, aggregate, workability, compressive strength and

failure modes.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we give thanks to God for his protection and guidance throughout this

research work.

We would like to express our profound gratitude to our research supervisor Dr. Alex

Acheampong for the opportunity given us to work on this project report. His guidance and

motivation inspired us to do our best and work on time too. We are grateful for what he has

offered us and it was a privilege to work under his guidance.

To our course mates and senior course mates, we say thanks for having you people around in

times of help.

May God richly bless you all.

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 DEDICATION

We dedicate this long essay to all our family members for their love, protection, financial support

and encouragement.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. v

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. vii

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

1.1 BACKGROUND TO STUDY .............................................................................................. 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................... 4

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................... 6

1.3.1 AIM ................................................................................................................................ 6

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................ 6

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................................. 6

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................................... 7

1.6 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 7

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 1.7 JUSTIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................... 7

1.8 STRUCTURE OF STUDY ................................................................................................... 8

Figure 1.8.1 Structure of Study ........................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 9

2.2 OVERVIEW OF CONCRETE ............................................................................................. 9

2.2.1 CONCRETE DEFINITION ......................................................................................... 10

2.2.2 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF CONCRETE ...................................................... 11

2.2.2.1 CEMENT .............................................................................................................. 11

2.2.2.2 AGGREGATES .................................................................................................... 12

2.2.2.3 WATER ................................................................................................................ 13

2.2.2.4 ADMIXTURES .................................................................................................... 14

2.2.3 STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE .................................................................................. 15

2.2.4 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE .................................................................................. 18

2.2.5 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ........................................................................................ 20

2.2.5.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF MIX DESIGN ............................................................... 23

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 Figure 2.2.5.2.1 Water Requirement for Different Slumps and Maximum Size of Coarse

Aggregate [In: Krishnaswami (2009)] .............................................................................. 24

2.2.5.2 MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE .............................................................................. 24

Figure 2.2.5.2.2 Bulk Volume of Coarse Aggregate [In: Krishnaswami (2009)] ............ 25

Figure 2.2.5.2.4 Water Cement Ratio Curve [In: Krishnaswami (2009)]......................... 26

Figure 2.2.5.2.3 First Estimate of Weight of Fresh Concrete [In: Krishnaswami (2009)] 26

2.2.6 CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................... 30

2.3 OVERVIEW OF AGGREGATE ........................................................................................ 31

2.3.1 AGGREGATE DEFINITION ..................................................................................... 32

2.3.2 STRUCTURE OF AGGREGATE ............................................................................... 32

2.3.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE .............................................................................. 33

2.3.3.1 AGGREGATE SHAPE ........................................................................................ 34

2.3.3.2 AGGREGATE SIZE ............................................................................................. 34

2.3.3.3 SURFACE TEXTURE ......................................................................................... 34

2.3.3.4 WATER ABSORPTION ...................................................................................... 35

2.3.3.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES ................................................. 35

2.3.3.5.1 UNIT WEIGHT AND VOIDS ...................................................................... 35

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 2.3.3.5.2 SHRINKAGE OF AGGREGATES ............................................................... 36

2.3.3.5.3 RESISTANCE TO FREEZING AND THAWING ....................................... 36

2.3.4 AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................ 36

2.3.5 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION .................................................................................. 36

2.3.6 AGGREGATE TYPE .................................................................................................. 40

2.3.6.1 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE ......................................................................... 40

2.3.6.2 HEAVYWEIGHT AGGREGATE ....................................................................... 41

2.3.6.3 BLAST FURNACE SLAG AGGREGATE ......................................................... 41

2.3.6.4 AGGREGATE FROM RECYCLED CONCRETE AND MUNICIPAL WASTE

........................................................................................................................................... 42

2.3.7 AGGREGATE SIZE .................................................................................................... 42

2.4 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE .................................................................................... 43

2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGGREGATE SIZE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

................................................................................................................................................... 46

2.5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ................................................. 47

2.5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT ............................ 47

2.5.2.1 AGGREGATE ...................................................................................................... 48

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 2.5.2.2 WATER CEMENT RATIO .................................................................................. 49

2.5.2.3 MIXING WATER ................................................................................................ 50

2.5.2.4 ADMIXTURES .................................................................................................... 50

2.5.2.5 OTHER FACTORS .............................................................................................. 50

2.6 AGGREGATE SIZE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ................................................. 51

Table 2.6.1 Percentage Strength of Concrete at various ages ....................................... 54

2.7 MODES OF FAILURE OF NORMAL STRENGTH CONCRETE .................................. 55

2.8 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................ 56

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 58

3.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ................................................................... 58

3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 58

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................... 58

3.2.1 TO DETERMINE THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE USING SLUMP TEST 58

3.2.2 TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF VARYING AGGREGATE SIZES ON THE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE ................................................................. 59

3.2.3 TO STUDY THE FAILURE MODES OF CONCRETE ............................................ 59

3.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY...................................................................................... 59

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3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 60

3.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................... 60

3.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 62

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO STUDY

Concrete is one of the major construction materials used in construction, in particular, for

commercial structures. It has many advantages including low cost, high availability, low

maintenance, high compressive strength and high durability. Concrete is heterogeneous and has a

complex structure with a wide range of particle sizes (Mehta et al, 1994). Concrete is most

environmental friendly construction material which offers the stability and flexibility in designing

all building structures (Sneka et al, 2018). As cited by Sneka et al (2018), concrete is attractive for

use as construction materials due to its advantages such as built-in-fire resistance, high

compressive strength and low maintenance. Ariöz et al (2009), indicated that concrete is a

composite material which is composed of elements of variable strength so that it is assumed that

the larger the volume of the concrete subjected to stress, the more likely it is to contain an element

of a given extreme low strength and as a result the measured strength of a specimen decreases with

increase in its size.

Concrete can be visualized as a multi-phase composite material made up of three phases; namely

mortar, mortar or aggregate interface and coarse aggregate phase (Patel et al, 2013). Concrete

production involves two basic steps which are materials selection and materials process. The

highly skilled personnels in the industry often do the selection while the process is left to lower

level personnel. Material that is used may or may not be the best but the quality of concrete will

depend on the process. To produce concrete, we need cement, aggregates (fine and coarse) and

water. People prefer mechanical concrete mixes to manual mixes since using mechanical mixes,

1
they are sure of the consistency of concrete mixes. The main constituents in concrete are cement,

water and aggregates (Kalpana et al, 2019). Kalpana et al (2019), made it clear that aggregates

occupy nearly 70% to 80% of the volume in cement concrete. They further explained that

aggregates are the important constituents in the concrete which affects the properties of fresh and

hardened concrete and also serves as the structure of the concrete.

Aggregates can be classified into 3 categories according to their bulk density; namely, normal

weight, light weight and heavy weight aggregates. Aggregates with oven dry particle density

between 2000kg/m3 and 3000kg/m3 are termed as normal weight while those with oven dry particle

density of over 3000kg/m3 are termed as heavy weight and the ones with oven dry particle density

greater than 1200kg/m3 but less than 2000kg/m3 are termed as light weight aggregates. Visual

inspection of coarse aggregates is often done to check the grading and particle size and also clay

lumps and coating. Coarse aggregates in normal concrete are mainly from rock fragments

characterised by high strength and therefore the aggregate interface is not a limiting factor

governing the strength requirement (Patel et al, 2013). Coarse aggregates play an important role

in concrete and research indicates that changes in coarse aggregates can change the strength and

fracture properties of concrete (Sneka et al, 2018). This understanding can only be gained through

extensive testing and observation. As cited by Kalpana et al (2019), coarse aggregates give good

structural ability to the concrete and fine aggregates fill the gaps between the coarse aggregates

while cement paste also fills the remaining gap in fine aggregates. Aggregates reduce shrinkage

and economy of concrete (Kalpana et al, 2019). To store aggregates well, we need to keep them

uniform and provide essential partitioning to separate different aggregate sizes. Compressive

strength is one of the important properties of concrete as it influences the durability requirements

of concrete (Nwofor et al, 2016).

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High strength concrete is a type of high performance concrete. The primary difference between

high strength concrete and normal-strength concrete relates to the compressive strength that refers

to the maximum resistance of a concrete sample to the applied pressure (Yaqub et al, 2006).

Although there is no precise point of separation between high strength concrete and normal

strength concrete, American Concrete Institute committee 363 defines high strength concrete as

concrete with a compressive strength greater than 41MPa (6000psi) (Yaqub et al, 2006; Beshr et

al, 2003). Others define high strength concrete as that possessing a uniaxial compressive strength

greater than that which is ordinarily obtained in a region, because the maximum strength of

concrete which is currently being produced varies considerably from region to region (Beshr et al,

2003). According to Burnet and Wolsiefer, high strength concrete is a superior product with

increased modulus of elasticity, lower creep, lower drying and shrinkage, low permeability and

increased chemical resistance (Yaqub et al, 2006). Yaqub et al (2006), made it clear that high

strength concrete is specified where reduced weight is important and also reduces the total amount

of materials placed and lower the overall cost of the structure.

The properties of coarse aggregates seldom become strength-limiting because it corresponds to a

water-cement ratio in the range of 0.5 to 0.7 in conventional concrete (Beshr et al, 2003). Within

this range, the weakest components in concrete are the hardened cement paste and the transition

zone between the cement paste and the coarse aggregate, rather than the coarse aggregate itself.

As cited by Kalpana et al (2019), the properties of the concrete can be improved by using well

graded aggregates, the well gradation in aggregate can be attained by optimisation of aggregate

gradation, in these views the importance of optimisation of the aggregate arises. The most suitable

of aggregates gradation for concrete mix, however will depend on actual grading, particle sizes

and surface texture. Nwofor et al (2016) further indicates that coarse aggregates predominantly

3
range from particle size of 5mm to an average of 20mm size and mostly graded to form dense

concrete. Coarse aggregates mainly provide the necessary weight to the concrete, hence improving

the volume stability and durability of the concrete, thereby affecting the plastic and hardened state

of concrete through its physical characteristics (Nwofor et al, 2016).

Proper selection of aggregates can minimize the increased water and cementations material

contents needed to ensure adequate workability (Patel et al, 2013). The onset of failure is

manifested by crack growth in the concrete and for normal concrete the crack growth is mainly

around the cement paste or at the aggregate or cement paste interfacial zone (Patel et al, 2013).

Patel et al (2013), made it clear that the strength of concrete at the interfacial zone essentially

depends on the integrity of the cement paste and the nature of the coarse aggregate. Concrete

strength is dictated by the strength of bond between cement paste and aggregates. Used coarse

aggregates also increases the bulk density of concrete (Kalpana et al, 2019). Normally from

production of the concrete, cement is the most expensive material about 55% to 60% of the total

cost of the production of concrete material and the paste content only 25% to 35% of the total

volume of the concrete.

By far the most common test carried out on concrete is the compressive strength test (Viso et al,

2008).

