What is violence against children?

Violence against children (VAC) is a single umbrella concept that covers a broad spectrum
of experiences and acts and encompasses all the types of violence a child could experience.

You may have heard the term “child maltreatment” before. Child maltreatment is a type of
VAC and encompasses the following experiences:

physical abuse by a caregiver

emotional abuse by a caregiver
sexual abuse by anyone
neglect by a caregiver
There is debate on whether neglect is a form of child maltreatment, but for the purposes of
this course we are including this type of violence as child maltreatment.

It is important to note that among these four types of VAC three are generally seen as
occurring within families or between a person in a position of power and a child (physical
abuse, emotional abuse, neglect), while one type can occur within families but also has a
broader range of offenders (sexual abuse).

Our approach is broadly consistent with the approach taken by the WHO, which defines
“child maltreatment” as:

all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the
child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of
responsibility, trust or power.

Corporal punishment is considered VAC but not considered maltreatment because in many
country contexts corporal punishment is legal.

There are other types of violence that children experience, which can be widespread and
harmful. These fall under the umbrella definition of VAC more broadly but are not included
in the VAC definition for this course, as each has specific measures. Examples of these other
kinds of violence include violence between siblings, bullying by peers, and exposure to
violence in the community. The information presented in this course will also be useful for
researching these other types of violence, even if they are not a specific focus of this course.

Children who witness violence, such as intimate partner violence, can suffer similar harmful
consequences to those who experience violence directly. However, there is no consensus
with regards to classifying such experiences as a form of violence against children, and there
are valid concerns about the negative repercussions, usually against women/mothers, of
doing so. As such, the Sexual Violence Research Initiative has made the decision to include
“witnessing violence” as an adverse experience in childhood to acknowledge related harms
but has refrained from classifying it as a form of violence against children.

Conceptualising and defining VAC is complex and it is often difficult to draw a distinction
between different types of violence. Further, children will often experience more than one
type of violence. There are legal definitions of VAC that differ between countries,
definitions used by researchers, and definitions used by international organizations. These
definitions will overlap in some places and differ in others. The examples and applications
we provide in this course will focus on VAC in general in terms. However, we will
specifically focus on child maltreatment, the construct most commonly used in VAC
research.

Understanding the different types of VAC

Defining each type of VAC is difficult. Different definitions can be found in scientific
studies, policy documents, and laws. It can become very confusing! However, you can
proceed by using definitions that are generally accepted by leading policy bodies and by the
majority of rigorous scientific studies.

First, let’s remember what the different types of VAC are:

Physical abuse perpetrated by a parent or caregiver, or by a similar person in a position of

power (e.g., teacher);
Emotional or psychological abuse perpetrated by a parent or caregiver, or by a similar
person in a position of power (e.g., teacher);
Sexual abuse perpetrated by anyone; and
Neglect in the home.
Now, let’s consider how each of these four types of VAC can be understood, both:

Conceptually (i.e., the general conceptual nature of each type of VAC), and
Operationally (i.e., what specific acts will constitute each type of VAC).

Understanding the different types of VAC

Physical Abuse
The concept of physical abuse

As a concept, physical abuse should be understood as the use of physical force by a parent
or caregiver against a child that causes injury, harm, pain, or breach of dignity, or that has a
high likelihood of resulting in injury, harm, pain, or breach of dignity.

Physical abuse can occur where the act is motivated by an intention to injure, harm, or
cause pain to the child. It can also occur where the act is not done with this intention but
has this effect or likely effect.[1]
Purely unintentional acts are not physical abuse, because they are not done “intentionally”
and they are not done “against a child”. For example, if a parent accidentally dropped
something and it struck a child, this would not be physical abuse.

This approach to physical abuse is broadly consistent with the approach of the WHO and
ISPCAN, which defines physical abuse as “the intentional use of physical force against a
child that results in – or has a high likelihood of resulting in – harm for the child’s health,
survival, development or dignity.”

