Bridge Watchkeeping, Search & Rescue, Ship

Handling & Navigational Emergencies Bridge

Watchkeeping,
Chief mate Phase 2 Search & Rescue, Ship Handling
Table of Contents
Title Page Number
1 Bridge Watchkeeping 2
2 COLREGS – Important explanations 12
3 VTS 15
4 Ship’s Routeing measures 21
1
5 Ship Reporting system 23
6 Emergencies and contingency planning 25
7 Unlawful acts 47
8 Towing 52
9 Search and Rescue 58
10 Manoeuvring characteristics 83
11 Ship handling 91
12 Hydrodynamic effects 97
13 Tugs 105
14 Bow wave and stern wave 110
15 Pilotage 111
16 Anchoring 115
17 Mooring and Manoeuvering 121
18 Dry Docking 134
19 Lighterage at Sea (STS) 141
20 Ice Navigation 152
21 Heavy Weather 157
Bridge watchkeeping
Watchkeeping Principles
As laid down in STCW Section A-VIII/2 PART 3
Watches shall be carried out based on the following general bridge and engine-room
resource management principles:
 proper arrangements for watchkeeping personnel shall be ensured in accordance with the
situations;
 any limitation in qualifications or fitness of individuals shall be taken into account when
deploying watchkeeping personnel;
 understanding of watchkeeping personnel regarding their individual roles, responsibility 2
and team roles shall be established;
 the master, chief engineer officer and officer in charge of watch duties shall maintain a
proper watch, making the most effective use of the resources available, such as
information, installations/equipment and other personnel;
 watchkeeping personnel shall understand functions and operation of
installations/equipment, and be familiar with handling them;
 watchkeeping personnel shall understand information and how to respond to information
from each station/installation/equipment;
 information from the stations/installations/equipment shall be appropriately shared by all
the watchkeeping personnel;
 watchkeeping personnel shall maintain an exchange of appropriate communication in any
situation; and
 watchkeeping personnel shall notify the master/chief engineer officer/officer in charge of
watch duties without any hesitation when in any doubt as to what action to take in the
interest of safety.

Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch

The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master’s representative primarily
responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship for complying with the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended.
Performing the navigational watch includes oow continue to be responsible for the safe
navigation of the ship, despite the presence of the master on the bridge, until informed
specifically that the master has assumed that responsibility and this is mutually understood.
In no circumstances, OOW shall leave the bridge until properly relieved & continue the watch
on bridge.
Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas which includes Clear weather,
Restricted visibility, In hours of darkness, Coastal and congested waters, Navigation with pilot
on board, Ship at anchor have been described in STCW.
Look-Out (as per STCW)
A proper lookout shall be maintained at all times in compliance with rule 5 of the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and shall serve the purpose of:

 maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing, as well as by all other
available means, with regard to any significant change in the operating environment;
 fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to
navigation; and
 detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris and other
hazards to safe navigation.
 The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper lookout and no 3
other duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interfere with that task.
 The duties of the lookout and helmsperson are separate and the helmsperson shall not be
considered to be the lookout while steering, except where an unobstructed all-round view
is provided at the steering position.

Sole Lookout
As mentioned in MGN 315(M), an OOW acting as sole look-out should always be able to fully
perform both the duties of a look-out and those of keeping a safe navigational watch.
The officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the sole lookout in daylight provided
that, on each such occasion:

 the situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that it
is safe to do so;
 full account has been taken of all relevant factors, including, but not limited to:
- state of weather;
- visibility;
- traffic density;
- proximity of dangers to navigation; and
- the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes;
- assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in
the situation so requires.
 Additionally, following shall be taken into consideration prior considering OOW as sole
lookout
- design and layout of the bridge
- arcs of visibility
- radar equipment fitted and their limitations with respect to navigation
- other duties that the officer may have to engage in and which could be a distraction
from the keeping of a proper look-out such as operation of GMDSS and other
communications equipment, completion of logs and other record keeping, routine
testing and maintenance of bridge equipment etc.
Composition of Navigational Watch
In determining that the composition of the navigational watch to ensure that a proper lookout
can continuously be maintained, the master shall take into account following factors:

 visibility, state of weather and sea;

 traffic density, and other activities occurring in the area in which the vessel is navigating;
 the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes or other
routeing measures;
 the additional workload caused by the nature of the ship’s functions, immediate operating
requirements and anticipated maneuvers;
 the fitness for duty of any crew members on call who are assigned as members of the
watch; 4
 knowledge of, and confidence in, the professional competence of the ship’s officers and
crew;
 the experience of each officer of the navigational watch, and the familiarity of that officer
with the ship’s equipment, procedures, and maneuvering capability;
 activities taking place on board the ship at any particular time, including
radiocommunication activities, and the availability of assistance to be summoned
immediately to the bridge when necessary;
 the operational status of bridge instrumentation and controls, including alarm systems;
 rudder and propeller control and ship maneuvering characteristics;
 the size of the ship and the field of vision available from the conning position;
 the configuration of the bridge, to the extent such configuration might inhibit a member
of the watch from detecting by sight or hearing any external development; and
 any other relevant standard, procedure or guidance relating to watchkeeping
arrangements and fitness for duty which has been adopted by the Organization.

Watch arrangements
When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge, which may include appropriately
qualified ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into account:

 at no time shall the bridge be left unattended;

 weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
 proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge of
the watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
 use and operational condition of navigational aids such as ECDIS, radar or electronic
position-indicating devices and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the
ship;
 whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
 whether there are radio duties to be performed;
 unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators provided on the bridge,
procedures for their use and their limitations; and
 any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special
operational circumstances.
Taking over the watch
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hand over the watch to the
relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is not capable of carrying out
the watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the master shall be notified.
 The relieving officer shall ensure that the members of the relieving watch are fully capable
of performing their duties, particularly as regards their adjustment to night vision.
 Relieving officers shall not take over the watch until their vision is fully adjusted to the
light conditions. MSC.1/Circ.1280 - agreed that a suitable period for dark adaptation was
typically 10 to 15 minutes
 Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as to the ship’s
estimated or true position and confirm its intended track, course and speed, and UMS 5
controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to navigation expected to be
encountered during their watch.
 Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
 standing orders and other special instructions of the master;
 position, course, speed and draught of the ship;
 prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of these factors
upon course and speed;
 procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines are on
bridge control;
 navigational situation, including, but not limited to:
- the operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used or likely
to be used during the watch;
- the errors of gyro- and magnetic compasses;
- the presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity;
- the conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch; and
- the possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under-keel clearance.
 If, at any time, the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to be relieved when a
manoeuvre or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of that officer
shall be deferred until such action has been completed.

Performing the navigational watch

 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
- keep the watch on the bridge;
- in no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved; and
- continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of
the master on the bridge, until informed specifically that the master has assumed that
responsibility and this is mutually understood.
 During the watch, the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at sufficiently
frequent intervals, using any available navigational aids necessary, to ensure that the ship
follows the planned course.
 The OOW shall have full knowledge of the location and operation of all safety and
navigational equipment on board the ship and shall be aware and take account of the
operating limitations of such equipment.
 The OOW shall not be assigned or undertake any duties which would interfere with the
safe navigation of the ship.
 When using radar, the OOW shall bear in mind the necessity to comply at all times with
the provisions on the use of radar contained in the International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended in force.
 In cases of need, the OOW shall not hesitate to use the helm, engines and sound signaling
apparatus. However, timely notice of intended variations of engine speed shall be given
where possible or effective use shall be made of UMS engine controls provided on the
bridge in accordance with the applicable procedures.
 OOW shall know the handling characteristics of their ship, including its stopping distances,
and should appreciate that other ships may have different handling characteristics.
6
 A proper record shall be kept during the watch of the movements and activities relating to
the navigation of the ship.
 It is of special importance that at all times the OOW ensures that a proper lookout is
maintained.
 Operational tests of shipboard navigational equipment shall be carried out at sea as
frequently as practicable and as circumstances permit, in particular before hazardous
conditions affecting navigation are expected. Whenever appropriate, these tests shall be
recorded. Such tests shall also be carried out prior to port arrival and departure.
The OOW shall make regular checks to ensure that:
- the person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course;
- the standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible,
after any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro-compasses are frequently
compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass;
- the automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
- the navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning
properly;
- the radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph 86 of this
section; and
- the UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the necessity to comply
at all times with the requirements in force of the International Convention for the Safety
of Life at Sea (SOLAS),1974.
 The officer of the navigational watch shall take into account:
- the need to station a person to steer the ship and to put the steering into manual
control in good time to allow any potentially hazardous situation to be dealt with in a
safe manner; and
- that, with a ship under automatic steering, it is highly dangerous to allow a situation to
develop to the point where the officer in charge of the navigational watch is without
assistance and has to break the continuity of the lookout in order to take emergency
action.
 Officers of the navigational watch shall be thoroughly familiar with the use of all electronic
navigational aids carried, including their capabilities and limitations.
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall use the radar whenever restricted
visibility is encountered or expected, and at all times in congested waters, having due
regard to its limitations.
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall ensure that the range scales
employed are changed at sufficiently frequent intervals so that echoes are detected as
early as possible. It shall be borne in mind that small or poor echoes may escape
detection.
 Whenever radar is in use, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall select an
appropriate range scale and observe the display carefully, and shall ensure that plotting or
systematic analysis is commenced in ample time.
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall give watchkeeping personnel all
appropriate instructions and information which will ensure the keeping of a safe watch,
including a proper lookout.
7
Call Master
The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall notify the master immediately:

 if restricted visibility is encountered or expected;

 if the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing concern;
 if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
 on failure to sight land, or a navigation mark or to obtain soundings by the expected time;
 if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in soundings occurs;
 on breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control, steering gear or any
essential navigational equipment, alarm or indicator;
 if the radio equipment malfunctions;
 in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage;
 if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict; and
 in any other emergency or if in any doubt.
Despite the requirement to notify the master immediately in the foregoing circumstances, the
officer in charge of the navigational watch shall, in addition, not hesitate to take immediate
action for the safety of the ship, where circumstances so require.

Watchkeeping under different conditions and in different areas, in addition to general

watchkeeping standards following shall be applicable additionally under below conditions

Clear weather
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall take frequent and accurate compass
bearings of approaching ships to determine risk of collision.
 The OOW shall also take early and positive action in compliance with the COLREGS as
amended and subsequently check that such action is having the desired effect.
 In clear weather, whenever possible, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall
carry out radar practice.

Restricted visibility
Risks - Inability to visually detect an approaching vessel in sufficient time to access the ROC
and take action to avoid CQS.
 When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, comply with the relevant rules of
the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 with particular regard
to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe speed and having the engines ready for
immediate manoeuvre.
 In addition, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
- inform the master;
- post a proper lookout;
- exhibit navigation lights; and
- operate and use the radar.

In hours of darkness 8
 The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch, when arranging lookout
duty, shall have due regard to the bridge equipment and navigational aids available for
use, their limitations, procedures and safeguards implemented.

Coastal and congested waters

Congested waters - Congested means heavy traffic density which increases ROC
Confined waters - Key risk is grounding cos of proximity of numerous hazards such as shallow
water, shoals and reefs, wrecks, obstn pipelines etc.

 The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with the latest
available information, shall be used.
 Fixes shall be taken at frequent intervals, and shall be carried out by more than one
method whenever circumstances allow.
 When using ECDIS, appropriate usage code (scale) electronic navigational charts shall be
used and the ship’s position shall be checked by an independent means of position fixing
at appropriate intervals.
 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all relevant
navigation marks.

Navigation with Pilot onboard

 Despite the duties and obligations of pilots, their presence onboard doesn’t relieve the
master or OOW from their duties and obligations for the safety of the ship.
 The master and pilot shall exchange information regarding navigation procedures, local
conditions and ship’s characteristics.
 The master and/or the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall co-operate closely
with the pilot and maintain an accurate check on the ship’s position and movement.
 If in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall seek clarification from the pilot and, if doubt still exists, shall
notify the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the master
arrives.
Watchkeeping when ship at anchor
While at anchor, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:

 determine and plot the ship’s position on the appropriate chart as soon as practicable;
 when circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether the ship is
remaining securely at anchor by taking bearings of fixed navigation marks or readily
identifiable shore objects;
 ensure that proper lookout is maintained;
 ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically;
 observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
 notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags anchor; 9
 ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery is in
accordance with the master’s instructions;
 if visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
 ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that appropriate sound
signals are made in accordance with all applicable regulations; and
 take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and comply with
applicable pollution regulations.

Following shall be taken into account when determining watch arrangements at anchor:

 maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing as well as by all other
available means;
 ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communication requirements;
 the prevailing weather, sea, ice and current conditions;
 the need to continuously monitor the ship’s position;
 the nature, size and characteristics of anchorage;
 traffic conditions;
 situations which might affect the security of the ship;
 loading and discharging operations;
 the designation of stand-by crew members; and
 the procedure to alert the master and maintain engine readiness.