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Coarse aggregates are relatively inert material fillers which when combined with cement and water

forms a stone-like material called concrete (Nwofor et al, 2016). Concrete is a very important

material and widely used construction material since ancient time (Sneka et al, 2018). Sneka et al

(2018) made it clear that coarse aggregates are important in the volume of concrete and research

4
is indicating that changes in coarse aggregate size can change the strength of concrete and fracture

properties of concrete. Nwofor et al (2016) indicated that coarse aggregate provides the necessary

weight to concrete, hence improving the volume stability and durability of concrete, thereby

affecting the plastic and hardened state of concrete through its physical characteristics and the

study suggested that increasing the maximum aggregate size reduced the total surface area of the

aggregate thus reducing the mixing water requirements.

Beshr et al (2003) work as cited by Patel et al (2013) indicates that the compressive strength of

concrete depends on the water cement ratio, degree of compaction, ratio of cement to aggregate,

bond between mortar and aggregate and aggregate grading, shape, strength and size. Concrete

structures around the globe cracks and loses stiffness when subjected to external load which

thereby leads to decrease in concrete strength (Sneka et al, 2018). We need to increase the load

carrying capacity of structures by using concrete of high strength.

Aside the effect of aggregate size which is part of concrete’s constituent materials on the strength

of concrete, there are other factors which affects the strength of concrete. These include method

of production and curing and is being researched by other researchers. As cited by Ariöz (2009),

the effect of aggregate size on strength is not large but it is significant and should not be ignored

in research. This statement makes it worthy of consideration and study. As a result of some

negative effects such as loss in workability and loss in strength of concrete, there is the need to

conduct a research into studying the effects of varying aggregate sizes on the strength properties

of concrete.

5
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 AIM

This research aims at investigating the effects of varying aggregate sizes on the strength properties

of concrete noting that other characteristics of concrete such as impermeability, durability and

volume stability may be very important, the compressive strength is considered the most viable

property.

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES

The research seeks to actualize the following:

1. To determine the workability of concrete made from different sized coarse aggregates using the

slump test.

2. To study the effect of compressive strength of normal strength concrete made from different

sizes of coarse aggregates.

3. To study the failure modes of concrete from different sizes of aggregates.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The following research questions are set for the purpose of seeking solutions to the above

objectives:

1. What is the workability of concrete using different sized course aggregates?

2. What is the compressive strength of normal strength concrete made from different sizes of

course aggregates?

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3. What are the failure modes of concrete using different sizes of aggregates?

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Kumasi in the Ashanti region is one of the major cities in Ghana aside other cities like Accra and

Kumasi will be the main focus as the geographical scope of this study. This is owing to the fact

that most construction related works occur in major cities in the country and also because of its

proximity to the researchers.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

Ordinary Portland Cement grade 53, aggregates (fine and coarse) and water were used by other

researchers in the production of concrete. Literature scanned revealed that the physical properties

of all the materials used in the experimental investigation on cement, fine aggregate, coarse

aggregate were based on the standard experimental procedures as per IS code provisions. Freshly

mixed concrete was tested for workability using the slump test by other researchers. Concrete was

also moulded in standard cubes of size 150mm by 150mm by 150mm and tested for compressive

strength after specific days and failure modes in the concrete specimen were studied too by other

researchers.

1.7 JUSTIFICATIONS

The study will be of importance to the construction industry in a way that the compressive strength

properties of concrete will be greatly improved by the use of the various appropriate varying

aggregate sizes and the mix designs needed. Academia will also benefit one way or the other since

it will provide important information to people and motivate some of them to engage in detailed

research on the effects of aggregate sizes on the strength properties of concrete and other factors

7
such as degree of compaction and ratio of cement to aggregate. It will also encourage the laymen

and professionals to know what aggregate size is needed for a specific concrete strength.

1.8 STRUCTURE OF STUDY

The research is divided into three main chapters namely introduction, literature review and finally

recommendations and conclusion. Below is a figure of the structure of the study and various

information about each chapter.

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3

1.1 Background to Study 2.1 Introduction 3.1 Introduction

1.2 Problem Statement 2.2 Overview of Concrete 3.2 Research Objectives

1.3 Aim and Objectives 2.3 Overview of Aggregate 3.3 Limitations of the Study

1.4 Research Questions 2.4 – 2.7 Literature Review 3.4 Recommendations

on Research Objectives
1.5 Scope of the Study 3.5 Conclusion

2.8 Summary
1.6 Methodology 3.6 References

1.7 Justifications

1.8 Structure of Study

Figure 1.8.1 Structure of Study

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the concept of strength properties of concrete. It begins by focusing on the

overview of concrete and aggregate and its associated definitions. Literature was scanned for

studies on concrete and aggregate that were available. It follows by discussing the strength

properties of concrete. The chapter concludes with a summary.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF CONCRETE

The word concrete originated from the Latin word “concretus” which means condensed and

hardened (Alhalabi et al, 2017). They explained further that concrete is one of the most used

building materials and Krishnaswami (2009) made it clear that concrete is the second largest

material consumed by human beings after food and water as per World Health Organisation

(WHO). Mehta et al (1994) study indicates that the rate at which concrete is used today is much

higher than it was 40 years ago and it is estimated that the present consumption of concrete in the

world is around 11 billion metric tonnes every year. As cited by Mehta et al (1994), mortar is like

concrete without course aggregates, therefore, mortar is a mixture of sand (fine aggregate), cement

and water. They further referred to grout as the mixture of cementitious material and aggregate,

usually fine aggregate, to which sufficient water is added to produce a pouring consistency without

segregation of the constituents. Mortar or concrete that is pneumatically transported through a hose

and projected onto a surface at high velocity is referred to as shotcrete.

Concrete is a universal and major construction material in the construction industry that is used all

around the world. The raw materials needed for its manufacture are readily available in all parts

9
of the world. It is relatively low in cost. Concrete has no form on its own and needs something like

formwork in place to keep it in shape. Formworks are designed to give the desired shape of the

concrete. Concrete possess a high compressive strength and is usually more economical than steel

and is non corrosive which can be made with locally available materials (Krishnaswami, 2009).

As cited by Alhalabi et al (2017), the earliest use of cement dated back to twelve million years

ago, while the early use of concrete like building material dated back to 6500 Before Christ (BC).

However, it was not formed as concrete until later during the Roman Empire. Krishnaswami

(2009) mentioned that the hardening is caused by chemical action between water and the cement

due to which concrete grows stronger with age. He explained further by saying concrete is good

in compression but weak in tension, hence liable to be cracked when subjected to tensile load.

Reinforced concrete was developed in the 1850s by several people involving J.L Lambot (Allen,

1938).

Concrete is strengthened by steel bars forming a composite construction called Reinforced Cement

Concrete (RCC) in situations where tensile stresses are developed (Krishnaswami, 2009). He

continued by saying the strength, durability and other characteristics of concrete depend upon the

properties of its ingredients, proportion of the mix, the method of compaction and other controls

during placing, compaction and curing. Even though, concrete is used widely in all present day

constructions, it is, however, one of the major producers of carbon dioxide which contributes

directly in destroying our environment (Alhalabi et al, 2017).

2.2.1 CONCRETE DEFINITION

Krishnaswami (2009) and Mehta et al (1994) both cited concrete as a composite material but

Krishnaswami (2009) further explained that concrete is obtained by mixing cement, fine and

coarse aggregate and water in required proportions which hardens over time and Mehta et al (1994)

10
talked about the fact that it consists essentially of a binding medium within which particles or

fragments of aggregate are embedded in. The proportion of each material controls the strength and

quality of the resultant concrete. Concrete strength is affected by factors including raw materials,

water cement ratio, aggregates, relative humidity and curing of concrete. During hardening of

concrete, considerable heat known as heat of hydration is given off as a result of the chemical

combination of cement and water to form strong crystals that bind the aggregates together.

Concrete is made up of two parts, that is, aggregates and paste. The paste is cement and water with

some entrapped air. The aggregates range from fine to coarse with various degrees of sizes within

each.

2.2.2 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS OF CONCRETE

The constituent materials of concrete are cement, aggregate (fine and coarse), water and if possible

admixtures in their required proportions.

2.2.2.1 CEMENT

Mehta et al (1994) defined cement as a finely pulverized, dry material that by itself is not a binder

but develops the binding property as a result of hydration, that is from the chemical reaction

between cement minerals and water. A cement is called hydraulic when the hydration products are

stable in an aqueous environment. Mehta et al (1994) said, “in hydraulic cement concrete, the

binder is formed from a mixture of hydraulic cement and water”. The most commonly used

hydraulic cement for making concrete is Portland Cement (PC) as cited by Mehta et al (1994)

which consists essentially of reactive calcium silicates; the calcium silicate hydrates formed during

the hydration of Portland Cement are primarily responsible for its adhesive characteristic and are

stable in aqueous environment.

11
Cement is the setting agent of concrete and a material with adhesive and cohesive properties

capable of bonding mineral fragments into a compact unit. It can be either Portland or High

Alumina Cement but the most widely used cement is the Portland Cement which was patented in

the year 1824 by Joseph Aspdin. It is simply a fine grey powder. Portland Cement is made from

chalk, limestone and clay. This can also be classified into two various types namely Rapid

Hardening (RH) and Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). The principal constituent of cement is lime

which is commonly derived from limestone, marble, marl or seashell which hardens under water

in a chemical reaction. It consists of ferrite, silica and alumina which are derived from clay.

Cement becomes a paste when mixed with water and used in the production of concrete.

Other types of cement include:

1. Portland Blast Furnace; BS 146

2. Low Heat Portland Cement; BS 137

3. Low Alkali Sulphate-Resisting; BS 1370

4. Masonry; BS 5224

5. Portland Limestone; BS 7583

2.2.2.2 AGGREGATES

Aggregates are materials mixed with concrete paste (cement and water) to form concrete. We have

fine and also coarse aggregates. Fine aggregates often referred to as sand among workers in the

construction industry while they also refer to coarse aggregates as stones. All in aggregates are

usually composed of both fine and coarse aggregates. Materials such as crushed stones and gravels

12
are available options as aggregates for the making of concrete. Aggregates must be graded such

that smaller particles of fine aggregates can fill void created by coarse aggregates. Careful

consideration is given to aggregates in the making of concrete because the sizes of aggregates

greatly affect the strength properties of concrete.

Concrete strength is dictated by the strength of bond between cement paste and aggregates.

Aggregates must be check thoroughly any time they are delivered to construction sites or any place

aside site. Visual inspection of coarse aggregates is often done to check the grading and particle

shape and also clay lumps and coating. On the other hand, a simple site test is done to check the

cleanliness of fine aggregates by just rubbing of hand. In doing so, one can check for staining.

Aggregates must be stored well and kept uniform in both grading and moisture content. Enough

essential partitioning must be provided to separate different aggregate sizes. Stockpile should be

large enough to ensure uniformity of moisture content and should be allowed to stand for at least

12 hours before use to allow draining and drying.