Operational definitions of physical abuse

Operationally, acts of physical abuse can include but are not limited to:

hitting
punching
beating
whipping
striking with an object
kicking
shaking
biting
choking
strangling
scalding
burning
poisoning
suffocating
A note on corporal punishment

Conceptually and operationally, corporal punishment is typically considered to be different

from physical abuse. Although corporal punishment is conceptually a form of VAC, it
differs from physical abuse because it involves the administration of physical force to a child
by a parent or caregiver with the intention to cause pain but not injury for the purpose of
correction or behavioral control.[2, 3]

This conceptual understanding aligns with the approach of the United Nations Committee
on the Rights of the Child (2006), which noted that parents possess the right to interact
(including physically) with the child to provide necessary guidance and direction and the
right to restrain a child to protect the child or another child from harm. The Committee
defined corporal punishment as:

any punishment in which physical force issued and intended to cause some degree of pain
or discomfort, however light ... [mostly involving] hitting (“smacking, ” “slapping, ” or
“spanking”) children with the hand or with an implement (a whip, stick, belt, shoe, wooden
spoon, or similar)…

However, corporal punishment is contentious for several reasons:

WHO and ISPCAN (2006) acknowledged that “much physical violence against children in
the home is inflicted with the object of punishing”
The Committee's definition of corporal punishment included acts that most would interpret
to be physical abuse
Many studies have identified a relationship between corporal punishment and child and
adult psychopathology[4], even when using a definition of “hitting a child on their buttocks
or extremities using an open hand”[2]
There are many complex issues to consider when thinking about corporal punishment. You
may wish to give these issues special consideration when thinking about your work. See
https://endcorporalpunishment.org/ for more information.

Understanding the different types of VAC

Emotional or Psychological Abuse
The concept of emotional abuse

As a concept, emotional abuse should be understood as non-physical, harmful interactions

with the child by a parent or caregiver which convey to a child that they are worthless,
flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or only of value in meeting another’s needs.[1]

Emotional abuse typically involves a pattern of persistent behaviour over time, but may also
be present in one or few very serious acts. The behaviour should generally breach cultural
norms.

Operational definitions of emotional abuse

Operationally, these acts can be present on the following dimensions:

Spurning/hostility (e.g., acts that belittle, degrade, shame, or ridicule a child).

Terrorizing (e.g., making a child feel unsafe; threatening or perpetrating violence against a
child or child’s loved ones or objects; committing life-threatening acts).
Exploiting or corrupting that encourages a child to develop inappropriate behaviors
(modeling, permitting, or encouraging antisocial or developmentally inappropriate
behavior; encouraging or coercing abandonment of developmentally appropriate autonomy;
restricting or interfering with cognitive development).
Rejecting (e.g., avoiding a child; telling the child they are unloved or unwanted).
Isolating (e.g., confining the child, or placing unreasonable limitations on the child’s
freedom of movement or social interactions).
A note on emotional abuse: the relevant relationship
Theorists and policy bodies have generally conceived of emotional abuse as being limited to
acts and omissions by parents or parent-like caregivers such as foster carers. It can be noted
that other non-parental relationships may be the context for repeated “emotionally abusive”
acts, such as that between a teacher or sports coach and a child.

There are different views on this issue. For our purposes here, our view is that there are
characteristics intrinsic to the parent-child relationship which make this clearly the most
significant and meaningful one when considering emotional abuse. However, depending on
the nature and purpose of a particular study, inclusion of emotional or psychological abuse
by a parent-like caregiver (such as teachers and coaches) may be appropriate.

Understanding the different types of VAC

Sexual Abuse
The concept of sexual abuse

As a concept, sexual abuse has sometimes been the subject of much confusion and different
understandings. The age of consent varies across different countries. However, recent
international policy approaches and conceptual scientific analysis reveal some common
elements that can be considered quite settled. The concept has multiple elements, and it can
be helpful to articulate them in a step-by-step approach.

As a concept, sexual abuse should be understood as involving the following elements [1]:

any sexual act inflicted by any adult or other person on a child, including contact and non-
contact acts, where true consent by the child is not present.
true consent will not be present where the child either lacks capacity to give consent or has
capacity but does not give full, free, and voluntary consent.
an act will be sexual where:
(1) the person inflicting the abuse seeks or obtains any level of mental or physical sexual
gratification, whether immediate or deferred in time and space;
(2) the person seeks sexual gratification for another person (e.g., the child victim or a third
party who is directly involved in the abuse of the child or a third party who is involved more
distally such as a consumer of child pornography); or
(3) the act may not meet either of the sexual gratification categories, but it is legitimately
experienced by the child as a sexual act through some other aspect of the act making it
sexual.
harm is often caused by sexual abuse but its presence (either immediate or delayed) is not
essential to constitute abuse.
This approach is consistent with those adopted in international policy. For example:

WHO and ISPCAN define child sexual abuse as:

the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not fully comprehend, is
unable to give informed consent to, or for which the child is not developmentally prepared,
or else that violates the laws or social taboos of society. Children can be sexually abused by
both adults and other children who are – by virtue of their age or stage of development – in
a position of responsibility, trust or power over the victim.