Watchkeeping in port
Principles applying to all watchkeeping
 Officers in charge of the deck or engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to their
relieving officer if they have any reason to believe that the latter is obviously not capable
of carrying out watchkeeping duties effectively, in which case the master or chief engineer
shall be notified accordingly.
 Relieving officers of the deck or engineering watch shall ensure that all members of their
watch are apparently fully capable of performing their duties effectively.
 If, at the moment of handing over the deck or engineering watch, an important operation
is being performed, it shall be concluded by the officer being relieved, except when
ordered otherwise by the master or chief engineer officer.
Taking over the deck watch
Prior to taking over the deck watch, the relieving officer shall be informed by the officer in
charge of the deck watch as to the following:

 the depth of the water at the berth, the ship’s draught, tides; the securing of the
moorings, the arrangement of anchors and the scope of the anchor chain, and other
mooring features important to the safety of the ship; the state of main engines and their
availability for emergency use;
 all work to be performed on board the ship; the nature, amount and disposition of cargo
loaded or remaining, and any residue on board after unloading the ship;
 the level of water in bilges and ballast tanks; 10
 the signals or lights being exhibited or sounded;
 the number of crew members on board and the presence of any other persons on board;
 the state of fire-fighting appliances;
 any special port regulations;
 the master’s standing and special orders;
 the lines of communication available between the ship and shore personnel,
 any other circumstances of importance to the safety of the ship, its crew, cargo or
protection of the environment from pollution; and
 the procedures for notifying the appropriate authority of any environmental pollution
resulting from ship activities.
 Relieving officers, before assuming charge of the deck watch, shall verify that:
 the securing of moorings and anchor chain is adequate;
 the appropriate signals or lights are properly exhibited or sounded;
 safety measures and fire-protection regulations are being maintained;
 they are aware of the nature of any hazardous or dangerous cargo being loaded or
discharged and the appropriate action to be taken in the event of any spillage or fire; and
 no external conditions or circumstances imperil the ship and ship does not imperil others.

Performing the deck watch

The officer in charge of the deck watch shall:
 Make rounds to inspect the ship at appropriate intervals;
 pay particular attention to:
- the condition and securing of the gangway, anchor chain and moorings, especially at
the turn of the tide and in berths with a large rise and fall.
- the draught, under-keel clearance and the general state of the ship, to avoid dangerous
listing or trim during cargo handling or ballasting;
- the weather and sea state;
- the observance of all regulations concerning safety and fire protection;
- the water level in bilges and tanks;
- all persons on board and their location, especially those in remote or enclosed spaces;
- the exhibition and sounding, where appropriate, of lights and signals;
 in bad weather, or on receiving a storm warning, take the necessary measures to protect
the ship, persons on board and cargo
 take every precaution to prevent pollution of the environment by the ship;
 in an emergency threatening the safety of the ship, raise the alarm, inform the master,
take all possible measures to prevent any damage to the ship, its cargo and persons on
board, and, if necessary, request assistance from the shore authorities or neighboring
ships;
 be aware of the ship’s stability condition so that, in the event of fire, the shore fire-fighting
authority may be advised of the approximate quantity of water that can be pumped on
board without endangering the ship;
 offer assistance to ships or persons in distress;
 take necessary precautions to prevent accidents or damage when propellers are to be
turned; and
11
 enter, in the appropriate log-book, all important events affecting the ship.

Engine Room Watch Keeping

Following factors may be taken into account when deciding the composition of the Engine
Room watch,
 Type of the ship and operational condition of all machinery and instrumentation.
 Adequate supervision at all times of machinery that affect the safe operation of the ship.
 Any special attention to be given in case of bad wx, ice, shallow waters, etc.
 Qualification and experience of the Engineer on watch and the ratings.
 Observation of international, national and local rules.
 Maintaining the normal operations of the ship.
 Additional workload caused by ships functions such as tank cleaning.

Communication between the Master and the Chief Engineer

A flowless and smooth exchange of information between both departments will ensure better
planning.
As a minimum bridge must ensure that ER is fully appraised of
 various stages of passage and requirements of additional power or engines standby or
manning requirements etc.
 Local and international regulations regarding grade of fuel to be used.
 Routing arrangements and voyage prospectus for bunker planning and calculations
 During critical stages of passage, ER must be appraised of any emergency or change in
plans
 All deviations must be discussed with ER team
 ER must be advised regularly during pilotage and any special requirements regarding
machinery discussed during master pilot exchange

As a minimum ER must appraise bridge of the following but not limited to

 Limitations of ER team and machinery
 Any problems with the machinery on board.
 Any critical effect on maneuvering capabilities of the vessel.
 Bunker requirements for voyage
 Time/ notices required during critical passages
 Any ongoing maintenance on critical machinery
COLREGS – important explanations

Rule no 2 - Responsibility

Precautions required by good seamanship or special circumstances

Some examples of precautions which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or
by special circumstances, are the following:
 A vessel under way would be expected to keep clear of a vessel at anchor as a matter of
seamanship.
 When a vessel anchors, she must do so without endangering other vessels which may be
navigating close by. She must not anchor too close to other anchored vessels. 12
 In dense fog a vessel without operational radar may not be justified in being under way at
all but should anchor if it is safe and practicable for her to do so.
 When two vessels are approaching one another at a difficult bend in a tidal river it has
been held to be the duty of the one having the tide against her to wait until the other has
passed.
 The effects of shallow water must be taken into account which includes squat and
interaction.
 A TSS adopted by member state but not yet recognised by IMO would not be compulsory
for the ships of all nations but it would be good seamanship to comply with Rule 10.

Dangers of navigation and collision

A power-driven vessel meeting another power-driven vessel end on may be unable to alter her
course to starboard, as directed by Rule 14, owing to the presence of shallow water close by
to starboard or to the fact that a third vessel is overtaking her on her starboard side.

Special circumstances including limitations of vessels involved

Limitations for consideration include not only own vessel but another vessel too. A power-
driven vessel is meeting another pd showing CBD signals end on is unable to alter her course
to starboard owing to presence of shallows or other over taking vessels on her starboard.
Considering this limitation, it would be best to quickly alter your course to port (hard to port)
to avoid immediate danger.
This Rule does not give any vessel the right to take action contrary to the Regulations
whenever it is considered to be advantageous to do so. A departure is only permitted when
there are special circumstances and there is immediate danger. Both conditions must apply.
The departure must be of such a nature as to avoid the danger which threatens.

Rule no 3 - Definitions
Vessel not under command means a vessel which through some exceptional circumstance is
unable to manoeuvre as required by these Rules and is therefore unable to keep out of the
way of another vessel.
 a vessel with breakdown of engines or steering gear, or
 a vessel which has lost a propeller or rudder,
 a vessel with her anchor down but not holding,
 a vessel riding to anchor chains with anchors unshackled,
 and a sailing vessel becalmed.

Vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre means a vessel which from the nature of her
work is restricted in her ability to manoeuvre as required by these Rules and is therefore
unable to keep out of the way of another vessel.
It shall include but not be limited to:
 a vessel engaged in laying, servicing or picking up a navigation mark, submarine cable or
pipeline;
 a vessel engaged in dredging, surveying or underwater operations;
 a vessel engaged in replenishment or transferring persons, provision or cargo while
13
underway;
 a vessel engaged in the launching or recovery of aircraft;
 a vessel engaged in mine clearance operations;
 a vessel engaged in a towing operation such as severely restricts the towing vessel and her
tow in their ability to deviate from their course.

Vessel constrained by her draught means a power-driven vessel which because of her draught
in relation to the available depth and width of navigable water is severely restricted in her
ability to deviate from the course she is following.

The main factor which must be taken into account is the space available for manoeuvre rather
than the depth of water beneath the keel, but the restriction of space must be due to
relatively shallow water which would not necessarily be a danger to other vessels in the
vicinity.
A vessel navigating in an area with a small underkeel clearance but with adequate space to
take avoiding action should not be regarded as a vessel constrained by her draught.
The signals should only be shown when the ability to alter course is severely restricted.
On passing clear of the area of relatively shallow water the signals must no longer be
displayed.
A very large fully loaded vessel will not be justified in displaying the signals even in crowded
waters, or a traffic separation area, if there is sufficient deep water on either side to permit
course alterations.

Rule no 6 – Safe Speed

Safe Speed - means that the ship sails at a speed at which she can take effective action to
avoid collision and be stopped within distance appropriate in prevailing circumstances and
conditions.
The speed should be such that the vessel can take an effective (avoid) action to avoid danger,
this includes manoeuvring to keep out of the way or slowing down or stopping to allow
another vessel to pass clearly.

If the speed is very low and the current is strong, she may drift on to any other ship, so a low
speed is not safe under these circumstances.
If the speed is more and if the steering fails then she would move away from her course line
onto a danger very fast without maybe even an emergency being realised.
The manoeuvrability of the vessel with special reference to stopping distance and turning
ability in the prevailing conditions;
This relates to the manoeuvering characteristics of different vessels, a large fully laden tanker
may have stopped her engines after being on full ahead, she then takes emergency action to
stop the vessel by going emergency full astern, but the momentum of the vessel is such that
she would come to a full stop condition only after traveling a further distance.
A smaller cargo vessel or the same tanker on ballast in such a condition may have stopped in
the water in a distance of maybe lesser.
A large tanker fully laden will take a lot of time to initially begin her turn after the wheel is put
hard over, and once the vessel starts her swing, she keeps swinging and to stop her swing it 14
takes a lot of time wherein the ship may have done a near 360° turn and landed up in another
critical situation. A smaller vessel or the same tanker on ballast may not have such problem.
The characteristics, efficiency, and limitations of the radar equipment;
A functional Radar may not be operating at its peak performance, maybe the magnetron has
become old, or the centre of the PPI is burnt out or any other causes where the Radar has got
peculiarities which are readily apparent to a new observer but may be overlooked by an old
ship hand. The Mast and the funnel cast Radar shadows and for a particular ship, the watch
keepers have to take that into consideration. These peculiarities may in emergencies
cause other vessel’s not to be tracked by the Radar.

Further reading - rule 8 & 19

Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) – requirements are set by SOLAS Reg 12/ Chapter V; Res
A.857(20) & Circ 1610
Vessel traffic service (VTS) is a service implemented by a Competent Authority, designed to
improve the safety and efficiency of vessel traffic and to protect the environment. The service
should have the capability to interact with the traffic and to respond to traffic situations
developing in the VTS area.
A VTS is appropriate in areas that may include any, or a combination, of the following:

 high traffic density;

 traffic carrying hazardous cargoes;
15
 conflicting and complex navigation patterns;
 difficult hydrographical, hydrological and meteorological elements;
 shifting shoals and other local hazards and environmental considerations;
 interference by vessel traffic with other waterborne activities;
 number of casualties in an area during a specified period;
 existing or planned vessel traffic services on adjacent waterways and the need for
cooperation between neighboring states, if appropriate;
 narrow channels, port configuration, bridges, locks, bends and similar areas where the
progress of vessels may be restricted; and
 existing or foreseeable changes in the traffic pattern in the area

Purpose
 To improve safety and efficiency of navigation, safety of life at sea and protection of
marine environment, adjacent shore area, offshore installation from possible adverse
effects of maritime traffic.
 To expedite ship movements, increase transportation system efficiency, and improve all-
weather operating capability. They receive weather, tide and tidal current information
from remote sensors within the operating area.
 The benefits of implementing a VTS are that it allows identification and monitoring of
vessels, strategic planning of vessel movements and provision of navigational information
and assistance.
 It can also assist in prevention of pollution and co-ordination of pollution response.

VTS services
VTS services - VTS should comprise at least an information service and may also include
others, such as a navigational assistance service or a traffic organization service, or both -
 An information services
 A navigational assistance services
 A traffic organization service
 Allied services

 The information service is a service to ensure that essential information becomes

available in time for on-board navigational decision-making.
 It is provided by broadcasting information at fixed times and intervals or when deemed
necessary by the VTS or at the request of a vessel, and may include for example reports on
the position, identity and intentions of other traffic; waterway conditions; weather;
hazards; or any other factors that may influence the vessel's transit.
 The navigational assistance service is a service to assist on-board navigational decision-
making and to monitor its effects.
 It is especially important in difficult navigational or meteorological circumstances or in
case of defects or deficiencies. This service is normally rendered at the request of a vessel
or by the VTS when deemed necessary.
 The traffic organization service is a service to prevent the development of dangerous
maritime traffic situations and to provide for the safe and efficient movement of vessel
16
traffic within the VTS area.
 It concerns the operational management of traffic and the forward planning of vessel
movements to prevent congestion and dangerous situations, and is particularly relevant in
times of high traffic density or when the movement of special transports may affect the
flow of other traffic.
 The service may also include establishing and operating a system of traffic clearances or
VTS sailing plans or both in relation to priority of movements, allocation of space,
mandatory reporting of movements in the VTS area, routes to be followed, speed limits to
be observed or other appropriate measures which are considered necessary by the VTS
authority.
 Allied services – Services which are actively involved in the safe and efficient passage of
the vessel through the VTS area.