2.2.2.3 WATER

The water used for mixing concrete must be free from impurities (that is the water should be safe

for drinking) in order not to affect the concrete. When water that is used for the mixing of concrete

is impure, it affects the strength of concrete due to the presence of its particles. Water containing

organic contaminations can reduce the rate of hydration and therefore should be avoided. On the

other hand, water with dissolved salts in it can increase the rate of hydration and speed up steel

corrosion by reacting with chlorides or cements. A portion of the water content is used to set up

the chemical reaction which produces the binding qualities of cement and also hardens the paste

and the remaining portion is basically used to give the concrete its desired workability. The water

13
cement ratio which gives rise to the paste of concrete should be checked well and maintained

throughout the mix of the concrete.

2.2.2.4 ADMIXTURES

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) C 125 defines admixture as a material other

than water, aggregates, hydraulic cements and fiber reinforcement that is used as an ingredient of

concrete or mortar and added to the batch immediately before or during mixing (Mehta et al, 1994).

Admixtures are materials other than main constituents (water, cement and aggregates) added at the

mixing stage of concrete. As indicated in Mehta et al (1994) work, the use of admixtures in

concrete is now widespread due to many benefits which are possible by their application. He

further gave a brief information about the various types of admixtures. For instance, chemical

admixtures can modify the setting and hardening characteristic of the cement paste by influencing

the rate of cement hydration. Water reducing admixtures can plasticize fresh concrete mixtures by

reducing the surface tension of water. Air entraining admixtures can improve the durability of

concrete exposed to cold weather. Mineral admixtures such as pozzolans (materials containing

reactive silica) can reduce thermal cracking in mass concrete. As cited by Olin et al (1994),

concrete should be workable, finishable, strong, water tight and water resistant and one way to

improve upon the workability of concrete is by the use of admixtures. They further explained that

admixtures can be used to reduce the separation of coarse and fine aggregates due to setting out of

the heavier coarse aggregate and also to entrain air or to retard setting and hardening. Doses are

usually in small quantities (less than 1% by weight of concrete) and requires the use of special

dispensers and good supervision. Side effects are present only if overdose occurs.

14
There are 4 basic types of admixtures. Water reducers also known as plasticizers is one of the 4

types of admixtures. They are used to increase workability without the addition of more water.

Usage of plasticizers or super plasticizers often leads to reduction of water cement ratio and

increases the strength of concrete. When used improperly, the side effects include set retardation

and air entrainment. Another type of admixture is retarders which is mostly used in hot tropical

areas like Ghana is used to reduce the rate of setting of concrete. Retarders slow down the heat

production in the exothermic reaction of cement and water. They can lead to long term strength

improvement of concrete but overdose will kill the setting of concrete. While retarders are used in

hot areas, there is a type of admixture that works best in cold temperate areas like the United States

which is termed as accelerators. They are used to increase the rate of stiffening or setting of

concrete. The last type of admixture is the air entrainers. It is the intentional introduction of

controlled amount of air bubbles into a concrete mix. These air bubbles or pockets allow future

expansion of concrete without altering the structure during freezing.

2.2.3 STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE

Concrete has a highly heterogeneous and complex structure with a wide range of particle sizes as

cited by Mehta et al (1994). Range of particle size are grouped into two, which are macrostructure

of aggregate and binding medium phases and the second which is microstructure of interfacial

transition zone. Mehta et al (1994) said, “the term macrostructure is generally used for the gross

microstructure visible to the human eye and microstructure is the type, amount, size, shape and

distribution of phases present in a solid constitute”. At the macroscopic level, concrete may be

considered as a two phase material, consisting of aggregate particles dispersed in a matrix of

cement paste and at the microscopic level, the complexities of the concrete microstructure are

evident; it becomes obvious that the two phases of the microstructure are neither homogeneously

15
distributed with respect to each other nor are they themselves homogeneous (Mehta et al, 1994).

The microstructure of concrete is a complex structure too and therefore; it is very difficult to

constitute realistic models of its microstructure from which the behaviours of the material can be

reliably predicted, however, knowledge of the microstructure and properties of the individual

components of concrete and their relationship to each other is useful for exercising control on the

properties (Mehta et al, 1994). The highly heterogeneous and dynamic nature of the microstructure

of concrete are the primary reasons why the theoretical microstructure property relationship

models that are generally so helpful for predicting the behaviour of engineering materials are not

of much practical use in the case of concrete (Mehta et al, 1994).

As cited by Mehta et al (1994), there are three components of the concrete microstructure, namely,

hydrated cement paste, aggregate and interfacial transition zone between the cement paste and

aggregate. Mehta et al (1994) indicated that from examination of a cross section of concrete, two

out of the three phases can be easily distinguished and they are aggregate particles of varying size

and shape and the binding medium composed of an incoherent mass of the hydrated cement paste.

For a well hydrated cement paste, the inhomogeneous distribution of solids and voids alone can

perhaps be ignored when modeling the behavior of the material but however, microstructural

studies have shown that this cannot be done for the hydrated cement paste present in concrete

(Mehta et al, 1994). According to Mehta et al (1994), the microstructure of hydrated cement paste

in the vicinity of large aggregate particles is usually very different from the microstructure of bulk

paste or mortar in the system. They elaborated further by saying many aspects of concrete

behaviour under stress can be explained only when the cement paste aggregate interface is treated

as a third phase of the concrete microstructure.

16
Because of experimental difficulties, information about the interfacial transition zone in concrete

is scarce; however, based on a description given by Maso, some understanding of its

microstructural characteristics can be obtained by following the sequence of its development from

the time concrete is placed (Mehta et al, 1994). The sequence is as follows, as cited by Mehta et al

(1994); First, in freshly compacted concrete, water films form around the large aggregate particles

and this accounts for a higher water cement ratio closer to the larger aggregate than away from it.

Next, as in the bulk paste, calcium, sulfate, hydroxyl and aluminate ions produced by the

dissolution of calcium sulfate and calcium aluminate compounds combine to form ettringite and

calcium hydroxide. Owing to the high water cement ratio, these crystalline products in the vicinity

of the coarse aggregate consist of relatively larger crystals and therefore form a more porous

framework than in the bulk cement paste or mortar matrix. The microstructure of the interfacial

transition zone especially the volume of voids and microcracks present has a great influence on

the stiffness or the elastic modulus of concrete as cited by (Mehta et al, 1994) and they continued

by saying that, in the composite material, the interfacial transition zone serves as a bridge between

the two components: the mortar matrix and the coarse aggregate particles. Even when the

individual components are of high stiffness, the stiffness of the composite is reduced because of

the broken bridges (Mehta et al, 1994). Thus the unique features of the concrete microstructure

can be summarized as follows: First, there is the interfacial transition zone, which represents a

small region next to the particles of coarse aggregate. Second, each of the three phases is itself a

multiphase in character. For instance, each aggregate particle may contain several minerals in

addition to microcracks and voids. Third, unlike other engineering materials, the microstructure of

concrete is not an intrinsic characteristic of the material because the two components of the

17
microstructure, namely, the hydrated cement paste and the interfacial transition zone are subject

to change with time, environmental humidity, and temperature (Mehta et al, 1994).

2.2.4 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

According to Maunahan (2016), we can divide properties of concrete into two major groups that

is, properties of fresh concrete and the other which is properties of hardened concrete. For hardened

concrete, we can talk about properties such as strength, creep, durability, shrinkage, modulus of

elasticity and water tightness. Properties of concrete entails a lot but a few of the properties are

discussed here. One necessary property of concrete is the ability of it to carry superimposed loads.

Concrete produced are able to last longer and it is moderately good in resisting bad weather

conditions, wear and decay. Most concrete are impervious to water unless designed and specified

as such. Whenever we make reference to concrete strength, we generally talk about compressive

strength of the concrete. As cited by Maunahan (2016), concrete tensile strength ranges from 7%

to 12% of its compressive strength and both tensile strength and bending strength can be increased

by adding reinforcement; Mehta et al (1994) cited that the tensile and flexural strengths of concrete

are of the order of 10 and 15% of the compressive strength respectively. They attributed the reasons

for such a large difference between the tensile and compressive strength to the heterogeneous and

complex microstructure of concrete.

Strength is a measure of the amount of stress required to fail a material (Mehta et al, 1994).

According to Mehta et al (1994), the working stress theory for concrete design considers concrete

as mostly suitable for bearing compressive load; this is because it is the compressive strength of

the material that is generally specified. They also cited that since the strength of concrete is a

function of the cement hydration process which is relatively slow, traditionally the specifications

and tests for concrete strength are based on specimens cured under standard temperature humidity

18
conditions for a period of 28 days. Durability is defined as the service life of a material under given

environmental condition (Mehta et al, 1994) and Maunahan (2016) cited that the design service

life of most buildings is often 30 years although buildings last 50 to 100 years.

According to Mehta et al (1994), watertight concrete structures endure for a long time and the

excellent conditions of the 2700 years old concrete lining of a water storage tank on the Rodos

Island in Greece and several aqueducts built in Europe by the Romans nearly 2000 years ago are

a living testimony to the long term durability of concrete in moist environments. As cited by

Maunahan (2016), different concretes require different degrees of durability depending on the

exposure environment and properties desired and appropriate concrete ingredients, mix

proportions, finishes and curing practices can be adjusted on the basis of required durability of

concrete. In general, there is a relationship between strength and durability; low strength is

associated with high porosity and high permeability (Mehta et al, 1994). Less durable concretes

are often the permeable ones. The permeability of concrete depends not only on mix proportions,

compaction and curing but also on microcracks caused by the ambient temperature and humidity

cycles (Mehta et al, 1994). Most concrete buildings are demolished due to obsolescence rather

than deterioration (Maunahan, 2016).

Creep is another property of concrete which is defined as the deformation of structure under

sustained load as cited by Maunahan (2016). Basically long term stress on concrete can make it

change shape and this deformation occurs in the direction the force is being applied (Maunahan,

2016). He cited aggregate, mix proportions and age of concrete as being factors affecting creep.

Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio between the stress and the reversible strain as cited by

Mehta et al (1994). They further differentiated between homogeneous and heterogeneous

materials. In homogenous materials, the elastic modulus is a measure of the interatomic bonding

19
forces and is unaffected by microstructural changes and this is not true for heterogeneous

multiphase materials like concrete. According to Mehta et al (1994), elastic modulus of concrete

in compression varies and according to Maunahan (2016), modulus of elasticity of concrete

depends on the elastic modulus of the concrete ingredients and their mix proportions and the

significance of the elastic limit in structural design lies in the fact that it represents the maximum

allowable stress before the material undergoes permanent deformation as cited by Mehta et al

(1994). Maunahan (2016) defined shrinkage as the volume decrease of concrete caused by drying

and chemical changes and cited that water tightness (impermeability of concrete) is directly related

to the durability of concrete; thus, the lesser the permeability the more the durability of concrete.