The WHO defined child sexual abuse as:

the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not fully comprehend, is
unable to give informed consent to, or for which the child is not developmentally prepared
and cannot give consent, or that violates the laws or social taboos of society. Child sexual
abuse is evidenced by this activity between a child and an adult or another child who by age
or development is in a relationship of responsibility, trust or power, the activity being
intended to gratify or satisfy the needs of the other person.

The UN Committee on the Rights of the Child elaborated on the meaning of “sexual abuse”
for the purpose of interpreting and applying the UNCRC article 19 (the right to freedom
from violence), stating:

Sexual abuse and exploitation include:

the inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful or psychologically harmful

sexual activity;
the use of children in commercial sexual exploitation;
the use of children in audio or visual images of child sexual abuse;
child prostitution, sexual slavery, sexual exploitation in travel and tourism, trafficking
(within and between countries), and sale of children for sexual purposes and forced
marriage.
Many children experience sexual victimization which is not accompanied by physical force
or restraint but which is nonetheless psychologically intrusive, exploitative, and traumatic.

Sexual abuse comprises any sexual activities imposed by an adult on a child, against which
the child is entitled to protection by criminal law. Sexual activities are also considered as
abuse when committed against a child by another child if the child offender is significantly
older than the child victim or uses power, threat, or other means of pressure.

Operational definitions of sexual abuse

Operationally, provided the conceptual elements outlined above are present, acts of sexual
abuse include but are not limited to:

forced intercourse (oral sex, vaginal sex, anal sex, where any of these involve penetration by
a penis, body part, or object);
attempted forced intercourse (attempted intercourse, even where it was not completed);
other acts of contact sexual abuse (e.g., touching or fondling of a child’s genitals, breasts or
other erogenous zones; or making a child touch the offender’s genitals, breasts or other
erogenous zones);
non-contact sexual acts (e.g., (1) voyeurism - such as the offender watching a child when the
child is unclothed or bathing; and (2) exhibitionism – such as the offender exposing their
body, genitals, breasts or other erogenous zones to the child);
involvement of the child in pornography.
A note on what child sexual abuse is not

Child sexual abuse is not present in the following circumstances:

Genuinely consensual sexual acts between adolescents who both give full, free and
voluntary consent;
Normal developmental play between young children.

Understanding the different types of VAC

Neglect
The concept of neglect

As a concept, neglect should be understood as the failure by a parent or caregiver to provide

the child with the basic necessities of life as suited to the child’s developmental stage and as
recognised by the child’s cultural context.[1] Neglect normally involves a pattern of repeated
conduct, but may be constituted by a single omission in severe circumstances. Neglect is
normally unintentional but may be intentional; and may cause harm or have a high
likelihood of causing harm, but does not require harm.

Operational definitions of neglect

Operationally, neglect has several main dimensions:

medical neglect (e.g., failing to obtain medical care for a serious illness)
educational neglect (e.g., failing to ensure the child attends school)
supervisory neglect (e.g., leaving the child unattended in circumstances where to do so is
hazardous or otherwise non-normative)
physical neglect (e.g., failure to provide sufficient clothing and bathing facilities)
nutritional neglect (e.g., failure to provide sufficient food and water)
environmental neglect (e.g., failure to provide sufficient shelter)
emotional neglect (e.g., ignoring a child or failing to express affection, caring, and love).
A note on neglect

It must be remembered that many contextual factors must be considered before it can be
concluded that a series of omissions or a child’s general living environment can legitimately
be understood as involving neglect. Factors that must be considered include those at the
levels of the individual child (e.g., age) and the family (e.g., family structure), as well as at
the levels of the society, culture, and economy where the child lives.

For example, contextual features are highly relevant to consider in many situations where a
child is not receiving adequate nutrition, physical resources, or environmental resources;
here, the social and cultural setting may present different normative standards regarding the
“basic necessities” of life in that setting. In addition, many situations where neglect may be
ostensibly present are attributable to poverty or social conditions, rather than any overt
violence or malign intent. Furthermore, cultural expectations may differ, so that a pattern of
omission in one country may be considered neglectful, whereas that same pattern in another
country may not. This is not to minimise the significance of neglect, or of the importance of
these needs to the child’s daily life and opportunities to develop and flourish