Resources
 It includes systems such as radar, VHF radiotelephony, CCTV and AIS that help to keep
track of vessel movements and provide navigational safety in a limited geographical area.
They also obtain information from vessels in the form of reports and use Radio direction
finder that helps to locate direction from which radio frequencies are coming. This device
particularly helps in acting like a vessel finder.

VTS Types
There are two main types of VTS - surveilled and non-surveilled.
a) Surveilled systems consist of one or more land-based sensors (i.e., radar, AIS and closed-
circuit television sites), which output their signals to a central location where operators
monitor and manage vessel traffic movement.
b) Non-surveilled systems consist of one or more reporting points at which ships are
required to report their identity, course, speed, and other data to the monitoring
authority.
They encompass a wide range of techniques and capabilities aimed at preventing vessel
collisions, ramming, and groundings in the harbor, harbor approach and inland waterway
phase of navigation. They are also designed to expedite ship movements, increase
transportation system efficiency, and improve all-weather operating capability.
VTS Organization
Elements of a VTS

 Adequate staff, housing, instrumentation and procedures governing operations and

interactions between the various elements.
 The requirements in each field are determined by the particular nature of the VTS area,
the density and character of the traffic and the type of service that is to be provided.
 Consideration should be given to the establishment of back-up facilities to sustain and
maintain the desired level of reliability and availability.

Functions of VTS/ Tasks that may be performed in accordance with the service rendered 17

 A VTS should at all times be capable of generating a comprehensive overview of the traffic
in its service area combined with all traffic influencing factors.
 The VTS should be able to compile a traffic image, which is the basis for its capability to
respond to traffic situations developing in its service area.
 The traffic image allows the VTS operator to evaluate situations and make decisions
accordingly.
 Data should be collected to compile the traffic image. This includes:
- data on the fairway situation, such as meteorological and hydrological conditions and
the operational status of aids to navigation;
- data on the traffic situation, such as vessel positions, movements, identities and
intentions with respect to manoeuvres, destination and routing;
- data of vessels in accordance with the requirements of ship reporting and if necessary,
any additional data, required for the effective operation of the VTS.
 Vessel's reports by communication between vessels and the VTS Centre should also be
used as a major source of necessary data.
 To respond to traffic situations developing in the VTS area and to decide upon appropriate
actions the acquired data should be processed and evaluated.
 Conclusions from the evaluation need to be communicated to participating vessels.
 A distinction should be made between the provision of navigational information, being a
relay of information extracted from the VTS sensors and the traffic image, and the
provision of navigational advice, where a professional opinion is included.

Operating procedures
 Internal procedures cover operating instruments, interactions among the staff and the
internal routing and distribution of data.
 External procedures cover interactions with users and allied services.
 A further distinction should be made between procedures governing the daily routine and
procedures governing contingency planning such as search and rescue and environmental
protection activities.
 All operational procedures, routine or contingency, should be laid down in handbooks or
manuals and be an integral part of regular training exercises.
 Adherence to procedures should be monitored.
 When the VTS is authorized to issue instructions to vessels, these instructions should be
result-oriented only, leaving the details of execution, such as course to be steered or
engine manoeuvres to be executed, to the master or pilot on board the vessel.
 Care should be taken that VTS operations do not encroach upon the master's
responsibility for safe navigation, or disturb the traditional relationship between master
and pilot.
 A VTS area can be divided into sectors, but these should be as few as possible.
 Area and sector boundaries should not be located where vessels normally alter course or
manoeuvre or where they are approaching areas of convergence, route junctions or
where there is crossing traffic.
18
Participating vessels
 Vessels navigating in an area where vessel traffic services are provided should make use of
these services.
 Depending upon governing rules and regulations, participation in a VTS may be either
voluntary mandatory.
 Vessels should be allowed to use a VTS where mandatory participation is not required.
 Decisions concerning the actual navigation and the manoeuvring of the vessel remain with
the master.
 Neither a VTS sailing plan, nor requested or agreed changes to the sailing plan can
supersede the decisions of the master concerning the actual navigation and manoeuvring
of the vessel.
 Communication with the VTS and other vessels should be conducted on the assigned
frequencies in accordance with established ITU and SOLAS chapter IV procedures, in
particular where a communication concern intended maneuvers\\.
 VTS procedures should stipulate what communications are required and which
frequencies should be monitored.
 Prior to entering the VTS area, vessels should make all required reports, including
reporting of deficiencies.
 During their passage through the VTS area, vessels should adhere to governing rules and
regulations, maintain a continuous listening watch on the assigned frequency and report
deviations from the agreed sailing plan, if such a plan has been established in co-operation
with the VTS authority.
 Masters of vessels should report any observed dangers to navigation or pollution to the
VTS centre.
 In case of a complete failure of the vessel's appropriate communication equipment the
master shall endeavour to inform the VTS centre and other vessels in the vicinity by any
other available means of communication of the vessel's inability to communicate on the
assigned frequency.
 If the technical failure prevents the vessel from participation or continuing its participation
in a VTS, the master should enter in the vessel's log the fact and reasons for not or further
participating.
 Vessels should carry publications giving full particulars on governing rules and regulations
regarding identification, reporting and/or conduct in the VTS area to be entered.
Manoeuvring in and Near VTS areas
 Communication between the ship and the shore (VTS) is essential for the safe operation of
the vessels operating in the VTS area.
 The Master must make the best use of the VTS at all times when making navigational
decisions. All the requirements of the VTS including mandatory reporting must be a part of
vessels Passage Plan.
 Whenever in doubt regarding the movement of the traffic, the Master or OOW must not
hesitate to seek advice or information from the VTS.
 A log must be maintained of all the communication with the VTS such as the mandatory
reporting or any advice given by the VTS.
19

Drawback and Limitations of VTS

 The efficiency of a VTS will depend on the reliability and continuity of communications and
on the ability to provide good and unambiguous information.
 Not every vessel is required by the rules to carry AIS. Therefore, the AIS will not be capable
of providing the full picture of the maritime traffic in the VTS area unless it is integrated
with other surveillance systems.
 Also, the validity of the information received by the AIS depends on the accuracy of the
information transmitted.
 Possibility of wrong interpretation of information due to target swap on VTS Radars
 Communication with the VTS may lead to distraction and loss of situational awareness of
the Master or OOW.
 VTS may bring in complacency in the Bridge Team where information about developing
risks is provided by VTS
 VTS surveillance has a limited range, i.e., few nautical miles from the VTS Centre.
 Not fully trained operator
 Language barrier – All VTS operators may not be familiar with working language of various
companies/ships
VTMS
VTMS - The Vessel Traffic Management System (VTMS) is the system that integrates and
interconnects all the assets relevant to a safe and secure management of Maritime Operations
ranging from marine environment protection, traffic management to law enforcement and
security at sea.
Objective
to provide the maritime community with a fully integrated system able to support a wide
range of maritime applications, including:
 Safety and Environmental Protection at Sea
 Collision avoidance and safe navigation
 Search and Rescue 20
 Oil pollution detection and environmental protection
 Mission coordination
 Dangerous cargo management Law Enforcement & Security
 Border control and immigration
 Organized crime and smuggling
 Port protection
 Illegal fishing Traffic Management
 Management of maritime traffic
 Navigation & Traffic efficiency
 Port management

The main system capabilities include:

 Remote sensors monitoring and control
 Real time and off-line data archiving
 Global picture creation and management
 Support to operators’ decisions in critical situations
 Presentation of traffic navigation and vessel information

The system
The key concepts at the basis of VTMS are the “integration, correlation and processing of
heterogeneous information sources”, consisting both of sensors of different nature and
external systems.
In particular, VTMS integrates the following elements, which are constantly monitored to
provide equipment status and information reliability in real time:
 Radars
 Automatic Identification System (AIS)
 Direction Finders
 Meteorological and Hydrographical Systems
 Electro-Optical Systems
 Surveillance Networks sharing radar and AIS Data
 Data Networks sharing information services about vessels
 Data Networks sharing information about other organizations
 Port Management and Information System
Ship’s Routeing measures
Objectives

 The purpose of ships' routeing is to improve the safety of navigation in converging areas
and in areas where the density of traffic is great or where freedom of movement of
shipping is inhibited by restricted sea-room, the existence of obstructions to navigation,
limited depths or unfavorable meteorological conditions.
 The precise objectives of any routeing system will depend upon the particular hazardous
circumstances which it is intended to alleviate, but may include some or all of the
following;
 the separation of opposing streams of traffic so as to reduce the incidence of head-on
encounters; 21
 the reduction of dangers of collision between crossing traffic and shipping in established
traffic lanes;
 the simplification of the patterns of traffic flow in converging areas;
 the organization of safe traffic flow in areas of concentrated offshore exploration or
exploitation;
 the organization of traffic flow in or around areas where navigation by all ships or by
certain classes of ship is dangerous or undesirable;
 the reduction of risk of grounding to providing special guidance to vessels in areas where
water depths are uncertain or critical;
 the guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or the organization of traffic through fishing
grounds

Elements

 Traffic separation scheme - A routeing measure aimed at the separation of opposing

streams of traffic by appropriate means and by establishment of traffic lanes.
 Separation zone or line
 Traffic Lane
 Roundabout - A routeing measure comprising a separation point or circular separation
zone and a circular traffic lane within defined limits. Traffic within the roundabout is
separated by moving in a counterclockwise direction around the separation point or zone.
 Inshore traffic zone
 Two-way route - A route within defined limits inside which two-way traffic is established,
aimed at providing safe passage of ships through waters where navigation is difficult or
dangerous.
 Recommended route - A route of undefined width, for the convenience of ships in transit,
which is often marked by center line buoys.
 Recommended track - A route which has been specially examined to ensure so far as
possible that it is free of dangers and along which ships are advised to navigate.
 Deep water route - A route within defined limits which has been accurately surveyed for
clearance of sea bottom and submerged obstacles as indicated on the chart.
 Precautionary area - A routeing measure comprising an area within defined limits where
ships must navigate
 Area to be avoided - A routeing measure comprising an area within defined limits in which
 either navigation is particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally important to avoid
casualties and which should be avoided by all ships, or certain classes of ship.
 Established direction of traffic flow - A traffic flow pattern indicating the directional
movement of traffic as established within a traffic separation scheme.
 Recommended direction of traffic flow

Other routeing methods

 deep-water routes
 recommended directions of traffic flow
 recommended routes and tracks through areas where navigation is difficult or dangerous 22

IMO Routing Guide

The Master of a vessel must be aware of the location of and the requirements of the
established TSS and mandatory Ship Reporting Systems. The IMO publication “Ships Routing”
will provide that information.
Ships' Routeing Guide provides comprehensive details of all ships routeing measures adopted
by IMO worldwide.

The contents of the Routing Guide are:

Part A – Introduction and Overview
Part B – Traffic separation schemes and inshore traffic zones
Part C – Deepwater routes
Part D – Areas to be avoided
Part E – Other routing measures, such as recommended tracks, two-way routes and
recommended traffic flow.
Part F – Rules and recommendations on navigation that are associated with particular traffic
areas and straits.
Part G – Mandatory ship reporting systems & mandatory no anchoring areas.
Part H – Archipelagic Sea lanes.
Ship Reporting system
SOLAS regulation 11 Ch V lists the requirements of ship reporting system other than those
established for SAR purposes. Also, resolution A.851(20) lists general principles of ship
reporting system.
Ship reporting systems contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of navigation
and/or protection of the marine environment
Ship reporting systems and reporting requirements are used to provide, gather or exchange
information through radio reports.
The master of a ship shall comply with the requirements of adopted ship reporting systems
and report to the appropriate authority all information required in accordance with the 23
provisions of each such system.
Principles of ship reporting system

 Only essential information to be exchanged

 Reports shall be simple and standard format shall be followed
 Number of reports required shall be kept to minimum
 No charge should be made for communication of reports
 Safety or pollution related reports shall be made without any delay
 Information exchange i.e., this information should be available to other systems when
required for distress, safety and pollution purposes.

Significance of ship reporting systems

 Various ship reporting systems have been established by the contracting governments
which are voluntary or mandatory depending upon their purpose.
 They are formed by the Contracting Government in accordance with SOLAS V/Regulation
11, as per the guidelines given by the organization.
 They are mainly formed for assisting in Search and Rescue and for use during emergencies.
 They also aid in providing security to vessel, weather forecast, enhance safety of
navigation and monitor incidents of pollution.
 These systems allow the organization to provide mutual assistance in case of a marine
emergency by regularly getting position reports from various vessels.

Ship reporting systems and vessel tracking as per IAMSAR

Ship reporting systems have been established by several States.

Ships at sea may be the only craft near the scene of a distressed aircraft or vessel.