2.2.5 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Mindess et al (n.d) cited the proportioning of concrete mixtures, more commonly referred to as

mix design, as a process that consists of two interrelated steps; which are the selection of suitable

ingredients or materials (cement, aggregate, water and admixtures if required) of concrete and the

second step which is determining their relative quantities (proportioning) to produce concrete (as

economically as possible) of the appropriate workability, strength and durability. They further

indicated that these proportions will depend on the particular ingredients used which will

themselves depend on the application. Krishnaswami (2009) gave a similar information about

concrete mix. He said the design of concrete mixes involves determination of the proportions of

the given constituents namely, cement, water, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate with admixtures

if any. The mix design methods being followed in different countries are mostly based on empirical

relationships, charts and graphs developed from extensive experimental investigations. The

proportioning of concrete mixtures is the process of arriving at the right combination of cement,

aggregates, water and admixtures for making concrete according to given specifications (Mehta et

20
al, 1994). Mindess et al (n.d) said other criteria such as designing to minimize shrinkage and creep

may be considered, however, although a considerable amount of work has been done on the

theoretical aspects of mix design, it still remains largely an empirical procedure. It is assumed that

if mix designs are based on achieving a specified compressive strength at a given workability and

age, the other properties (except perhaps resistance to freezing and thawing and other durability

problems like resistance to chemical attack) will be satisfactory (Mindess et al, n.d).

Three basic considerations are examined before considering mix design methods by Mindess et al

(n.d);

1. ECONOMY; The cost of concrete is made up of the costs of materials, labour and equipment.

However, except for some special concretes, the costs of labour and equipment are largely

independent of the type and quality of concrete produced. It is therefore the material costs that are

most important in determining the relative costs of different mix designs. Since cement is much

more expensive than aggregate, it is clear that minimizing the cement content is the most important

single factor in reducing concrete costs. This can, in general, be done by using the lowest slump

that will permit adequate placement, by using the largest practical maximum size of aggregate, by

using the optimum ratio of coarse to fine aggregates and where necessary by using appropriate

admixtures. The cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, for instance, a concrete mix of

inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction with

available equipment. It should be noted here that in addition to cost, there are other benefits to

using a low cement content; shrinkage will in general be reduced and there will be less heat of

hydration. However, if the cement contents are too low, they will diminish the early strength of

the concrete and will make uniformity of the concrete a more critical consideration. The economy

of a particular mix design should also be related to the degree of quality control that can be

21
expected on a job. The mean concrete strength must be higher than the specified minimum

compressive strength because of the inherent variability of concrete.

2. WORKABILITY; Clearly, a properly designed mix must be capable of being placed and

compacted properly with the equipment available. Finishability must be adequate and segregation

and bleeding should be minimized. As a general rule, the concrete should be supplied at the

minimum workability that will permit adequate placement. For concretes without mineral

admixtures, the water requirement for workability depends mostly on the characteristics of the

aggregate rather than those of the cement. Where necessary, workability should be improved by

redesigning the mix to increase the mortar content rather than by simple adding more water or

more fine material. Thus, cooperation between the mix designer and the contractor is essential to

ensure a good concrete mix. In some cases, a less economical mix may be the best solution. A deaf

ear should be turned to the frequent pleas from the job site for “more water”, however, prudent

planning is needed to ensure that concrete with the required workability is delivered.

3. STRENGTH AND DURABILITY; In general, concrete specifications will require a minimum

compressive strength. They may also impose limitations on the permissible water cement ratios

and minimum cement contents. It is important to ensure that these requirements are not mutually

incompatible. It is not necessarily the 28-day strength that is most important; strengths at other

ages may control the design. Specifications may also require that the concrete meet certain

durability requirements such as resistance to freezing and thawing and chemical attack. These

considerations may provide further limitations on the water cement ratio or cement content and in

addition may require the use of admixtures. The process of mix design, then, involves the

satisfactory resolution of all the requirements just described. Since these requirements cannot all

be optimized simultaneously, some compromises (as between strength and workability) will be

22
necessary. It must be remembered that even a perfect mix will not perform properly unless the

proper placing, finishing and curing procedures are carried out.

2.2.5.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF MIX DESIGN

According to Mindess et al (n.d), there have been two aspects of mix design in which most of the

theoretical work has been carried out; water content and aggregate grading and most of the modern

empirical design methods depend heavily on these two considerations. As cited by Mehta et al

(1994), before starting concrete mix design procedures, various background data such as sieve

analysis of fine and coarse aggregates, dry rodded unit weight of coarse aggregate, bulk specific

gravity of materials, absorption capacities of aggregates and job specifications (maximum water

cement ratio and maximum size of coarse aggregate) should be gathered. According to

Krishnaswami (2009), there are four methods used in practice for concrete mix design which are;

American Concrete Institute (ACI) mix design method, USBR mix design method, British mix

design method – Department of the Environment (DOE) and Indian Standard mix design method.

Since ACI mix design method is an originator for all other methods, we use this in practice

(Krishnaswami, 2009). He also cited that the design on concrete mix is based on some factors such

as grade of concrete, type of cement, maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate, minimum water

cement ratio and workability. The factors (as per SP23-1982) will be briefly discussed below as

cited in Krishnaswami (2009).

1. Grade of concrete; Gives the characteristics strength requirements of concrete. Concrete mix

has to be designed for a target mean strength which is higher than the characteristics strength

depending upon the level of quality control available at the site.

23
 2. Type of cement; Influences the rate of development of compressive strength of concrete as well

as durability under aggressive environments.

3. Maximum nominal size of coarse aggregate; It is found that at constant water cement ratio, the

larger the size of aggregate the smaller the cement requirement.

4. Minimum water cement ratio; Depends on the type of cement used.

5. Workability; Related to the size and shape of the section to be concreted.

As cited by Krishnaswami (2009), the methods suggested by the ACI Committee 211 [1969] are

used almost everywhere. There are two methods, one method is based on the estimated weight of

concrete per unit volume and the other method is based on the calculation of the absolute volume

occupied by concrete ingredients (Krishnaswami, 2009).

2.2.5.2 MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE

Figure 2.2.5.2.1 Water Requirement for Different Slumps and Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate [In: Krishnaswami (2009)]

24
Krishnaswami (2009) gave the outline of mix design procedures as follows;

1. Arrive at the target mean strength from the characteristic strength required.

2. Choose the water cement ratio from curve for the target mean strength.

3. The water content is selected from Figure 2.2.5.2.1 for the desired workability and maximum

size of aggregate.

4. Calculate the cement content from the water content and water cement ratio.

5. From Figure 2.2.5.2.2, the coarse aggregate content is estimated for the maximum size of

aggregate and fineness modulus of sand.

6. Fine aggregate content is determined by subtracting the sum of the absolute volume of coarse

aggregate, cement, water and air content from the unit volume of concrete.

7. Arrive at the concrete mix proportions.

Figure 2.2.5.2.2 Bulk Volume of Coarse Aggregate [In: Krishnaswami (2009)]

25
Figure 2.2.5.2.3 First Estimate of Weight of Fresh Concrete [In: Krishnaswami (2009)]

Figure 2.2.5.2.4 Water Cement Ratio Curve [In: Krishnaswami (2009)]

26
The ACI methods take into consideration the requirements for workability, consistency, strength

and durability. In the following section, step-by-step operation involved in the first method as

suggested by the ACI is presented.

STEP 1

Determine the slump depending on the degree of workability and placing condition as cited by

Krishnaswami (2009). He also cited that a concrete of the stiffest consistency (lowest slump) that

can be placed efficiently should be used.

STEP 2

For the same volume of coarse aggregate, using a large maximum size of a well graded aggregate

will produce less void space than a smaller size, thereby reducing the mortar requirement in the

concrete mixture (Mehta et al, 1994). Determine the maximum size of coarse aggregate that is

economically available and consistent with dimensions of the structure. According to Mehta et al

(1994), ACI recommends that, in no event, should the maximum aggregate size exceed one fifth

of the narrowest dimension between the sides of the forms, one third the depth of slabs or three

fourths of the minimum clear spacing between reinforcing bars.

STEP 3

According to ACI recommendations, the quantity of mixing water per unit volume of concrete

required to produce a given slump is dependent mainly on the maximum particle size of the

aggregate and whether or not the mixture has entrained air (Mehta et al, 1994). As cited by

Krishnaswami (2009), the amount of mixing water for the given slump is determined alongside

27
maximum size of coarse aggregate from Figure 2.2.5.2.1. The table also indicates approximate

amount of entrapped air.

STEP 4

Because different aggregates and cement types may produce different strength at the same water

cement ratio, it is desirable to develop the relationship between strength and water cement ratio

for the materials to be used actually (Mehta et al, 1994). Determine the minimum water cement

ratio from the curve as cited by Krishnaswami (2009).

STEP 5

Determine the amount of cement per unit volume of concrete from steps 3 and 4 and this cement

content should not be less than the cement content required based on durability or some other

criterion (Krishnaswami, 2009).

STEP 6

Economy can be gained by using the maximum possible volume of coarse aggregate on a dry

rodded basis per unit volume of concrete and data from a large number of tests have shown that

with properly graded materials the finer the sand and the larger the size of the coarse aggregate

particles, the higher is the volume of the coarse aggregate that can be used to produce a concrete

mixture of satisfactory workability (Mehta et al, 1994). Determine the amount of coarse aggregate

required for a unit volume of concrete from Figure 2.2.5.2.2. The value thus obtained is multiplied

by the dry rodded unit weight of the aggregate to get the required dry weight (Krishnaswami,

2009).

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STEP 7

At completion of step 6, all ingredients of the concrete have been estimated except the fine

aggregate, thereby, the amount of fine aggregate is determined (Krishnaswami, 2009). As cited by

Mehta et al (1994), its quantity is determined by difference, either by the “weight” method or by

the “absolute volume”. According to Krishnaswami (2009), if the weight of concrete per unit

volume is assumed, the required weight of fine aggregate is simply the difference between the

weight of fresh concrete and the total weight of all other ingredients. In the case of the absolute

volume method, the total volume displaced by the known ingredients (water, air, cement and

coarse aggregate) is subtracted from the unit volume of concrete to obtain the required volume of

fine aggregate and this is converted to weight units by multiplying it by the density of the material

(Mehta et al, 1994).

STEP 8

According to Mehta et al (1994), generally, the stock aggregates are moist and as cited by

Krishnaswami (2009), the mixing water quantity must be adjusted based on the moisture content

in the aggregate.