A ship reporting system enables the SMC to quickly:

 identify vessels in the vicinity of a distress situation, along with their positions, courses,
and speeds
 be aware of other information about the vessels which may be valuable (whether a
doctor is on board, etc.)
 know how to contact the vessels
 improve the likelihood of rapid aid during emergencies
 reduce the number of calls for assistance to vessels unfavourably located to respond
 reduce the response time to provide assistance.
 Masters of vessels are urged or mandated to send regular reports to the authority
operating a ship reporting system for SAR and other safety-related services.
 Additional information on operators of ship reporting systems may be obtained from
RCCs.
 Automatic identification system (AIS) and long-range identification and tracking (LRIT)
transmissions are also important for providing shore authorities with real or near real
time vessel tracking data to support search and rescue.
24

Common theme in Ship’s Routeing, Ship reporting system and VTS

 All the three systems contribute to improve safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation, and/or increase the protection of the marine environment.
 The IMO is recognized as the only international body for developing guidelines, criteria &
regulations on international level for above 3 systems.
 They all are part of SOLAS Chapter V - Safety of Navigation; Regulation 10 – Ship’s
Routeing, Regulation 11 – Ship Reporting Systems and Regulation 12 – Vessel Traffic
Services.
Emergency - a serious, unexpected, and often dangerous situation requiring immediate
action in which there is a probable danger to life or property or environment.

Emergency preparedness

Role of ISM code in emergency preparedness

 Since emergencies cannot be entirely controlled, either through design or through normal
operational procedures, emergency preparedness and pollution prevention should form
part of the company's ship safety management.
 For this purpose, every company is required by the ISM Code to develop, implement and
maintain a Safety Management System (SMS). 25
 Within this SMS, potential emergency shipboard situations should be identified and
procedures should be established to respond to them.

Integrated system of contingency plans (Resolution A.1072(28))

 It is a tool for implementing the requirements of ISM code.
 It provides guidance to shipboard personnel with respect to the steps to be taken when an
emergency has occurred or is likely to occur.
 The purpose of the system is to integrate contingency plans for shipboard emergency
situations and to avoid the development of different, non-harmonized and unstructured
plans.
 The system and associated plans should be seen as dynamic, and should be reviewed after
implementation and improved through the sharing of experience, ideas and feedback.
 The documents must be available in the working language of the crew.
 A two-tier course of action provides the basis for a modular approach, which can avoid
unnecessary duplication.
 Also, use of a modular designed structure will provide a quickly visible and logically
sequenced source of information and priorities, which can reduce error and oversight
during emergency situations preventing critical steps from being overlooked.
 A two-tier course of action - there are some immediate actions which should always be
taken – the so-called "initial actions" and further "subsequent response", which depends
on variables like the ship's cargo, type of the ship, etc., will help to assist shipboard
personnel in dealing with unexpected emergencies and will ensure that the necessary
actions are taken in a priority order.

The module structure of an integrated system for shipboard emergency plans

Module I – Introduction
 guidance to shipboard personnel with respect to the steps to be taken when an
emergency has occurred or is likely to occur.
Module II – Provision
 Procedures for reporting emergency
 Procedures for identifying, describing and responding to potential emergency
shipboard situations
 Maintenance of the system and associated plans
Module III – Planning, Preparedness and Training
  Provisions and information for training
 Fam with shipboard and shoreside system
 Responsibilities/ communication lines established with all parties
 Information of external co-ordinating authorities for regular drills
Module IV – Response actions
Various emergencies >> Initial actions// Subsequent response action
Module V – Reporting procedures
 When, How, Whom & What
Module VI – Annexes
 Various plans and diagrams etc
 Other relevant information to enhance the ability of shipboard personnel 26

Guidelines for implementing emergency plans (7 steps)

Step – 1
Evaluate the risks and hazards which may result in different emergency situations
(Possible events should be identified and their probability of occurrence and
consequences must be addressed to set priorities for planning)
Step – 2
Identify the required response tasks
(This step requires a thorough definition of actions which must be taken in an
emergency)
Step – 3
Identify the shipboard emergency response participants and establish their roles,
resources and communication lines
(There is a limited range of potential participants in emergency response aboard;
it is important to identify them early)
Step – 4
Make changes necessary to improve existing plans and integrate them in the system
(Integrating all existing plans into one plan will reveal problems with overlapping
activities and complicated interfaces)
Step – 5
Prepare final plan(s) and obtain identity with both the shoreside and shipboard plan(s)
(Once agreement on the integrated plan has been reached, a final plan should be
documented and kept ready for updating in accordance with the experiences gained
under steps 6 and 7)
Step – 6 Step – 7
Educate the emergency response testing, review and updating of the
participants about the integrated system plan(s)
and plan(s) and ensure that all emergency (Emergency responders should test the
responders are trained plan on a regular basis. Any deficiencies
(It is important that emergency should then be corrected in the plan and
responders are well trained) the training programme)
Basis the response action, shipboard emergency organisation will consist of various teams are
assigned with different roles and responsibilities to tackle emergency.
Response teams

The structure of response teams will be as per company SMS and vary slightly which will
mainly include

1. Command Team – Responsible for command and control of entire situation including
record keeping and communications external and internal
2. Engine team – Technical team attending engine and various services regarding machineries
3. Emergency Team – Main action response team which will ensure first response to
emergency and further assessment of situation
4. Support team – support functions for emergency team including supplies, medical
assistance etc 27

(**The initial actions as listed below for various emergencies may be grouped as per actions by
command team, emergency team, support team and engine control team.)

Criteria followed while assigning personnel for the emergency teams

 Accommodation configuration and proximity of each person’s cabin to lifeboats
 Appropriate roles and responsibilities for each position during emergency situations
 Time onboard and experience in rank
 Physical capabilities and limitations
 SOLAS and relevant flag state requirements
 To ensure that the duties allocated to any individual crew member do not overlap, duties
are clear and without conflict in any foreseeable emergency.
 In assigning personnel to survival craft, the muster list should include a deck officer or a
person certificated as Proficient in Survival Craft in charge of each survival craft, a second
in command in the case of lifeboats, and a person capable of carrying out minor engine
adjustments in the case of a motorized survival craft.

Muster list

As required by SOLAS regulation III/8 (Muster List and Emergency Instructions) and regulation
III/37 (Muster List and Emergency Instructions)
 The muster list shall specify details of the general emergency alarm and other alarms and
also action to be taken by crew and passengers when alarms are sounded.
 The muster list shall also specify how the order to abandon ship will be given.
 The muster list shall specify which officers are assigned to ensure that life-saving and fire
appliances are maintained in good condition and are ready for immediate use.
 The muster list shall specify substitutes for key persons.
 The muster list shall show the duties assigned to the different members of the crew
including:
- closing of the watertight doors, fire doors, valves, scuppers, side scuttles, skylights,
portholes and other similar openings in the ship;
- equipping of the survival craft and other life-saving appliances;
 - preparation and launching of survival craft;
- general preparations of other life-saving appliances;
- muster of passengers;
- use of communication equipment;
- manning of fire parties assigned to deal with fires;
- special duties assigned in respect to the use of fire-fighting equipment and
installations; and
- for passenger ships only, damage control for flooding emergencies.
 The muster list shall show the duties assigned to members of the crew in relation to
passengers in case of emergency. These duties shall include:
- warning the passengers; 28
- seeing that they are suitably clad and have donned their lifejackets correctly;
- assembling passengers at muster stations;
- keeping order in the passageways and on the stairways and generally controlling the
movements of the passengers; and
- ensuring that a supply of blankets is taken to the survival craft.
 The muster list shall be prepared before the ship proceeds to sea.
 Muster lists and Emergency Instructions must also be posted up in conspicuous places
throughout the ship including at least the bridge, the engine room or engine control room,
and on each accommodation deck.
Abandon ship
Various situations under which abandon ship decision is taken
 When there is grave and imminent danger in staying onboard
 safety of crew will be compromised by staying onboard in or after some emergency
situation.
 Ship is listing beyond the control or progressive flooding
 When deciding to abandon, following shall be taken into account – nature and extent of
danger, stability of vessel in damaged condition, weather conditions, proximity to shore
etc.

Abandon ship procedure 29

The following are pre-required in order to execute the abandoning of vessel (As time permits):

 Appropriate and operational means (Boats/rafts)

 Appropriate provisions, blankets and water stored in boats
 Communication equipment in place
 Navigational equipments like charts, sextant, chronometer etc.
 Distress signal/message submitted to coastal stations and nearby vessels
 Records collected - Logbooks, VDR, crew documents etc.
 Company and flag notified if time permits

Guidance will be given in SMS on the procedures to be followed & will include as a minimum
 GA followed by PA announcement
 Crew mustered and headcount taken and all accounted for
 wear adequate clothing and, wear lifejackets
 Boat duties performed which includes preparing survival craft for launching along with
others
 have crew members stand by lifeboat or life raft and prepare to launch
 make sure sea painter is attached to vessel
 Battery charger cable released
 Gripes removed
 All persons entered the lifeboat
 Battery switched on and also open water spray valve and air cock – breathing supply
 Last person entered the lifeboat, doors closed
 All persons confirmed fastened and seated
 Boat lowered using remote wire
 Hooks to be released (Basis weather conditions i.e., calm sea conditions – offload release
and adverse sea conditions – onload release)
 Start engine once water borne
 Use boat hooks to clear the release hooks and ship side
 Release painter if required otherwise if it is safe, keep lifeboat or life raft tethered to
vessel as long as possible
Lowering Lifeboats/ abandoning ship in heavy weather conditions

Major threat in heavy weather includes – banging with ship side, difficulty in releasing the
hooks, risks on crew of boat getting banged with floating blocks, crew discomfort etc

As a general following step can be followed when abandoning ship in heavy weather
 Make use of fenders, mattresses or mooring ropes to prevent the damage to boat.
 Sea quelling oil may be used to reduce the seas.
 If possible and time permits, the ship shall be used to create the lee.
 Keep cargo nets or other lines rigged overside.
 Crew members with PPE and lifejacket & seat belts fastened.
30
 Use onload release mechanism to release the hooks.
 Start engines before touching the crest and use boat hooks to clear hooks.
 Bear off the ship's side with oars or boat hook.

Initial actions when in survival craft

The order in which the above instructions are followed will depend on the particular
circumstances.
 The person in charge of the lifeboat shall immediately, after clearing the ship, organize the
following:
- look for and pick up other survivors from the water;
- marshal life rafts;
- secure survival craft together, distribute survivors and equipment between survival
craft;
- stream sea-anchor;
 Post a look-out.
 Issue anti-seasickness medicine and seasickness bags.
 Administer first aid, if appropriate.
 Arrange watches and duties.
 Prepare and use detection equipment including radio equipment.
 Gather up any useful floating objects.
 Protect against heat, cold and wet conditions.
 Decide on food and water rations.
 Take measures to maintain morale.
 Make sanitary arrangements to keep lifeboat habitable.
 Prepare for onset of adverse weather.
 Make proper use of survival equipment.
 Prepare action for: arrival of rescue units; being taken in tow; rescue by helicopter; and
landing and beaching.
 Make best use of the SART, EPIRB and VHF hand held radios carried.
 Use pyro techniques only when chances of them being seen are high.
 Make entry into official logbook if carried regarding description of the casualty and place
where it occurred.
Heavy weather damage

Whenever a heavy weather is expected or encountered, OOW shall inform master as

required by STCW code. Size of ship defines limits of heavy weather i.e.; BF or master may
state in his standing orders as to what wind force, he would like to be informed.

Risks associated with heavy weather

Increased stresses on ship, synchronous or parametric rolling, difficulty in maintaining the
intended course and speed, waves breaking on deck, rolling and pitching, movable objects,
difficulty in early detection of targets, increased fatigue etc.
31
Following actions are to be taken in case of heavy weather damage:
Initial Actions
 Inform Master- Sound general emergency
 Verify vessel position & Engage hand steering
 Slow down and/or alter course to reduce the impact of waves and weather on vessel.
 Muster the crew and account. Start search for missing person if any.
 Heavy weather may result in structural Damage, Equipment Damage, Cargo Damage, etc.
 Initiate damage assessment and check if structural integrity is breached.
 Check / sound ballast tanks, double bottom tanks, void spaces, cofferdam, bilges. Positive
air pressure from any sounding pipe will indicate breach of that compartment.
 Contact emergency response services (ERS) for damaged stability evaluation.
 Check all water tight doors, fire doors, vents, etc. are closed.
 Once structural integrity has been confirmed, assess damage to equipments, cargo etc.
 Check anchor lashings and lashings of all other gear/equipment
 Check securing of cargo or other appliances on weather deck.
 Check lashings of survival craft and other LSA and FFA.
 Inspect integrity of machinery and equipment.
 Check Propeller / Rudder / Steering Gear for damage
 Prepare pumps to pump out seawater if required.
 If required, send Urgency message.
 Assess if danger of capsizing or sinking is imminent.
 If danger is imminent, send out distress message and prepare to evacuate vessel.
 Save VDR data, maintain proper record of all events and activities and notify the relevant
authorities which shall include company, flag state, VTS, charterers etc. as applicable.

Subsequent Response
 Monitor weather and contact weather routing services if required.
 Keep adjusting course and speed to hove the wind.
 Consider diversion to Port of Refuge.
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report.
 Take Photographic / Video evidence of the damage and the sea conditions
 Record all events and actions for serving note of protest at next port
 Carry out temporary repairs if necessary
 Report to all concerned authorities
Grounding / stranding / beaching

Grounding as defined by UK MAIB is a situation when a moving navigating ship, either under
command, under power, or not under command or drifting; striking the sea bottom, shore or
underwater.