STEP 9

Because of many assumptions underlying the foregoing theoretical calculations, the mix

proportions for the actual materials to be used must be checked and adjusted by means of

laboratory trials consisting of small batches and fresh concrete should be tested for workability;

specimens of hardened concrete cured under standard conditions should be tested for strength at

the specified age (Mehta et al, 1994). According to Krishnaswami (2009), mix proportions must

29
be calculated by means of trial batches prepared and tested in accordance with the relevant IS

specifications. After several trials, when a mixture satisfying the desired criteria of workability

and strength is obtained, the mixture proportions of the laboratory size trial batch are scaled up for

producing full-size field batches (Mehta et al, 1994).

Mindess et al (n.d) cited that in summary, the mix design process consists of determining the job

parameters, aggregate properties, maximum aggregate size, slump, water cement ratio and

admixture if any; calculating the batch weight and adjusting to the batch weight based on a trial

mix made according to these calculations. Mehta et al (1994) cited that another purpose of mix

proportioning is to obtain a concrete mixture satisfying the performance requirements at the lowest

possible cost and this involves decisions regarding the selection of ingredients that are not only

suitable but available at reasonable prices. They summarized it by saying that the overall objective

of proportioning concrete mixtures is the selecting of suitable ingredients among the available

materials and determining the most economical combination that will produce concrete with

certain minimum performance characteristics.

2.2.6 CONCRETE CLASSIFICATION

According to Mehta et al (1994), concrete containing natural sand and gravel or crushed rock

aggregates which generally weighs about 2400kg/m3 (4000lb/yd3), is called normal weight

concrete and it is the most commonly used concrete for structural purposes. They continued by

saying where a higher strength to weight ratio is desired, it is possible to reduce the unit weight of

concrete by using natural or pyro processed aggregates with lower bulk density. Lightweight

concrete on the other hand is used for concrete that weighs less than about 1800kg/m3 (3000lb/yd3)

as cited by Mehta et al (1994). He also cited that heavyweight concrete is used for radiation

30
shielding; it is a concrete produced from high density aggregates and generally weighs more than

3200kg/m3 (5300lb/yd3).

2.3 OVERVIEW OF AGGREGATE

Aggregate is the granular material such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed blast furnace slag

or construction and demolition waste that is used with a cementing medium to produce either

concrete or mortar as indicated in Mehta et al (1994) study. The term coarse aggregate refers to

the aggregate particles larger than 4.75mm (No. 4 sieve) and the term fine aggregate refers to the

aggregate particles smaller than 4.75mm but larger than 75μm (No. 200 sieve) (Mehta et al, 1994).

Mehta et al (1994) cited definition of various materials which make up aggregate. He defined

gravel as the coarse aggregate resulting from natural disintegration by weathering of rock; sand as

fine aggregate resulting from either natural weathering or crushing of stone; crushed stone as the

product resulting from industrial crushing of rocks, boulders or large cobblestones. Aggregate

from construction and demolition waste refers to the product obtained from recycling of concrete,

brick or stone rubble (Mehta et al, 1994). Poulin et al (1994) mentioned that aggregate is an

industrial material that is simultaneously low in value, high in bulk and abundant. Aggregate is

nearly omnipresent but not always available near major demand centers and the industry is

characterized by a large number of operations of variable size. They explained further by saying

that aggregates give body to the concrete and at the same time they also reduce shrinkage and

affect overall economy.

Poulin et al (1994) made mention of the fact that since aggregate is cheaper than cement, it is

economical to put as much aggregates as practically possible. They further explained that not only

the use of more volume of aggregate in concrete is economical, it also provides higher volume

stability to the concrete. Generally, aggregates occupy 60-75 % of the total volume of concrete,

31
affect overall concrete and they may limit the strength of concrete, therefore, the selection of

aggregates is very vital. At the same time the aggregates should be strong because the weak

aggregates can’t make a stronger concrete. Earlier aggregates were viewed as an inert ingredient

of concrete but now their importance has been understood and these are no more considered inert

(Poulin et al, 1994) and their physical, chemical as well as thermal properties greatly influence the

properties of concrete.

2.3.1 AGGREGATE DEFINITION

Aggregates are granular materials when mixed with water and cement and if possible admixtures

forms concrete. They include materials such as gravels, crushed stone, brick and furnace slag

(Chudley et al, 1998). According to Spence (1925), aggregates containing shaly rock or porous

rock and some types of chert are not to be used because they do not weather well and cause pop

outs on the exposed concrete surface.

2.3.2 STRUCTURE OF AGGREGATE

According to Chau (2004), attention on aggregate structure has been comparatively less whilst

sufficient research efforts have been devoted to studying aggregate size. Ganczarczyk (1994) work

as cited in Chau (2004) reports that particle assemblages exhibit mass fractal properties. The mass

of fractal aggregates may be related to their radius of gyration by an exponential relationship with

the exponent termed fractal dimension ranging typically from 1.7 to 2.5 (Chau, 2004). The rate of

aggregation of colloidal particles has been found to have the most significant effect among other

factors on the fractal dimension of the resulting aggregate (Lin et al (1990) work cited in Chau,

2004). Conventional methods to determine the fractal dimensions of colloidal aggregates such as

large angle static light scattering techniques (Avnir, 1989) and others are too complicated and not

32
convenient as cited by Chau (2004). Jung et al (1995) work cited in Chau (2004) demonstrates that

for larger aggregates, small angle static light scattering techniques might be employed. According

to Chau (2004), the fractal dimension of the resulting aggregate is employed as a measure of the

aggregate structure.

2.3.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE

Aggregate properties can be categorised into three based on microstructural and processing factors

as cited by Mehta et al (1994). The three categories are;

1. Characteristics dependent on porosity: density, moisture absorption, strength, hardness, elastic

modulus and soundness.

2. Characteristics dependent on prior exposure and processing factors: particle size, shape and

texture.

3. Characteristics dependent on chemical and mineralogical composition: strength, hardness,

elastic modulus and deleterious substances present.

We can also broadly categorize properties of aggregates into inherited and acquired properties.

Properties such as chemical and mineral composition, specific gravity, hardness, strength and

colour are inherited by the aggregate from the parent rock whereas properties such as aggregate

shape, size of aggregate, surface texture and water absorption are acquired by the aggregates in the

process of crushing. Careful observation of the two categories discussed above, we can conclude

that not only the parent rock is significant in influencing aggregate properties but the acquired

properties are also important.

Some properties that are acquired are discussed below.

33
2.3.3.1 AGGREGATE SHAPE

Aggregate shape can’t really be defined by any regular shape but can be defined by words such as

rounded, angular, elongated, flaky and irregular. The shape of aggregate is influenced too by the

type of crusher used as we will learn about the various crushers used in topic 2.3.5 as aggregate

production. Rough textured, angular, elongated particles require more water to produce workable

concrete than do the smooth, rounded, compact aggregates. From the little experience we have had

on field, we could say that most construction workers use rounded aggregates in cases where they

are to produce low grade of concrete and angular aggregates in cases where they are to produce

higher grade of concrete.

2.3.3.2 AGGREGATE SIZE

Reducing cement and water requirement, shrinkage of concrete is some of the reasons people

prefer larger aggregate size in concrete to smaller aggregate size. Factors such as spacing of

reinforcement and concrete cover aid in deciding which maximum aggregate size is needed.

2.3.3.3 SURFACE TEXTURE

Surface texture is the nature of the surface quality of aggregate in terms of roughness or

smoothness. Aggregate texture depends upon its hardness, pore structure and degree to which it

has been polished by external forces such as wind and water. There are basically two types of

aggregate texture; smooth and rough texture. More compressive strength may be achieved by using

a smooth texture aggregate due to less requirement of water but compressive strength will be less

in rough textured aggregates because higher water cement ratio will be required for the same

workability. Also, rough textured aggregates exhibit higher strength in tension as compared to

34
smooth aggregates. Flexural strength decreases in smooth aggregates due to poor bonding and

interlocking.

2.3.3.4 WATER ABSORPTION

Saturated and Surface Dry is one of the types of moisture conditions of aggregates and it’s a state

where the aggregate neither absorbs water nor contributes water to the concrete mixture. The

remaining types of moisture conditions are Oven Dry; fully absorbent, Air Dry; dry at the particle

surface but containing some interior moisture and Wet / Moist; containing excess moisture on the

surface. If the aggregate is drier than the Saturated and Surface Dry (SSD), the aggregate will

absorb water from the concrete and reduce workability, whiles, if the aggregate is moist, it will

contribute water in the concrete thereby leading to reduction of concrete strength. Compressive

strength, workability and other properties will vary from batch to batch if water content of the

concrete mix is not kept constant.

2.3.3.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

There are other physical properties of aggregates which include unit weight and voids, shrinkage

of aggregates and resistance to thawing and freezing which we will talk about briefly.

2.3.3.5.1 UNIT WEIGHT AND VOIDS

Unit weight is defined as the weight of the aggregate required to fill a container of a specified unit

volume and volume is occupied by both the aggregates and the voids between the aggregate

particles. Total volume of voids can be reduced by using a collection of aggregate sizes since the

smaller aggregate sizes will fill up the voids created by the larger aggregate sizes. Void content of

combined aggregates is proportional to the cement paste requirement for concrete.

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2.3.3.5.2 SHRINKAGE OF AGGREGATES

When aggregates such as sandstones, slate and basalt are used; they shrink larger than other

aggregates (for example, quartz, limestone, granite and feldspar). Excessive cracking is visible if

abnormal aggregate shrinkage occurs.

2.3.3.5.3 RESISTANCE TO FREEZING AND THAWING

This property is affected by an aggregate's high porosity, absorption, permeability and pore

structure. If aggregate or concrete absorbs so much water that when the water freezes and expands

the concrete cannot accommodate the buildup of internal pressure leading to pop–outs.

2.3.4 AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION

Aggregates can be classified according to particle size and also according to bulk density.

Classification of aggregate according to particle size will be discussed in topic 2.3.7 as aggregate

size and aggregate classification according to bulk density will be discussed in this topic 2.3.4.

From topic 2.2.6 (concrete classification) discussed above, concrete was classified into three

sections namely, normal weight, lightweight and heavyweight concrete. From the information

given we can make reasonable assumptions to classify aggregates in the same way as we did for

classifying concrete. So there are three classes of aggregate classification according to bulk density

which are normal weight, lightweight and heavyweight aggregates.

2.3.5 AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

Aggregate production process includes from extraction through to processing (McIntyre, n.d).