Stranding is defined when vessel is aground and unable to refloat without external
assistance.

Beaching is defined as taking the ground intentionally or deliberately.

32
Sign of grounding/ stranding
- Sudden drop in vessel’s speed
- Sudden jerk or vibrations
- Increased load on main engine

Actions to be taken when stranding is imminent

 Call master
 Sound general emergency alarm
 Inform engine room to changeover to high sea suction
 Use of anchor to hold the ship clear of danger
 Close all W/T and fire doors
 Using engines and rudder to avoid drifting on to shore
 Prepare L/boats to embarkation deck if ship is likely to break up.
 Send urgency message and request for help
 Inform the owners and concerned shore authorities.

Initial Actions
 Stop main engines. Verify vessel position.
 Sound general emergency and announce the nature of emergency on PA system
 Engage hand steering
 Display appropriate light, shapes and sound signals as per COLREGS
 Carry out damage assessment.
- Verify structural integrity of vessel
- Check for watertight integrity of the hull
- Casualty report if any
- Evidence of pollution if any
 Check sounding of all tanks.
 A change in draft, trim or list or positive pressure from sounding pipes will indicate
breached compartment.
 Verify area of grounding.
 Use hand-lead lines to check depths of water around the vessel.
 Verify nature of seabed.
 Accommodation AC to recirculation.
 Switch to high level sea suction.
 if assistance is required, transmit a distress or a PAN-PAN urgency signal message as
appropriate
 Inform nearest coast State and traffic in the vicinity.
 Inform company and other relevant authorities like flag state, insurance etc.
 Review security condition.
 If hull is damage or flooding, contact emergency response services (ERS) for damaged
stability evaluation.
 Prepare pumps for pumping out the water if ingress is noted.
 Change over to high sea suction and check condition of machinery & hull damage in E/R. 33
 Inspect Piping / Valves / Equipments for any ingress of water. Shut valves as required.
 determine if wind and sea are carrying the vessel harder aground
 Prepare refloat plan (in consultation with shore management) considering
- Stability evaluation and advise from ERS.
- Weather forecast (short and long range).
- Times and ranges of tides, if in tidal waters.
- Effects of changing tides, weather and current.
- Reduce draft or change trim / list by transferring ballast.
- Use of engines or rudder.
- Use of emergency towing arrangement (ETA) if using tugs
- if extrication is impossible until assistance arrives or change of tide, minimize hull
damage and water intake
- determine which way deep water lies and consider using anchors if required to prevent
damage from sliding off into deep waters.
 If danger is imminent, send out distress message and prepare to evacuate vessel.
 Save VDR data, maintain proper record of all events and activities and notify the relevant
authorities which shall include company, flag state, VTS, charterers etc. as applicable.

Subsequent Response

 Monitor weather and obtain data for shore services.

 Take Photographic / Video evidence of the damage and the sea conditions.
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report and marine casualty report.
 Carry out temporary repairs if necessary.
 Make an entry into official logbook where recording description of casualty and place
where it occurred.
 Proper record of activities shall be made during refloating operation as this will help
shipowner for claims.
 Report to all concerned authorities – includes company, flag state, class, MAIB, insurance,
charterers, nearby port control or VTS etc.
Beaching - is defined it is taking the ground intentionally.

Reasons for beaching can be numerous like

- To prevent imminent collision.
- To prevent a total constructive loss when damaged and in danger of sinking, damage
having occurred below the waterline causing loss of watertight integrity.
- The intention is to carry out repairs in shallow water, in order to refloat at a later time.

Ideal Beaching conditions

- a gentle sloping beach so that the entire length of the bottom can sit on the seabed
- rock free to prevent or minimize damage to ship’s bottom
34
- ideally with limited tide effect.
- If possible, it should be sheltered from the weather, free of surf action and any
scouring effects.

Factor to keep in mind while beaching to ensure safe refloating

- Nature of seabed
- the vessel to be beached should take on full ballast
- Beaching shall be carried out in ebbing waters that will ensure safe taking of ground
- Use of ground tackle and
- Accessibility to shore assistance for tugs etc
- Ascertain most favourable direction to move
Actions Prior to Beaching

Provided that time and circumstances allow,

 Inform concerned authorities including company.
 Decide on a place for beaching including approach method.
 Calculate stability condition of vessel.
 Take on full ballast. This will make the operation of refloating that much easier.
 Both anchors should be cleared away and made ready to let go.
 Care should be taken to lay anchors and cables clear of the position that the vessel is
expected to come to rest, so minimizing the bottom damage if this is possible.
 Additional use of a stern anchor, if the ship is so equipped, would become extremely 35
beneficial on the approach, with the view to refloating later.

Actions after Beaching

 On Taking the Ground Drive the vessel further on and reduce the possibility of pounding,
and walk back both anchors if in the hawse pipes.
 Secure the hull against movements due to weather and or sea.
 Lay ground tackle and also secure landward end.
 Secure the hull against unwanted movement from weather and sea/tide.
 Take precautions to prevent oil pollution. This can be achieved by discharge into oil
barges, or transfer within the vessel into oil-tight tanks.
 Another alternative would be encircling the vessel with an oil pollution barrier, if one can
be obtained quickly enough and positioned effectively.
 Use of floating mooring ropes may be a viable alternative if boom/barrier is unavailable.
 Carry out a damage assessment following the action of the ship taking the ground.
 Informed concerned authorities including company.
 Damage reports should be made to the MAIB, together with a ‘general declaration’, the
Mercantile Marine Office being informed and entries made into the official log book.
 Consider extent of damage prior to refloating.
 Ascertain state of tide and assistance available (tugs, salvors, etc.)

Approach to beaching

a) Bow-on approach

Advantages
- a clear observation of the approach can be made and
- the vessel will probably have a favourable trim.
- The propeller and rudder will favour the deeper water at the stern
- the strengthened bow would cushion any pounding effects.

Disadvantages
- vessel is more likely to slew and the need for anti-slew wires used in conjunction with
anchors may become necessary.
- It is difficult to lay ground tackle from this position, to assist with the refloating.
 - In the majority of cases stern power would be used for refloating the ship and the
average vessel normally operates with only 60 per cent of the ahead power when
navigating stern first.

b) Stern approach

Advantages
- More power available when trying to refloat.
- Easy to lay ground tackle

Disadvantages
- Less favourable trim. 36
- Chances of damaging rudder and propeller
- Clear view of approach is not available when approaching from stern.

Checklist for watertight integrity of hull following grounding or beaching

Deck department
 Check for casualty.
 Assess internal damage by visual inspection where possible.
 Look for signs for pollution from possible fractured oil tanks.
 Take soundings of all D.B. tanks and lower tanks at the earliest possible time.
 Sound the available depth of water around the vessel, especially around stern and
propeller area.
 Check position of grounding on chart. Determine the nature of bottom and expected
depth of water.
 Obtain damage reports from all departments.
 Determine the state of tide, together with heights and times of the immediate high and
low waters.
 Check condition of stability, if the vessel has suffered an ingress of water.
 Initiate temporary repairs to reduce the ingress of water and activate pumps on the
affected area.
 Statement to be entered in Deck Log Book.

Engine room department

 Check for casualty.
 Assess damage inside the engine room and pump room and report to master.
 Make FFA ready in case of fire outbreak.
 Prepare pumps to pump out water from engine room spaces.
 Inspect all fuel and steam pipes for signs of fracture. A buildup of oil represents a fire
hazard and must be located and corrected as soon as possible. Regular checks on bilge
bays must be continued for a minimum period of three days after taking ground.
 Inspect all piping, valves and auxiliary equipment before reporting to the master on
conditions.
 Instigate immediate temporary repairs to reduce the ingress of water and start the pumps
on the effected areas, if water is entering the engine room.
Collision
Collision - a casualty caused by ships striking or being struck by another ship, regardless of
whether the ships are underway, anchored or moored. This type of casualty event does not
include ships striking underwater wrecks. The collision can be with other ship or with multiple
ships or ship not underway.

Allision/ Contact - a casualty caused by ships striking or being struck by an external object.
The objects can be: floating object (cargo, ice, other or unknown); fixed object, but not the
sea bottom; or flying object.

37
Imminent Collision

 Reduce speed, stop or put engines full power astern as necessary.

 Manoeuvre the vessel so as to minimize the effects of the collision.
 Avoid broad angles and aim for a glancing blow or impact. As far as possible, it is better to
take an impact forward of the collision bulkhead.
 Sound the appropriate collision avoidance signal on the ship’s whistle.
 Sound the general emergency alarm signal. Warn all crew by all possible means.
 Close all watertight doors and automatic fire doors.
 Change the accommodation air conditioning to recirculation.
 Change both the main and auxiliary accommodation air conditioning plants to
recirculation if there is a likelihood of a gas leak or if a fire may occur.
 Ensure that all-natural vents are shut and exhaust fans are isolated.
 Prepare the water spray system and use it appropriately to channel water on to and
around the damaged area.
 Keep the very high frequency (VHF) radio on channels 16 and 13, where appropriate.
 Press the “SAVE” button on the voyage data recorder (VDR) and electronic chart display
and information system (ECDIS).

Collision Occurred

 Stop main engines in most cases but in other cases where one vessel is embedded in
another, avoid rapid withdrawal from a gashed hull which otherwise could leave a massive
hole, allowing the passage of considerable water.
 Offer assistance to the other vessel without compromising the safety of the crew and
vessel.
 Establish contact with the other vessel. Obtain information about the situation, correct
name of the vessel, flag, port of registry, owner and other relevant information. Pass
information about name of ship and owners to another vessel.
 Collect all obtainable facts about the occurrence for later use.
 Do not discuss responsibility for the collision.
 Keep accurate and complete records of times and events. Assign a responsible officer
exclusively for this task.
 Display lights or shapes and make any appropriate sound signals.
 Prepare casualty report and make entry in the official deck log book, describing the
 sequence of events surrounding the collision.
 Inform all the concerned authorities which includes company, flag state, charterer,
insurance, VTS if any etc.
 Generally, liability should never be admitted.
 Make an entry into official logbook recording a description of the casualty and place
where it occurred.

Damage to Ship
 Assess the situation.
 Carry out damage assessment to assess whether the vessel is in imminent danger of
sinking or losing considerable intact stability.
38
- Visual inspection of the area of impact will aid the assessing.
- Estimate the size of the damaged area and its position in relation to the waterline.
There may be temporary solutions, e.g., collision patch.
- Take soundings of adjacent tanks, bilges and areas to assess the extent of damage.
- Carryout stability assessment. If cargo is affected, check the permeability and the
subsequent loss of buoyancy, together with change in trim. Assess the immediate effect
on GM and free surface moments and the continued effect on GM.
- For the damage stability advisory service, ship emergency response service (SERS),
emergency response service (ERS) or equivalent.
- Consider additional factors such as the risk of fire, gas or toxic fumes in the vicinity of
the two vessels; or the possibility of explosion which may result from withdrawal from
the other vessel.
- Check for casualties or missing persons aboard your own vessel.
 Prepare the vessel’s ballast, cargo and auxiliary pumps for urgent action to pump out or
transfer cargo, ballast or flooding water.
 If the inner hull has been breached, employ all available means to keep the insulation
space pumped dry of water to prevent degradation of the insulation material and
monitored for hydrocarbon (HC) contents.
 If the vessel is in imminent danger of foundering, prepare lifeboats.
 Many variable factors will come into play over the period from impact up to the time that
any decision is taken to abandon the vessel and these should be given full consideration
when deciding any course of action:
- The weather conditions at the time and in the future.
- The expected time that vessels will stay afloat when taking in water.
- The risk to personnel from fire or explosion by remaining aboard.
- The odds of saving the vessel by beaching or steaming into shallow waters.
- The question of pollution, especially in coastal waters.
 Assuming that the vessel remains afloat, efforts should be made to prevent any increase
in damage or further flooding.
 Any oil leakage should be reported to the nearest costal state or port authority.
Hull damages / Flooding
Flooding means taking on excessive water in one or more of the spaces on a ship.
Foundering is basically taking on water to the point where the vessel becomes unstable and
begins to sink or capsize.