Extraction is the first step including stripping, drilling and blasting, shot rock or gravel bank

(McIntyre, n.d). He continued by indicating that the first step of processing after the extraction

36
from quarry or pit is crushing. As cited by McIntyre (n.d), crushing is one of the operations for

reduction and sizing. He mentioned the fact that some operations, however, provide a step prior to

crushing called scalping which is basically used to divert fines at a jaw primary crusher in order to

improve crusher efficiency. Crushing process includes primary crushing, secondary crushing and

tertiary crushing and in this process, log washer, heavy media separator and attrition mill are used

to ensure quality of aggregates (McIntyre, n.d). Noted in McIntyre (n.d) study that after primary

crushing or reduction, the resulting aggregate generally is placed in a large "surge" pile where the

aggregate may be fed into the secondary operation. Secondary and tertiary crushing, if necessary,

are the final steps in reducing the material to a desired product size and historically, cone and roll

crushers were the most common choice crushers, but in recent years’ impact crushers are more

widely used (McIntyre, n.d). Another technique used to control both quality and gradation of the

aggregate product is screening (McIntyre, n.d). He further said screening may be done wet or dry

depending on the type of aggregate being processed and the degree of consistency required for

each product. For gradation control alone consistency sometimes may only be maintained by using

wet screening (McIntyre, n.d). He also said water volume and flow direction are critical in wet

screening. Frequent sampling, testing and control charting are necessary for monitoring because

aggregate gradation is subject to so many variables (McIntyre, n.d).

During the extraction period, with the exception of slag and other manufactured aggregate most

materials for aggregate production come from bedrock or unconsolidated deposits as cited by

McIntyre (n.d). The vast majority of materials used in the mineral aggregate industry are obtained

from surface mined stone quarries or from sand and gravel pits (McIntyre, n.d) and how they are

extracted influences their quality. McIntyre (n.d) defined strip mining as a type of surface mining

that involves excavating earth, rock and other material to uncover a tabular, lens shaped or layered

37
mineral reserve and not only does drilling make the extraction of minerals easier and more

profitable, it also makes working on mine sites safer. Blasting is probably the most exciting and

potentially dangerous thing that ever happens on any mining site and unlike digging a hole or

moving piles of earth and rock, blasting is an act of precision (McIntyre, n.d). He also said in stone

quarries or in very "boney" gravel pits, large material usually is reduced in size by either a jaw or

a gyratory crusher and both types are compression crushers. Although compression crushers are

more economical than impact crushers, they have the tendency to create thin, elongated particles

(McIntyre, n.d).

McIntyre (n.d) gave more information about the various types of crushers used (both the

compression and impact crushers). The various types are briefly detailed as follows; Cone crusher

(a compression type) simply crushes the aggregate between the oscillating cone and the crusher

wall. This technique makes the shape and size of the aggregate more uniform. Roller crusher is

another compression type crusher that simply breaks the material by pinching the aggregates.

Impact crushers may be used as primary, secondary or tertiary crushers. Despite the fact that

impact crushers have a higher operating cost than other crushers, they tend to produce a more

uniform particle shape. Impact crushers usually will benefit the aggregate better than compression

crushers but they may also generate more fines.

Aggregate production is heavily dependent on the construction industry (Poulin et al, 1994). They

further explained that the demand for aggregate is a derived demand since 90% of crushed stone

and 95% of sand and gravel is used in the construction industry and approximatively half goes to

building construction with the other half going to public works. Aggregates are produced from

sand and gravel deposits or from bedrock sources. Production sites are numerous to minimize

transport and are more and more in a competing land use position. Crushed stone together with

38
sand and gravel constitute the two main sources of natural aggregates, the vast majority of which

are used in the construction industry. Thomson (1980) work as cited by Poulin et al (1994) gave

light to the definition of crushed stone. He said the term crushed stone refers to rock that has been

reduced in size after mining to meet consumer specifications and further exploitation of this type

of resource, however, has been significantly restricted because of increasing urbanization and

growing public concerns with environmental issues. Meyer et al (1991) work as cited by Poulin et

al (1994) indicates that building demand is closely related to economic cycles and interest rates

and also public works demand for aggregate is a function of government funding, which tends to

be politically driven, sometimes as a countercyclical investment strategy as opposed to a demand

driven one. As a result, the aggregate industry is cyclical in nature, following the cycles of its

demand components. Total demand is assumed to be equal to total production because inventory

buildups are almost nonexistent. The growth of populated areas has put a strain on aggregate

producers who are required to maintain supply while being inconspicuous. Economic constraints

require that quarry sites and their related producing facilities be located in or near population

centers.

Since it is the most fundamental component of construction, aggregate is employed wherever any

type of building or public works construction activity takes place. As a result, aggregate is one of

the most dispersed raw material producing industries. Hayes’ 1990 work cited in Poulin et al

(1994) shows that train and barge transport are also used for aggregate movement. Accessibility

to markets is the major preoccupation of aggregate producers. Transportation costs often exceed

direct production costs. An equilibrium between distance and source material quality must

therefore be found. This partly explains why lower quality deposits near consuming centers are

worked before better deposits further away. Hillmann’s 1991 study as cited in Poulin et al (1994)

39
shows that equipment and techniques have been developed to process concrete rubble for use as a

recycled aggregate in new Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). Recycled aggregates, if characterised

by lower quality specifications, may be acceptable for road base material. Local prices for

conventional aggregates and the disposal costs associated with concrete rubble are key parameters

of determining the value of recycled aggregates (Frondistou Yannas’ 1981 work cited in Poulin et

al (1994)). As demonstrated, recycling does not pose technical problems for new products

(Hansen’s 1986 work cited in Poulin et al (1994)). Zimmerman’s 1991 study cited in Poulin et al

(1994) indicates that the price received for recycled aggregates tends to be higher in direct relation

to distances from suppliers of conventional material. Conversely, rates received for concrete rubble

tend to be lower in direct relation to haul distance from the source. He summarized it by saying

“recycling accounts for a relatively small portion of aggregates production” (Poulin et al, 1994,

p.226), however, its importance is expected to increase, based on trends associated with economics

and conservation.

2.3.6 AGGREGATE TYPE

We will talk about lightweight, heavyweight, blast furnace slag aggregate and aggregate from

recycled concrete and municipal waste.

2.3.6.1 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE

As cited by Mehta et al (1994), aggregates that weigh less than 1120kg/m3 (70lb/ft3) are generally

considered lightweight and find application in the production of various types of lightweight

concretes. The lightweight of the aggregate is due to the cellular or highly porous microstructure.

Cellular organic materials such as wood chips should not be used as aggregate because they would

not be durable in the moist alkaline environment within Portland Cement Concrete (Mehta et al,

40
1994). They also cited the difference between natural and synthetic lightweight aggregate; natural

lightweight aggregates are made by crushing igneous volcanic rocks such as pumice, scoria or tuff

whiles synthetic lightweight aggregates are manufactured by thermal treatment of a variety of

materials, for instance, clay, shale, slate, diatomite, pearlite, vermiculite, blast furnace slag and fly

ash.

2.3.6.2 HEAVYWEIGHT AGGREGATE

Compared to normal weight aggregate concrete with a typical unit weight of 2400kg/m 3

(150lb/ft3), heavyweight concrete weighs from 2900 to 6100kg/m3 (180 to 380lb/ft3) and are

primarily used for making nuclear radiation shields (Mehta et al, 1994). Heavyweight aggregates

are used for the production of heavyweight concrete. Natural rocks suitable for heavyweight

aggregate consist predominately of two barium minerals, several iron ores and a titanium ore

(Mehta et al, 1994).

2.3.6.3 BLAST FURNACE SLAG AGGREGATE

As cited by Mehta et al (1994), slow cooling of blast furnace slag in ladles, pits or iron molds

yields a product that can be crushed and graded to obtain dense and strong particles suitable for

use as concrete aggregate. Properties of blast furnace aggregate depend on the composition and

rate of cooling of the slag (Mehta et al, 1994). According to Mehta et al (1994), acid slags generally

produce a denser aggregate and basic slags tend to produce a vesicular or honeycombed structure

with a lower apparent specific gravity of about 2 to 2.8. On the whole, the bulk density of slowly

cooled slags which typically ranges from 1120 to 1360kg/m3 is somewhere between normal weight

natural aggregate and structural lightweight aggregate as cited by Mehta et al (1994) and these

aggregates are widely used for making precast concrete products such as masonry blocks, channels

41
and fence posts. Note should be taken down as blast furnace slags have also been used for the

production of lightweight aggregate meeting ASTM C 330 or C 331 requirements and for this

purpose, molten slag is treated with limited amounts of water or steam and the product is called

expanded or foamed slag (Mehta et al, 1994).

2.3.6.4 AGGREGATE FROM RECYCLED CONCRETE AND MUNICIPAL WASTE

Rubble from demolished concrete buildings yields fragments in which the aggregate is

contaminated with hydrated cement paste, gypsum and minor quantities of other substances

(Mehta et al, 1994). In Mehta et al (1994) study, they talked about the fact that the size fraction

that corresponds to fine aggregate contains large amounts of hydrated cement and gypsum and it

is unsuitable for making fresh concrete mixtures; however, the size fraction that corresponds to

coarse aggregate, although coated with cement paste, has been used successfully in several

laboratory and field studies. Some demerits about the use of building rubble as concrete aggregate

is the dust that accompanies it during its processes, cost of crushing, grading and the separation of

undesirable materials. Recycled concrete aggregate from the crushing of concrete pavements and

massive structures can prove to be an economical source of aggregate where good quality

aggregates are scarce and when the cost of waste disposal of concrete rubble is high (Mehta et al,

1994).

2.3.7 AGGREGATE SIZE

In terms of size, there are two broad categories of aggregate as given below:

1. Fine Aggregate; passing 4.75mm sieve (American standard) whereas the British use 5.00mm

test sieve.

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2. Coarse Aggregate; retained over 4.75mm sieve (American standard) whereas the British use

5.00mm test sieve.

Within a particular category also, aggregates should have representation of all standard sizes as

per relevant IS codes. The different sizes of the aggregates are mixed for making concrete

assuming that voids created by the larger size will be filled up by the next immediate lower size.

Again some voids would be created, which would accommodate the next lower size. This

assumption holds good from coarse aggregate to fine aggregate and then finally up to cement paste.

At the end we should get a compact mass of concrete with minimum or no voids.

2.4 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Workability is one of the physical parameters of concrete which affect strength and durability as

well as cost of labour and appearance of the finished product and is defined as the amount of useful

internal work necessary to produce full compaction (Ekwulo et al, 2017). Krishnaswami (2009)

defined workability as the property of concrete which determines its ability to be placed,

compacted and finished and specified that workability is an important property of concrete in the

fresh state. Workability of concrete is dependent primarily on the paste content of the concrete and

also amount of entrained air, maximum size, grading and particle shape of the aggregate (Mindess

et al, n.d). Workability of fresh concrete has a direct effect on the pumpability and constructability

because it determines the ease with which a concrete mixture can be handled without harmful

segregation (Mehta et al, 1994). Mehta et al (1994) study indicates that a concrete mixture that is

difficult to place and consolidate will not only increase the cost of handling but will also have poor

strength, durability and appearance. They explained further by saying mixtures prone to

segregation and bleeding are more expensive to finish and will yield less durable concrete, thus,

workability can affect both the cost and the quality of concrete mixtures.