Initial actions
 Sound general emergency and announce the nature of emergency on PA system
 Verify vessel position
 Engage hand steering
 Slow down or stop engine and alter course to reduce pressure on the bilged or damaged
compartment 39
 Carry out damage assessment
 Identify location of incoming water
 cut off all electrical power running through area
 Check / sound ballast tanks, double bottom tanks, void spaces, cofferdam, bilges. Positive
air pressure from any sounding pipe will indicate breach of that compartment.
 Check extent of damage and ascertain rate of flooding.
 Try to reduce rate of flooding by any makeshift plugging or other means.
 If holed above water, a collision patch can be used over damaged area.
 check bilge pump for operation
 Start pumping out the bilged compartment. Use all available means.
 check auxiliary pumps for back-up operation if needed
 Consider transfer of weights distribution onboard to list / trim the vessel to bring the hole
above water line.
 If fracture hole is in way of bunker tank or cargo oil tank then try to transfer the bunkers /
oil to another tank to mitigate pollution.
 Initiate actions as per SOPEP plan to control the impacts of oil pollution.
 Check and monitor at regular interval for oil pollution on water surface around vessel.
 Verify damage stability calculation. contact emergency response services (ERS) for
damaged stability evaluation.
 Inspect integrity of machinery and equipment.
 If required, send Urgency message.
 Assess if danger of capsizing or sinking is imminent.
 If danger is imminent, send out distress message and prepare to evacuate vessel.
 Save VDR data, maintain proper record of all events and activities and notify the relevant
authorities which shall include company, flag state, VTS, charterers etc as applicable.

Subsequent actions
 If vessel is flooding very fast, consider voluntary beaching.
 Consider diversion to Port of Refuge.
 Ascertain cause of casualty and determine corrective action
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report
 Carry out temporary repairs if necessary
 Report to all concerned authorities
 Record in official logbook recording description of casualty.
Methods of assessment of damage to hull and machinery following any incident
(As outlined in MSC/Circ.1143 and further guidance may be found in company SMS)

Breach of hull envelope should be suspected in the following cases (non-exhaustive list):
 unusual collections of water on deck
 sudden changes of heel or trim indicate flooding
 jerky lateral motions can be indicative of large-scale sloshing
 slowing of the ship’s roll period may indicate excessive water within the hull
 Increases of water boarding forward decks may indicate flooding of a forward
compartment.
40
Methods of detection (non-exhaustive list):
 Hatch covers may be dislodged by pressure and/or sloshing from within a hold if flooding
occurs through side shell or bulkhead.
 Sudden pressurization of compartments adjoining those that are damaged or flooded will
indicate failure of internal subdivision, most notably bulkheads.
 Spaces may be monitored, either using gauging or bilge/water level alarms.
 Visual monitoring from the bridge using binoculars can give indication of abnormal water
on deck and local damage.
 However, assessment of trim or freeboard using this method is difficult.
 Assessment of trim changes can in certain conditions be detected by noting the level of
the horizon, when visible, against a known reference point on the foremast.
 Draught and trim can be assessed using draught gauges. Changes are much more
discernible using this method than by visual means from above decks.

Investigation

 Any suspected water ingress may be inspected more closely but preparations for
evacuating the ship should be made WITHOUT DELAY and concurrent with any
investigation.
 Remote methods of observation are preferable to sending personnel onto decks,
particularly in bad weather and/or at night.
 Deck floodlights should be used if necessary to try and identify abnormalities.
 In circumstances deemed justifiable for sending personnel onto decks that may be
frequently awash with green water, at least two personnel should go to investigate.
 They should wear harnesses that attach them to a lifeline and to each other and should be
in constant (radio) communication with the bridge.
 Each harness should be provided with two easily operated clips so that wearers are always
attached to the ship’s structure, even when passing across from one lifeline or structural
attachment to another.
 Lifelines on both sides of the deck should be rigged at all times and progress along the
deck should always be via the lee or sheltered side.
 Fencing or shipside rails alone should not be relied upon without attachment by harness.
 When a loss of hull integrity is known or suspected, personnel should not be sent onto
decks that are being regularly submerged or deeply awash.
 In such circumstances, the ship should be regarded as in imminent danger and priority
should be given to preparations for evacuation.
 In the event of a collision, masters should call the ship’s personnel to emergency stations
with a strong emphasis on preparing to evacuate the ship.
 This is particularly important and urgent in cases where a ship is loaded with dense bulk
cargo.
 Older designs of bulk carriers and small ships with fewer holds are particularly prone to
sudden progressive flooding if the damage occurs abaft any strengthened bulkheads in the
forward part of the ship.
 This type of damage is more probable resulting from collisions in dense traffic or
overtaking manoeuvres.
41

Damage control methods onboard

 If the ship holed above the waterline,

- build a collision patch over the damaged area.
- Pump out the bilges and take regular soundings. Avoid bad weather if at all possible.
 If the ship is holed or cracked on or near the waterline,
- start the bilge pumps in the area affected, and pump out ballast water fore and aft to
raise the vessel bodily.
- Or provide the vessel with a list on the opposite side to the damage, to raise damage
area above the waterline.
- Construct a collision patch on the outside, and/or a cement box on the inside, of the
damaged plates.
 If the damage is severe and the ingress of water is of massive proportion,
- Flooded area shall be contained which shall include shoring up of the bulkheads or
deliberate part flooding of the adjoining compartments, provided the buoyancy of the
vessel is adequate.
 Have any temporary repairs kept under constant watch, with any adverse change being
immediately reported.
 Check continually on soundings about the damaged area, especially in adjacent
compartments.
 Look at stability data for the compartment and check means of containment in adjoining
spaces.
 The weight of water entering the compartment will depend on the permeability of the
cargo in that compartment.
 The amount of water entering the vessel can be found approximately from the following
formula: 4.3A √D tonnes/per second where ‘A’ represents area of damage and ‘D’
represents the depth of the damage below the waterline.
 The positions of shores will be determined by the pressure points calculated
approximately by: H/2 for ship-shape bulkheads; or by: H/3 for box-shaped bulkheads
where H is the vertical height.
 For larger vessels equalizing pressure by partial flooding of an adjacent compartment is
more feasible option, when faced with the likelihood of a collapsed bulkhead.
 Collision patch or collision mat may be supplied or improvised by vessels as shown in
below diagram
 42

Collision Patch

Restoring Stability

The specific action required to restore stability will be determined by the vessel’s loading
condition.
If a vessel suffers a marine casualty, it is of utmost importance to be satisfied of the vessel’s
residual hull strength and stability condition before undertaking any remedial measures or
salvage.
Contracted emergency response services are available to supply immediate and precise
technical information to lessen the consequences of a casualty at sea.

Principles for Restoring Stability

In general, the following principles apply to restoring stability:
 Attempting to control a list by adjusting mooring rope tension could be dangerous and is
therefore not recommended. Correct any list using the ballast.
 Lower the virtual centre of gravity in the most effective way.
 Fill the slack double-bottom ballast tanks starting with those on the low side, followed by
those on the high side. Keep the number of slack double-bottomed tanks to a minimum.
 If the pressing-up of slack double bottom tanks is insufficient to regain stability, consider
filling empty double-bottom ballast tanks. Although this practice may initially result in a
further loss of stability caused by the additional free surface effect, this will soon be
corrected by the effect of the added mass below the vessel’s original centre of gravity.
 No attempt should be made to correct a list by filling compartments on the high side, as
this is likely to result in a violent change of list to the opposite side.
 The number of slack tanks should never exceed what is specified in the stability
information book.
Shipboard fire

Any person who found the fire

 Raise fire alarm from the nearest Fire Call Point.
 Inform Bridge / Duty Officer of the following:
- Fire location and
- Type of fire, if known.
 Assess intensity of the fire.
 If small fire, use nearest portable extinguisher to minimize spreading.

Bridge duty officer 43

 Notify master and make PA announcement to advise
- Fire location and type (if know)
- Call for crew to muster at station
- Designated UHF channel used for fire emergency
 Prepare main engine for manoeuvre
 Engage hand steering and start two steering motors for hand steering
 Keep clear from navigation traffic and proximity of hazards if applicable

Shipboard emergency teams

 Establish communication with emergency parties
 All crew and accounted
 Emergency and Support parties are ready
 Assess fire
 determine the class of fire if possible
 determine appropriate extinguishing agent
 determine appropriate method of attack
 determine how to prevent the spread of the fire
 determine the required personnel and fire-fighting assignments
 establish proper communications between bridge and location of fire
 Stop Emergency fuel stop valve, if applicable. Caution: Before closing emergency, fuel stop
valve, confirm with bridge command that vessel is clear from navigational hazard.
 Isolate electrical supply to fire area, if applicable
 Start emergency fire pump
 Prepare Fire main and fire hoses (at least 2 jets of water)
 Start Emergency generator
 Stop ventilation and exhaust fans
 Shut Vents, fire dampers, openings including watertight doors and skylights
 Medical team with stretcher/ resuscitator to be kept standby
 Broadcast Urgency or Distress message (as appropriate)
 Alter course & reduced speed to reduce fire spread
 Activate Fixed firefighting system, if required
 If activation of fixed firefighting system is necessary, ensure - all persons evacuated and
cleared from space - all vents, openings and doors firmly closed.
 Start boundary cooling
 Check for hot spot at adjacent areas
 begin procedures for attacking the fire
 continue until fire is extinguished
 Inform concerned authorities including company, flag. Local authority and VTS (as
appropriate)
 Prepare lifeboat for abandon ship, if necessary

Subsequent actions
 Calculate stability of the ship
 Consider diversion to Port of Refuge.
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report 44
 Ascertain cause of casualty and determine corrective action
 Report to all concerned authorities
 Report to MAIB within 24 hrs when ship is materially damaged by fire or explosion
 Entry shall be made in official logbook recording damages caused and description of fire.

Disabled ship
 Control accidental flooding
- Activation of emergency bilge pumping arrangements
- Check, secure and batten down all intact spaces
- Make temporary repairs of any damage that may affect the integrity of intact spaces
- Evacuate spaces normally accessible to personnel
- Take actions to preserve buoyancy of unattended spaces
- Take any action necessary to minimize water ingress and reduce progressive flooding
such as pressurising spaces
 Assess the ship’s manoeuvring capability
- Use the engines, if steering has been lost
- Lock the rudder in a fixed position
- Use anchors to reduce the downward drift by lowering in water or anchor if bottom is
not deep to arrest ship’s movement.
 The drift characteristics of disabled ship
- Estimate the drift and set
- If no immediate danger of stranding or collision, discuss with company as to what
assistance may be available and how much time is available before vessel finds herself
in dangerous situation.
- We can use trim or list to control the rate and direction of drift.

If the ship is disabled and can’t manoeuvre, efforts shall be made to stay clear from
navigational hazards. Emergency towage will be required if ship is drifting into danger.
Emergencies in port

Fire
In port, vessel has extensive back up facilities available to the advantage of the vessel. Means
of firefighting will depend upon the type of the vessel. Below is for a bulk carrier
Initial actions
 Raise the fire alarm
 Inform Terminal / Port Control and ask for shore assistance.
 Stop all operations such as Cargo work, bunkering, stores, etc.
 Non-essential personnel could be disembarked to a place of safety.
 Order the engine room to immediate ‘standby’ 45
 Close down all ventilation to the fire area.
 Assess the situation with regard to possible casualties and refer to the cargo plan to
establish the type of cargo on fire.
 Commence boundary cooling and check adjacent compartments for additional fire risks.
 Inject fixed CO2 or other fire-fighting medium as per ship’s fire plans.
 Bilge pumps should be in operation.
 Keep fire plan, crew list, cargo plan and SDS (Safety data sheets if any) and international
shore coupling ready at gangway.
 Once shore fire fighters have arrived, brief what actions have been taken and headcount
of crew.
 Shore team in this case will lead fire fighting
 Methods of approach will depend on cargo type and hatch construction.
 Consider berth evacuation if uncontrollable under own power or use of tugs.

Subsequent actions
 Calculate stability of the ship
 Ascertain cause of casualty and determine corrective action
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report
 Report to all concerned authorities
 Maintain fire vigil for the next 24 hours to check for re-flash.

Pollution

Initial actions
 Raise the general emergency alarm
 Inform Terminal / Port Control and ask for shore assistance.
 Stop all operations such as Cargo work, bunkering, stores, etc.
 Non-essential personnel could be disembarked to a place of safety.
 Take all necessary steps as per SOPEP / SMPEP to contain the spill and prevent any oil
from going overboard.
 Ensure all scuppers and save-all trays are plugged tight.
 Use all available SOPEP equipments to contain the spill.
 Commence clean up as early as possible
 Keep the fire-fighting equipments in readiness.
Subsequent actions
 Investigate and prepare damage assessment report
 Report to all concerned authorities.
 If in US waters, notify QI also.
 Take photographs of damage to ship and shore for evidence.
 If pollution has not originated from own vessel, take samples of the oil as evidence.

Casualties & Accidents

Initial actions
 Raise emergency alarm and announce of PA system.
 Administer first aid & shift casualty to hospital or a convenient location. 46
 Inform Port authorities for ambulance. Inform Local agents.
 If practicable and safe, take the statement from casualty.
 Prepare casualty’s passport and CDC ready.
 One responsible person must accompany the injured person.

Subsequent actions
 Investigate and prepare incident report.
 Report to all concerned authorities including flag state.
 Appropriate entries must be made in the Ship’s official logbook.

Common Dry Dock Emergencies

 Enclosed spaces
Many of the repairs performed inside a dry dock tend to release dangerous gases and
vapours, can lead to the risk of asphyxiation, poisoning, and more. Dry dock workers are
often exposed to dangerous gases which can cause hypoxia under the right conditions.
 Fire
Similarly, the enclosed conditions of a dry dock can lead to an increased risk of fire and
combustion due to the vapours and chemicals being released. Oil tankers need to be
properly cleaned, bulkheads need to be cleared of any flammable materials before the
work can begin, and welding needs to be done under the safest possible conditions – i.e.,
free of any combustible liquids or vapours.
If proper care is not taken to ensure these areas are ventilated – and to prevent the
release of sparks or flames near them – the risk of fire can be unacceptably high.
 Machinery accidents
The complex nature of machines can lead to injury from a number of sources, particularly
if the machinery hasn’t been properly maintained and inspected, or if an untrained worker
is forced to use this machinery without the proper guidance or supervision.
 Personnel accidents
Slip, trip and falls; falling objects, moving machineries or objects, caught in between or
caught on etc. Areas with such risks need to be properly indicated through signage and
warnings.
 Flooding
When flooding the dock after completion of repair, any opening left in hull may lead to
flooding of the vessel.
Unlawful acts
Pirates and armed robbers

Piracy as defined in UNCLOS, means any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of
depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a
private aircraft, and directed:
(i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board
such ship or aircraft;
(ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State;

According to this definition, an incident can only be considered as piracy when the illegal act
47
is directed on the high seas or in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State.
Incidents occurred in other maritime zones, such as the territorial sea, are immediately
excluded from the scope.

Suspicious activity - Action taken by another craft may be deemed suspicious if any of the
following occurs-
 A definite course alteration with a rapid increase in speed, which does not seem normal.
 Small craft sailing on the same course and speed for an uncommon period and distance,
not in keeping with normal fishing or other circumstances prevailing in the area.
 Sudden changes in course towards the vessel and aggressive behaviour.

Moreover, following may be of assistance to determine the nature of a suspect vessel-

 The number of crew on board relative to its size.
 The Closest Point of Approach (CPA).
 The existence of unusual equipment, e.g., ladders, grappling hooks, etc
 If the craft is armed or if weapons are fired in the air.

Precautions and preparations required prior entering a pirate infested area

Company planning
 Regular review of the threat and risk assessments. Plans should be updated as necessary.
 Review of the Ship Security Assessment (SSA), Ship Security Plan (SSP) and Vessel
Hardening Plan (VHP).
 Guidance to the Master about the recommended route, updated plans and requirements
for group transits and national convoys.
 Company mandated Ship Protection Measures (SPM).
 Due diligence of Private Maritime Security Companies (PMSCs) for the possible use of
PCASP.
 Review of company manning requirements. Consider disembarking of non-essential crew.
 Crew training plans.

Information security
To avoid critical voyage information falling into the wrong hands the following is advised:
 Communications with external parties should be kept to a minimum, with close attention
paid to organising rendezvous points and waiting positions.
 Email correspondence to agents, charterers and chandlers should be controlled and
information within the email kept concise, containing the minimum that is contractually
required.

Prior to entering the Voluntary Reporting Area

 Obtain the latest threat information.
 Check the latest NAVAREA warnings and alerts.
 Implement VRA/MSCHOA vessel registration and reporting requirements
 If used, confirm arms guard embarkation plan.
 Confirm propulsion can operate at full speed.
48
Prior to entering the High-Risk Area (From Jan 1, 2023- Indian ocean HRA will be discontinued)
 Implement security measures in accordance with the SSP.
 Ensure all access points are limited and controlled.
 Avoid drifting, waiting, anchoring and slow steaming, particularly in the MSTC.
 Brief crew and conduct drills
 The crew should be fully briefed on the preparations and drills should be conducted with
the SPM in place.
 The plan should be reviewed and all crew briefed on their duties, including familiarity with
the alarm that signals an attack, an all-clear situation and the appropriate response to
each.
 The drills should test:
- The SPM, including testing the security of all access points.
- Lock down conditions, including crew safety considerations.
- The bridge team’s security knowledge.
- The crew’s understanding of any different actions required in the event of a pirate
attack compared to other types of attack.

Other considerations
 Prepare and test an emergency communication plan. It shall include all essential
emergency contact numbers and prepared messages, which should be at hand or
permanently displayed near all external communications stations including safe muster
point and/or the citadel.
 Communication devices and the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS) should be tested.
 It is recommended that AIS should remain switched on throughout passages through
passages through the VRA and HRA, to ensure militaries can track the ship, but restrict
data.
 Reschedule planned maintenance on voyage critical equipment for transit of an HRA.
 Minimise use of VHF and use email or a secure satellite telephone instead. Where possible
only answer known or legitimate callers on the VHF, bearing in mind that imposters are
possible.
Ship Protection Measures/ Vessel hardening

The implementation of SPM will be identified during the voyage planning process.

A) Watch keeping and enhanced vigilance

 Provide additional, fully-briefed lookouts.
 Maintain an all-round lookout from an elevated position.
 Consider shorter rotation of the watch period to maximise alertness of the lookouts.
 Maintain sufficient binoculars for the enhanced bridge team, preferably anti-glare.
 Consider the use of thermal imagery optics and night vision aids.
 Maintain a careful radar watch and monitor all navigational warnings and
49
communications, particularly VHF and GMDSS alerts.
 Consider placing well-constructed dummies at strategic locations around the ship.
 Consider using CCTV and fixed search lights for better monitoring. Fixed search lights can
deter approaches from the stern.
 Mount anti-piracy mirrors on the bridge wings to make looking aft easier.

B) Manoeuvring
 Practice manoeuvring ship to ensure familiarity with the ship’s handling characteristics.
 Practice avoidance manoeuvres while maintaining the best possible speed.

C) Alarms
 The ship’s alarms inform the ship’s crew that an attack is underway and warn the attacker
that the ship is aware and is reacting.
 In addition, continuous sounding of the ship’s whistle may distract the attackers.
It is important that:
 The alarms are distinctive to avoid confusion.
 Crew members are familiar with each alarm, especially those warning of an attack and
indicating ‘all clear’.
 All alarms are backed up by an announcement over PA system, where fitted.
 Drills are carried out to ensure that the alarm is heard throughout the ship. The drill will
confirm the time necessary for all crew to move to a position of safety.

D) Physical barriers
 Physical barriers are intended to make it as difficult as possible for attackers to gain access
to ships by increasing the difficulty of the climb for those trying to illegally board.
 When planning the placement of barriers special consideration should be given to ships
with sunken poop decks.
 Razor wire - Also known as barbed tape. It creates an effective barrier if properly rigged
and secured.
 Use a double roll. If this is not possible, place a single high-quality roll outboard of the
ship’s structure.
 Secure razor wire to the ship properly, to prevent attackers pulling the wire off. For
example, attach at least every third wire ring to ship’s railings and rig a steel cable through
its core.
Other physical barriers
 Water spray and foam monitors
 Enhanced bridge protection
 Bridge windows are laminated but further protection against flying glass can be provided
by the application of blast resistant film.

E) Control of access to accommodation and machinery spaces

 It is important to control access routes to the accommodation and machinery spaces to
deter or delay entry. Effort must be directed at denying access to these spaces.
 Escape routes must remain accessible to seafarers in the event of an emergency.
 Once doors and hatches are secured, a designated and limited number are used for
50
security patrols and routine access. The use of these doors or hatches should be controlled
by the Officer of the Watch.
 Block external stairs or remove ladders on the accommodation block to prevent use and
to restrict external access to the bridge.
 Doors and hatches that must be closed for watertight integrity should be fully dogged
down in addition to any locks. Where possible, additional securing mechanisms, such as
wire strops, may be used.
 Procedures for controlling access to accommodation, machinery spaces and store rooms
should be briefed to the crew.
 The attackers must be denied access to ship propulsion.

F) Safe muster points and/or citadels

Safe muster points

 A safe muster point is a designated area chosen to provide maximum physical protection
to the crew and will be identified during the planning process.
 If the threat assessment identifies risks that may result in a breach of hull on or below the
waterline then a safe muster point above the waterline must be identified. In many ships,
the central stairway may provide a safe location as it is protected by the accommodation
block and is above the waterline.
 To minimise the effect of an explosion, consideration should be given to the likely path of
the blast. The safe muster point should be selected with this in mind.

Citadels
 A citadel is a designated area where, in the event of imminent boarding, all crew may seek
protection. A citadel is designed and constructed to resist forced entry. The use of a
citadel cannot guarantee a military or law enforcement response.
 Well-constructed citadels with reliable communications (ideally satellite phone and VHF)
must be supplied with food, water and sanitation. Control of propulsion and steering can
offer effective protection during an attack. If citadels are used, they must complement,
not replace, all other SPM.

G) Other measures
 Closed circuit television
 Lighting
Action required in event of a security threat shall be in accordance with BMP5 and ship
security plan (SSP) which shall include but not limited to -

Approach Stage - Pirates detected prior to boarding of the vessel

 Activate actions as per SSP and company procedures.
 Activate the Emergency Communication Plan.
 Sound the emergency alarm & make ‘Pirate Attack’ announcement.
 Report the attack immediately to UKMTO by call.
 Activate the Ship Security Alert System (SSAS), to alert CSO & Flag State.
 Crew should proceed to citadel.
 Increase to maximum speed possible to open the CPA.
51
 Where possible, alter course away from the approaching skiffs and/or Motherships. When
sea conditions allow, consider altering course to increase an approaching skiff’s exposure
to wind/waves.
 Activate water spray or water hoses and other appropriate self-defensive measures.
 Ensure that all required doors are fully secured.
 As the pirates close in on the vessel, Masters should commence small alterations of helm
whilst maintaining speed to prevent skiffs from lying alongside the vessel in preparation
for a boarding attempt.
 Also, this will create additional wash to impede the operation of the skiffs.
 Substantial amounts of helm are not recommended, as these are likely to significantly
reduce a vessel’s speed.

Attack Stage - Pirates board unnoticed, taking hostages and making threats of violence
or death to the vessel's crew
 A vessel should comply with any order by pirates or armed robbers not to make any form
of transmission informing shore authorities of the attack. Pirates may carry equipment
capable of detecting terrestrial radio signals.
 a recommended alternative in this scenario is for the alarm signal to be automatically
made through satellite so as not to be detected by the pirates (SSAS)
 Activation of the push button should result in the satellite terminal automatically selecting
and transmitting the attack message to the appropriate shore authority.
 To avoid false alerts there should be a coded sequence of operation of the push button
which will require deliberate action to activate it.
 This system will:
- leave the pirates unaware that a message has been transmitted
- provide early warning to shore authorities that an attack is in progress and may deter
future attacks.
 Try to remain calm.
 Offer no resistance to the pirates once they reach the bridge and cooperate fully to
greatly reduce the risk of harm.
 If the bridge/engine room is to be evacuated, the main engine should be stopped.
 All remaining crew members should proceed to citadel.
 Leave any CCTV running.
Towing

As required by SOLAS regulation II-I/ Regulation 3-4 - Emergency Towing Arrangements and
Procedures

Emergency towing arrangements (ETA) on tankers

 Emergency towing arrangements shall be fitted at both ends on board every tanker of not
less than 20,000 tonnes deadweight.
 For tankers constructed on or after 1 July 2002:
- the arrangements shall, at all times, be capable of rapid deployment in the absence of
main power on the ship to be towed and easy connection to the towing ship. At least 52
one of the emergency towing arrangements shall be pre-rigged ready for rapid
deployment; and
- emergency towing arrangements at both ends shall be of adequate strength taking into
account the size and deadweight of the ship, and the expected forces during bad
weather conditions.
 For tankers constructed before 1 July 2002, the design and construction of emergency
towing arrangements shall be approved by the Administration.

Emergency towing procedures on ships are required for

- all passenger ships and cargo ships not later than 1 January 2012.
which shall include:
- drawings of fore and aft deck showing possible emergency towing arrangements;
- inventory of equipment on board that can be used for emergency towing;
- means and methods of communication; and
- sample procedures to facilitate the preparation for and conducting of emergency
towing operations.