43
Ekwulo et al (2017) made mention of the fact that workability is a vital property of concrete that

must be measured correctly to ensure good quality concrete. They continued by saying concrete is

said to be workable when it is easily placed and compacted homogeneously, as in, without bleeding

or segregation and on the other hand, unworkable concrete need more work or effort to be

compacted in place, also honeycombs and or pockets may also be visible in finished concrete. As

cited by Ekwulo et al (2017), a good knowledge of workability is most essential for the production

of a well-designed concrete mix, which can be easily placed and compacted with minimum effort

and they also made mention of some factors controlling the workability of a concrete mix,

prominent among them are: water content in the concrete mix, amount of cement and its properties,

the overall grading, aggregate size, shape, texture, porosity, mode of compaction, absorption

capacity of the aggregates and temperature of the environment. According to Krishnaswami

(2009), workability is the term relating to fresh concrete of three operations and which the greatest

emphasis should be placed on compaction to eliminate any air voids since the consequences of

inadequate compaction are serious. He further independently characterised it as consistency,

mobility and compatibility.

CONSISTENCY – firmness of form of a substance or the ease with which it will flow and also a

measure of wetness or fluidity.

MOBILITY – ease with which concrete mix can flow into and completely fill formwork or mould.

COMPATIBILITY – ease with which a given concrete mix can be fully compacted to remove all

trapped air and also to achieve maximum possible density. Increase in the density leads to an

increase in compressive strength of concrete.

44
There are several factors which affect the workability of normal strength concrete. Some of the

common factors given by Mindess et al (n.d) are;

1. Method and duration of transportation.

2. Quantity and characteristics of cementing material.

3. Concrete consistency (slump).

4. Aggregate grading, shape and surface texture.

5. Water content.

6. Admixtures.

The first objective which is to test for workability can be done using various methods such as

Slump test, Compacting factor test, Flow test, Vee-bee consistometer test and Kelly ball test

(Nadia, n.d; Patel, n.d). Patel (n.d) cited the procedure of the slump test as follows; The slump

cone shall be filled in four layers. Each layer shall be approximately one quarter of the height

which is 7.5cm and shall be tamped with 25 strokes of tamping rod. The strokes shall be distributed

in a uniform manner over the cross-section. After the top layer has been rodded, the cone shall be

removed from the concrete immediately by raising it carefully and slowly in a vertical direction.

The slump of the concrete will be determined. The slump is determined by the difference between

the height of the cone and that of the highest point of the specimen being tested. The decrease in

height is measured with a ruler. The test should be carried out at a place free from shock or

vibration and within a period of 2 to 3 minutes after sampling as cited by Patel (n.d) and he also

cited that the unit of measurement is in millimetres (mm). As indicated by Patel (n.d), slump

45
between 0-25mm is considered as very low workability, 25-50mm as low workability, 50-100mm

as medium workability, 100-120mm as high workability and 120-150mm as very high workability.

According to (Nadia, n.d; Patel, n.d), there are 3 main types of slump namely true, shear and

collapse. There is also a zero slump in which the fresh concrete does not change its shape at the

time of concrete testing (Patel, n.d).

According to the research work studied by Sneka et al (2018) titled ‘Size effect of aggregate in the

mechanical properties of concrete’, one of their objectives was also to determine the workability

of concrete using the slump test made from different sized coarse aggregates. They made use of

19mm, 25mm and 37.5mm aggregate sizes, water cement ratio of 0.5 and a constant concrete mix

of 1:1.5:3. At the end of the day, the largest aggregate size (37.5mm) had the biggest slump value

of 168mm followed by 25mm aggregate size with a slump value of 147mm and the 19mm

aggregate size gave 135mm slump value. From their findings and discussions, they made mention

of the fact that coarse aggregate size is directly proportional to the workability (slump) of a fresh

concrete with constant water cement ratio.

2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGGREGATE SIZE AND COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH

Mehta et al (1994) defined strength of a material as the ability to resist stress without failure and

failure is sometimes identified with the appearance of cracks; it is defined as the maximum stress

the concrete sample can withstand. Designers and quality control engineers value the strength

property of concrete the most as cited by Mehta et al (1994). In Mehta et al (1994) study, they

cited that in solids, there exists a fundamental inverse relationship between porosity (volume

fraction of voids) and strength. They continued by saying natural aggregates are generally dense

and strong; therefore, it is the porosity of the cement paste matrix as well as the interfacial

46
transition zone between the matrix and coarse aggregate, which usually determines the strength

characteristic of normal weight concrete. There are many factors such as compaction and curing

conditions (degree of cement hydration), aggregate size and mineralogy, types of admixtures,

specimen geometry and moisture condition, stress type and rate of loading that have effect on the

compressive strength of concrete although water cement ratio is important in determining the

porosity of both the matrix and the interfacial transition zone and hence the strength of concrete

(Mehta et al, 1994).

2.5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

In concrete design and quality control, strength is the property generally specified; this is because,

compared to most other properties, testing of strength is relatively easy (Mehta et al, 1994). They

cited that “many properties of concrete such as elastic modulus, water tightness or impermeability

and resistance to weathering agents including aggressive waters are believed to be dependent on

compressive strength and may therefore be deduced from the strength data” (Mehta et al, 1994,

p.50). Also, the compressive strength of concrete is several times greater than other types of

strength, therefore, a majority of concrete elements are designed to take advantage of the higher

compressive strength of the material (Mehta et al, 1994).

2.5.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT

The response of concrete to applied stress depends not only on the stress type but also on how a

combination of various factors affects porosity of the different structural components of concrete.

The factors include properties and proportions of materials that make up the concrete mixture,

degree of compaction and conditions of curing (Mehta et al, 1994). We will discuss the effect

47
aggregate has on compressive strength alongside with other factors such as water cement ratio,

mixing water and admixtures.

2.5.2.1 AGGREGATE

In concrete technology, an overemphasis on the relationship between water cement ratio and

strength has caused some problems, for instance, the influence of aggregate on concrete strength

is not generally appreciated (Mehta et al, 1994). As cited by Mehta et al (1994), aggregate particle

is several times stronger than the matrix and the interfacial transition zone in concrete with the

exception of lightweight aggregate; thereby leading to the fact that aggregate strength is not usually

a factor in normal strength concrete. However, the strength of most natural aggregates is hardly

utilized because the failure is determined by the other two phases. Aside the aggregates, there are

other characteristics other than strength such as aggregate size, shape, surface texture, grading

(particle size distribution) and mineralogy which are known to affect concrete strength in varying

degrees. A change in the maximum size of well graded coarse aggregate of a given mineralogy

can have two opposing effects on the strength of concrete as cited by Mehta et al (1994). They

further indicated that with the same cement content and consistency, concrete mixtures containing

larger aggregate particles require less mixing water than those containing smaller aggregate; on

the contrary, larger aggregates tend to form weaker interfacial transition zone containing more

microcracks.

From Nwofor et al (2016) findings, it can be observed that as aggregate size increases compressive

strength increases generally. From their findings, we can say that aggregate size is directly related

to compressive strength of concrete. A change in the aggregate grading without any change in the

maximum size of coarse aggregate and with water cement ratio held constant, can influence the

48
concrete strength when this change causes a corresponding change in the consistency and bleeding

characteristics of the concrete mixture (Mehta et al, 1994). Aside aggregate size and grading which

have effect on the compressive strength of concrete, Mehta et al (1994) indicated that differences

in the mineralogical composition of aggregates are also known to affect the concrete strength and

reports show that with identical mix proportions, the substitution of a calcareous for a siliceous

aggregate can result in strength improvement. We will discuss briefly on how some other factors

such as water cement ratio, mixing water and admixtures also affect compressive strength in one

way or the other.

2.5.2.2 WATER CEMENT RATIO

From the standpoint of strength, the relationship between water cement ratio and porosity is

undoubtedly the most important factor because, independent of other factors, it affects the porosity

of both the cement mortar matrix and the interfacial transition zone between the matrix and the

coarse aggregate (Mehta et al, 1994). They elaborated further that in low and medium strength

concrete made with normal aggregate, both the interfacial transition zone porosity and the matrix

porosity determine the strength and a direct relation between the water cement ratio and the

concrete strength holds. This seems no longer to be the case in high strength (very low water

cement ratio) concrete mixtures (Mehta et al, 1994). As cited by Mehta et al (1994), for water

cement ratios under 0.3, high increases in the compressive strength can be achieved with very

small reductions in water cement ratio. They said this phenomenon is mainly attributed to a

significant improvement in the strength of the interfacial transition zone at very low water cement

ratios.

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2.5.2.3 MIXING WATER

Mehta et al (1994) study indicates that impurities in water that is used for mixing concrete, when

excessive, affects not only the concrete strength but also setting time, efflorescence (deposits of

white salts on the surface of concrete) and the corrosion of reinforcing and prestressing steel. They

concluded by saying “in general, mixing water is rarely a factor in concrete strength because many

specifications for making concrete mixtures require that the quality of water used should be fit for

drinking and municipal drinking waters seldom contain dissolved solids in excess of 1000 parts

per million (ppm)” (Mehta et al, 1994, p. 58).

2.5.2.4 ADMIXTURES

According to Mehta et al (1994), water reducing admixtures have the ability to enhance both the

early and the ultimate strength of concrete by reducing the water content of a concrete mixture at

a given consistency. At a given water cement ratio, the presence of water reducing admixture in

concrete generally has a positive influence on the rates of cement hydration and early strength

development (Mehta et al, 1994). They also cited that admixtures that are capable of accelerating

or retarding cement hydration obviously have a great influence on the rate of strength gain;

however, the ultimate strength may not be significantly affected.

2.5.2.5 OTHER FACTORS

There are other factors which have some kind of relation and affect the compressive strength of

concrete which would not be discussed here. Those factors are curing conditions (such as time,

humidity and temperature), materials proportions and characteristics (such as air entrainment and

cement type) and finally testing parameters (even though it is not always appreciated that the

50
results of concrete strength tests are significantly affected by parameters involving test specimen

and loading conditions).

2.6 AGGREGATE SIZE ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Concrete mixtures can be designed to provide a wide range of mechanical and durability properties

to meet the design requirements of a structure (Anon, 2003). Compressive strength and durability

are often considered for hardened state concrete (Krishnaswami, 2009). Compressive strength is

defined as the measured maximum resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to an axial load

usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi) at an age of 28 days. The compressive strength

is calculated from the failure load divided by the cross sectional area resisting the load and reported

in units of pounds per square inch (psi) in US customary units or megapascals (MPa) in SI units.

As cited by Anon (2003), the compressive strength of concrete is the most common performance

measure used by the engineer in designing buildings and other structures. Using the compression

testing machine to test for the compressive strength of concrete is one of the destructive ways to

do so. The compressive strength is measured by breaking the concrete cube specimens in a

compression testing machine (Anon, 2003). Concrete compressive strength depends upon factors

such as the quality and proportions of ingredients or materials and the curing environment.

Concrete compressive strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17MPa) for residential

buildings to 4000 psi (28MPa) and higher in commercial structures (Anon, 2003) and higher

strengths up to and exceeding 10000 psi (70MPa) are specified for certain applications. As cited

by Anon (2003), compressive strength test results are primarily used to determine that the concrete

mixture as delivered meets the requirements of the specified strength in the job specification. He

continued by saying that the strength test results from the concrete cube specimens may be used

for quality control, acceptance of concrete or for estimating the concrete strength in a structure for

51
the purpose of scheduling construction operations such as for removal or for evaluating the

adequacy of curing and protection afforded to the structure. Concrete cubes tested for acceptance

and quality control are made and cured in accordance with the procedures described for standard

cured specimens in ASTM C 31 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test

Specimens in Field (Anon, 2003). As cited in Anon’s study (2003), when strength test results

indicate that the concrete delivered fails to meet the requirements of the specification, it is

important to recognise that the failure may be in the testing, not the concrete and this is especially

true if the fabrication, handling, curing and testing of the cubes are not conducted in accordance

with standard procedures.

From the findings of Sneka et al (2018), under constant mix proportion of 1:1.5:3 and a constant

water cement ratio of 0.5, it was observed after 28 days that the bigger coarse aggregate size

(37.5mm) produced the highest compressive strength (23.13N/mm2) as compared to the 25mm

and 19mm aggregate sizes which produced 22.97N/mm2 and 20.17N/mm2 respectively.

Compressive strength for 1:1.5:3 mix at 28 days should not be less than 20N/mm 2 as cited by

Sneka et al (2018). The second objective is to test for compressive strength of concrete.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST FORMULA

𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

Procedure to test for compressive strength as cited by Mishra (n.d); Concrete cube and cylinder

specimens could be used to test for compressive strength. Concrete is poured in mould and

tampered properly so as not to have any voids (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d). According to (Hussain,

n.d; Mishra, n.d), after 24 hours, these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for

52
curing. They both cited that the top surface should be made even and smooth (done by putting

cement paste and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen). Specimens are tested by

compression testing machine after specific days of curing. When testing, load should be applied

gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the specimen fails (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d).

Materials and tools needed include compression testing machine, cement, aggregates, water,

moulds, weighing balance, mixing trough, spades, trowels, curing bath and tamping rod

(Odhiambo, 2015; Mishra, n.d).

Mixing procedures as cited by (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d); Mix cement and fine aggregates on a

water tight non-absorbent platform until the mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform

colour. Coarse aggregates are added and mixed with cement and fine aggregates until the coarse

aggregates are uniformly distributed throughout the batch. Water is added and mixed until the

concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired consistency. Hussain (n.d) and Mishra

(n.d) also elaborated on the sampling procedures involved. Moulds are cleaned and oil applied to

them. Moulds are filled with concrete in layers approximately 5cm thick. Each layer is then

compacted with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod and the top surface levelled.

As cited by (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d), water used for curing should be tested every 7 days and

the temperature must be at 27 ± 2°C.

Testing procedures as cited by (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d). Remove specimen after specific days

of testing and wipe out excess water from the surface. Dimension of the specimen taken to the

nearest 0.2mm. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine. Place the specimen in the

machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast. The

specimen should be aligned centrally on the base plate of the machine. Rotate the movable portion

gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the specimen. Apply load gradually and record

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the maximum load. According to Hussain (n.d) and Mishra (n.d), if strength of each test varies by

more than 15% of the average strength, results should be rejected.

PERCENTAGE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES:

The strength of concrete increases with age (Hussain, n.d). Table shows the strength of concrete

at different ages in comparison with the strength at day 28 after casting.

AGE STRENGTH PERCENT

DAY 1 16%

DAY 3 40%

DAY 7 65%

DAY 14 90%

DAY 28 99%

Table 2.6.1 Percentage Strength of Concrete at various ages

Nwofor et al (2016) study titled ‘Appraisal on the strength of concrete produced with varying

aggregate size’ gave more light on the test for compressive strength of concrete. They used 10mm,

12.5mm and 19mm aggregate sizes and a nominal mix of 1:2:4. They used compression testing

machine which is a destructive test, concrete cube specimen of 150mm by 150mm by 150mm and

tested after 7, 21 and 28 days of curing. Below are the results of Nwofor et al (2016) study on the

effects on aggregate sizes on the compressive strength of concrete.

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 AGGREGATE 7 DAY 21 DAY 28 DAY

SIZE STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH

10mm 20.13 29.44 31.24

12.5mm 23.60 33.51 35.16

19mm 24.22 34.89 36.31

From the table above, we can easily see that as aggregate sizes increase from 10mm to 19mm,

compressive strength also increases from 31.24 to 36.31 respectively.

2.7 MODES OF FAILURE OF NORMAL STRENGTH CONCRETE

According to Mehta et al (1994), although under compression concrete appears to show some

inelastic strain before failure, typically the strain at fracture is of the order of 2000 × 10 -6, which

is considerably lower than the failure strain in structural metals. For practical purposes, therefore,

designers do not treat concrete as a ductile material and do not recommend it for structures that

are subject to heavy impact loading unless reinforced with steel (Mehta et al, 1994). However,

concrete may be subject to one of a variety of types of loading in many structural situations

resulting in different stress conditions and different potential modes of failure (Yadav, n.d). He

also cited that failure occurs by a split or crack along the vertical plane. Cracking often starts where

the paste is close to the aggregate surface and propagates into the hardened cement paste until

crack paths are formed and this happens when the load on the concrete increases (Yadav, n.d).

Glucklich (1965) work as cited by Yadav (n.d) indicates that there are four stages of cracking

behaviour; the four stages are listed below;

Stage 1 - About 30% maximum stress. The pre-existing transition zone cracks remain stable and

the stress-strain curve remains approximately linear.

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Stage 2 - About 30% to 50% maximum stress. Cracks begin to increase in dimensions causing

non-linearity but are still stable and confined to the transition zone.

Stage 3 - About 50% to 75% maximum stress. Cracks start to spread into the matrix and become

unstable resulting in further deviation from linearity.

Stage 4 - Above about 75% ultimate stress. Unstable crack growth becomes increasingly frequent

leading to very high strains and also excessive cracking results in the lateral strains increasing at a

faster rate than the axial strains.

According to Cui et al (2020), there are three main ways of testing for defects in concrete, namely,

computed tomography (CT), digital image correlation (DIC) and acoustic emission (AE)

technology. As cited by Xie et al (2020), the failure of convectional concrete is a progressive

process of microscopic scale damage initiation, propagation and penetration under external loads

until macroscopic cracking finally occurs and leads to concrete failure. Geng et al (2017) work as

cited in Xie et al (2020) indicates that the convectional concrete undergoes three stages of failure

process, which are initial stage, crack propagation stage and the failure stage. The process of crack

propagation and penetration can be considered as the failure process of convectional concrete

whiles the failure process of porous concrete can be regarded as the process of crack propagating

into the pores until penetrating cracks occur.

2.8 SUMMARY

This chapter discussed the concept of both concrete and aggregate; its overview and definitions. It

further provided discussion on the constituent materials, structure and properties of concrete

alongside with discussion on classification, production and properties of aggregate. It was

highlighted in this chapter (topic 2.5) that as aggregate sizes increase compressive strength

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generally increases too from Nwofor et al (2016) study. The chapter provided information on how

the proportioning and selection of suitable materials (cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water

and admixtures if possible) is done to achieve concrete (as economically as possible) of the

appropriate strength, workability and durability.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of varying aggregate sizes on the strength

properties of concrete and to accomplish this aim, a number of objectives was used to guide the

researchers. The first research objective is to determine the workability of concrete made from

different sized coarse aggregates using the slump test. The second research objective is to study

the effect of compressive strength of normal strength concrete made from different sizes of coarse

aggregates and the last research objective is to study the modes of failure of concrete from different

sizes of aggregates.

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

3.2.1 TO DETERMINE THE WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE USING SLUMP TEST

As cited by Nadia (n.d), slump test is the most well-known, widely used and simplest test compared

to the remaining methods. Materials and tools needed will include slump cone, base plate, tamping

rod, measuring tape or ruler, trowel, cement, aggregates and water (Nadia, n.d; Patel, n.d). The

various codes that aid in this test are IS 1199-1959, ASTM C 143-10 and BS 1881:103:1993 (Patel,

n.d). He further said that the nominal maximum aggregate size should not exceed 38mm when

working with the slump test.

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3.2.2 TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF VARYING AGGREGATE SIZES ON THE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

After review of research papers, the study found out that concrete was tested after specific days of

curing with the compression testing machine using concrete cube specimens of size 150mm by

150mm by 150mm. Materials and tools needed include compression testing machine, cement,

aggregates, water, moulds, weighing balance, mixing trough, spades, trowels, curing bath and

tamping rod (Odhiambo, 2015; Mishra, n.d). When testing, load should be applied gradually at the

rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the specimen fails (Hussain, n.d; Mishra, n.d). The compressive

strength is then calculated by dividing the failure load with the cross sectional area of the cube

specimen.

𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

3.2.3 TO STUDY THE FAILURE MODES OF CONCRETE

As cited by Xie et al (2020), the failure of convectional concrete is a progressive process of

microscopic scale damage initiation, propagation and penetration under external loads until

macroscopic cracking finally occurs and leads to concrete failure. Geng et al (2017) work as cited

in Xie et al (2020) indicates that the convectional concrete undergoes three stages of failure

process, which are initial stage, crack propagation stage and the failure stage.

3.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Even though this research is carefully undertaken, it faces unavoidable limitations. These include

inadequate time, financial constraints and human errors. Also, there are various factors that affect

coarse aggregate size and compressive strength of concrete but the study focused on the effect of

59
aggregate size on the strength properties of concrete. These limitations become a basis for further

research works to be done in the future.

3.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are suggested.

1) We recommend further researches on this study because of the various limitations

encountered.

2) We recommend that the effects of coarse aggregate sizes beyond 19mm should be

considered on the strength properties of concrete.

3) Aside aggregate size, we recommend that further research work should consider other

attributes of aggregate such as type, shape and texture and other factors that affect concrete

strength.

4) We recommend the study of other materials such as concrete rubble that can be used in

place of aggregate.

5) Materials other than concrete with high compressive strength should be considered for

further research.

3.5 CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicates that aggregate sizes play an important role in the strength

properties of concrete. The following conclusions can be drawn from the output of this research

and can be summarized as follows;

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1) The workability of a fresh concrete is directly proportional to the coarse aggregate size

with constant water cement ratio.

2) Based on the results of the various literature review, we can conclude that compressive

strength depends on a number of factors such as aggregate size and in this regard, as coarse

aggregate size increases compressive strength increases too.

3) There are three modes of failure the convectional concrete undergoes, namely, the initial

stage, crack propagation stage and the failure stage.

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