Guidelines for safe ocean towing (outlined in MSC Cir.884)

Planning

 All aspects of the towage should be planned in advance, taking into account such factors
as maximum anticipated environmental conditions - including tidal streams, current and
water depths, as well as the size, windage, displacement and draft of the tow
 There should be a contingency plan on board the towing vessel to cover the onset of
adverse weather, particularly in respect of arrangements for heaving to or taking shelter.
 Route to be taken and passage planned, including safe transit times
 Set condition limits for when towage should be slowed down or stopped.
 Familiarity of crew with contingency plan.
 Sufficient crew for operations on towing vessel and limited to the necessary crew only on
towed object.
 Tow vessel suitability for operation
Preparation for towage

a) Towing vessel
 Carriage of valid ship certificates including documentation of BP and towing equipments
 Adequate reserve of fuel depending on the duration of the towing operation.
 Should have appropriate towing and other navigational equipments, Inspection of tow
 Proper securing considering worst sea state for route
 Plan contingency measures like heaving to or seeking shelter.
 Life-saving and fire-fighting appliances must always be operational.
 Navigational equipment, wheelhouse whistles, horns, shapes for day signals and
communication gear are fully operational. 53
 Test the operational readiness of all critical machinery prior to commencing a towing–
main engine, steering gear and towing equipment (winches, wires) etc.
 All personnel are fully familiar with the intended towage plan and their responsibilities.

b) Towed object
 Adequate intact and damage stability in all conditions expected during the voyage.
 The watertight and weathertight integrity should be confirmed by an inspection of the
closing arrangements through which water might enter and affect its stability.
 Suitable draught and trimmed for the intended voyage.
 Adequate structural integrity in relation to the cargo loads, the design environmental
conditions and other foreseen loads during the voyage.
 Where applicable, a bridle should normally be used for connection of the main towing
wire rope to the towed object. Chains should be used in way of chafing areas such as
fairleads.
 A bridle recovery system should be strong enough to be utilised after towline breakage, in
case the bridle is planned to be used again during the towage.
 Emergency towing equipment should be provided in case of bridle failure or inability to
recover the bridle.
 Towed objects should exhibit the navigation lights, shapes and sound signals required by
the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended.
 Due consideration should be given to the reliability of the lights and sound signals.
 Boarding facilities should be rigged on each side of the towed object.
 When appropriate, the rudder should be secured in the amidships position and measures
taken to prevent the propeller shaft from turning.
 Life-saving appliances in the form of lifejackets and life buoys shall be provided whenever
personnel are likely to be on board the towed object even if only for short periods.
 Whenever the towed object is continually manned, the riding-crew should be provided
with adequate supplies of food and water, cooking and sanitary facilities, radio
equipment, including means of communication with the towing vessel, distress signals,
life-saving and fire-fighting appliances.
 Equipped with an anchor, suitable for holding the towed object in severe weather
conditions.
 To reduce the risk of pollution, the amount of oil carried on the towed object should be
limited to what is required for the safety of the towed object and/or towing vessel and for
their normal operations.
Connecting the tow
 Establishment of communication with tug and towed unit.
 Tug speed should be adjusted for a safe rendezvous and connection
 The towed unit makes the initial connection by passing heaving line which is attached to
progressively heavier messenger lines.
 Tow line will be hauled onboard using messenger line & connect it to the chaffing chain.
 Proper securing of the messenger is important for securing of tow line.
 If ship is disabled and without power, tug can use their own winch to draw the messenger.
 All the crews should be well informed of the work procedures and personnel distribution.
 The person in charge of the work on F'cle deck (or Poop deck) should always contact the
command, and finish the work as fast as possible. 54
 The person in charge of the work should watch the movement of towing ship carefully.
When the towing line with eye splice is strained, he should evacuate the crews to safe
places.

Starting the tow

 Proper communication between both masters – Tug and ship.
 Also identify and test the backup communication.
 Instructions will be issued by tugs master.
 Adjustment of course, speed or any other manoeuvring settings shall not be made without
informing each other.
 Tug will start to apply weight to a short length of tow line and gradually increase power to
counter inertia of the ship.
 All personnel must move to safe location keeping clear from dangerous zones.
 Once tug has control and is making way, it will increase the length of the tow line.
 Tug shall commence the tow directly into the prevailing wind.
 If steering is not available on disabled ship, securing the rudder amidships.
 Also engage the turning gear to stop the propeller from rotating freely if engines are not
available.
 A trim by astern is preferable when being towed by head or vice versa.
During towing operation
 Compliance with local and international rules pertaining to navigation including proper
lookout etc.
 It is necessary to grease up continuously in order to prevent wear of ropes in fairlead
chock when wire ropes are used as towing lines.
 Wear-out condition in fairlead chock should be constantly checked.
 Rudder should be operated to improve the ship's movement of following to the towing
ship, if necessary and available.
 Weather forecasts shall be available on daily basis and frequency may be increased if
weather risks are present.
 Regularly verify that all the towing arrangements, condition of the cargo sea fastenings
55
and watertight integrity of the tow are satisfactory
 Regularly checking that tow wire and tow are positioned correctly.

Bollard pull testing procedure

BP shall be determined in accordance with procedure mentioned in MSC/circ.884
- ME at MCR for 30 minutes
- Length of towlines >300m or minimum twice the length of vessel.
- Depth of water >20m or minimum twice the draft, with in 100m of vessel
- Even keel or max trim 2%L
- Wind speed < 18 kn
- Current speed < 0.5 kn
- The load cell should be fitted between the eye of the towline and the bollard.
BP is towing force being maintained for a duration of minimum 10 min.

Contents of emergency towing booklet (ETB)

It shall be ship specific and presented in clear, concise and ready to use format.
It shall be kept at the following locations as minimum as recommended in MSC cir.1255
- Bridge
- Forecastle space
- Ship’s office or CCR
Additionally, a copy shall be maintained with owner/ operators and one copy in common
electronic file format to allow faster distribution to concerned parties in emergencies.

ETB shall contain following information as minimum

 Ship specific data which shall include name, call sign, anchor details, cable and chain
details, height of mooring deck, draft range and displacement range etc
 Ship specific procedures which shall as minimum include
- a quick-reference decision matrix that summarizes options under various emergency
scenarios, such as weather conditions (mild, severe), availability of shipboard power
(propulsion, on-deck power), imminent danger of grounding, etc.;
- organization of deck crew (personnel distribution, equipment distribution, etc.);
- organization of tasks (what needs to be done, how it should be done, what is needed
for each task, etc.);
 -
diagrams for assembling and rigging bridles, tow lines, etc., showing possible
emergency towing arrangements for both fore and aft. Rigged lines should be lead such
that they avoid sharp corners, edges and other points of stress concentration;
- power shortages and dead ship situations, which must be taken into account, especially
for the heaving across of heavy towing lines;
- a communications plan for contacting the salvage/towing ship. This plan should list all
information that the ship’s master needs to communicate to the salvage/towing ship.
This list should include but not be limited to:
- damage or seaworthiness;
- status of ship steering;
- propulsion;
- on deck power systems; 56
- on-board towing equipment;
- existing emergency rapid disconnection system;
- forward and aft towing point locations;
- equipment, connection points, strong points and (SWL);
- towing equipment dimensions and capacities; and
- ship particulars;
- evaluation of existing equipment, tools and arrangements on board the ship for
possible use in rigging a towing bridle and securing a towline;
- identification of any minor tools or equipment providing significant improvements to
the “towability” of the ship;
- inventory and location of equipment on board that can be used during an emergency
towing situation;
- other preparations (locking rudder and propeller shaft, ballast and trim, etc.); and
- other relevant information (limiting sea states, towing speeds, etc.).
 Comprehensive diagrams and sketches should be available and include the following:
- assembly and rigging diagrams;
- towing equipment and strong point locations; and
- equipment and strong point capacities and safe working loads (SWLs).

Aft ETS
The system consists of the following
equipment:
 Storage box for pick-up gear.
 Towing wire with pick-up gear attached.
 Strong point.
 Storage drum.

Operating Procedures
 Go to the pick-up gear container.
 Grip the releaser lever (sea side of container) and lift it free from the fly bolt.
 Pull the releaser lever to open cover.
 Make sure the whole pick-up gear is falling freely into the water after releasing the lever.
 As soon as the pick-up gear is in the water, it can be picked up by a tugboat. When the
tugboat has made fast connection, it can be start pulling out the towing wire.
 The weak link on the storage drum will break at a pull of approximately 3.5 tons. Then the
towing wire will fall out by its own weight, controlled by the centrifugal brake fitted to
the drum.

Forward ETS
The Forward ETS consists of the
following equipment:
 Smit bracket
 Fairlead
 Pedestal roller
 Chafing chain
57

Deployment 1: Unable to use the

vessel’s power
Deployment 2: using the vessel’s
power

Towing patterns and decision matrix for determining will be mentioned in ship specific
ETB – one such example is shown below

Towing
Remarks
method
This method is used in an
emergency in which it is
Towing
necessary a quick
from the Aft connection of a towing
wire to the tug boat.
Conditions Patterns
In bad weather condition and
with heavy seas is the safer and
faster way to develop a successful
towing.
The pick-up gear can easily be
deployed by one man within 15
minutes.
The buoy with flashing lights 1A
makes the pick-up gear easily to
find and pick-up by the tug boat.
The arrangement is capable of
rapid deployments in the absence
of main power on the ship to be
towed and easy connection to the
towing vessel

Unable to use the vessel’s power 1F

This method is used for a
Towing long-term towing in
from the which we have time to
Bow arrange a more efficient
tow for a seagoing trip.
Using vessel’s power
Search and Rescue

As per IAMSAR, ship masters are obligated to assist others in distress at sea whenever they
can safely do so. Various conventions like SAR convention and SOLAS convention which have
specified the obligations.

SOLAS Chapter V regulation 33 - Distress Situations: Obligations and Procedures

 The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance, on
receiving information from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to
proceed with all speed to their assistance, if possible, informing them or the search and
rescue service that the ship is doing so.
58
 This obligation to provide assistance applies regardless of the nationality or status of such
persons or the circumstances in which they are found.
 If the ship receiving the distress alert is unable or, in the special circumstances of the case,
considers it unreasonable or unnecessary to proceed to their assistance, the master must
enter in the log-book the reason for failing to proceed to the assistance of the persons in
distress, taking into account the recommendation of the Organization to inform the
appropriate search and rescue service accordingly.
 Contracting Governments shall co-ordinate and co-operate to ensure that masters of ships
providing assistance by embarking persons in distress at sea are released from their
obligations with minimum further deviation from the ships' intended voyage, provided
that releasing the master of the ship from the obligations under the current regulation
does not further endanger the safety of life at sea.
 The Contracting Government responsible for the search and rescue region in which such
assistance is rendered shall exercise primary responsibility for ensuring such co-ordination
and co-operation occurs, so that survivors assisted are disembarked from the assisting
ship.
 In these cases, the relevant Contracting Governments shall arrange for such
disembarkation to be affected as soon as reasonably practicable.
 The master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue service concerned, after
consultation, so far as may be possible, with the masters of ships which answer the
distress alert, has the right to requisition one or more of those ships as the master of the
ship in distress or the search and rescue service considers best able to render assistance,
and it shall be the duty of the master or masters of the ship or ships requisitioned to
comply with the requisition by continuing to proceed with all speed to the assistance of
persons in distress.
 Masters of ships shall be released from the obligation imposed on learning that their ships
have not been requisitioned and that one or more other ships have been requisitioned
and are complying with the requisition.
 This decision shall, if possible, be communicated to the other requisitioned ships and to
the search and rescue service.
 The master of a ship shall be released from the obligation when assistance is no longer
necessary.
 Masters of ships who have embarked persons in distress at sea shall treat them with
humanity, within the capabilities and limitations of the ship.
IAMSAR - jointly published by IMO and ICAO every three years -3 volumes

Volume 1 – Organisation and management volume

This discusses the global SAR system concept, establishment and improvement of national
and regional SAR systems and co-operation with the neighboring states to provide effective
and economical SAR services.

Volume 2 – Mission co-ordination volume

This volume assists personnel who plan and co-ordinate SAR operations and exercises.

Volume 3 – Mobile Facilities

The carriage of this volume onboard is mandatory for all vessels. 59

Purpose of IAMSAR Volume III – to provide guidance to those who

 Operate aircraft, vessels or other crafts and who may be called upon to use the facility to
support SAR operations
 May need to perform OSC functions for multiple facilities in the vicinity of a distress
situation
 Experience actual or potential emergency and may require search and rescue assistance

National and regional SAR system organization

 Member states provide aeronautical and maritime SAR coordination and services on a 24-
hour basis for their territories, territorial seas, and where appropriate, the high seas.
 To carry out these responsibilities, States have established national SAR organizations, or
joined one or more other States to form a regional SAR organization associated with an
ocean area or continent.

Search and rescue regions

 A search and rescue region (SRR) is an area of defined dimensions associated with a rescue
coordination centre (RCC) an RCC, within which SAR services are provided.
 The purpose of having an SRR is to clearly define who has primary responsibility for
coordinating response to distress situations in every area of the world
 To enable rapid distribution of distress alerts to proper RCC
 May be separate for aeronautical and maritime
 The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Global SAR Plan depicts maritime SRRs.
 They are not intended to restrict anyone from assisting persons in distress
 Each SRR is part of global system and following factors should be considered when
creating SRR
- Size and shape of area of responsibility
- Air and shipping traffic density and pattern
- availability, distribution, readiness and mobility of SAR resources
- Reliability of communications network
- Solely for the purpose of coordinating SAR services for that geographical area
- Mutual agreement between member states for the region
Area of SAR action is an area of defined dimensions used or agreed by authorities for
protection of aircraft during SAR operations. Within this area, special flying procedures
relevant to SAR operations might take place.

RCC (Rescue coordination centers)

Units responsible for promoting efficient organization of search and rescue services and for
coordinating the conduct of SAR operations within SRR which can be (MRCC, ARCC or JRCC)

Duties and responsibilities of RCC includes

 Perform administrative and operational duties
 Admin duties include planning, cooperation with providers of facilities, exercises
60
 Effective administrative actions help to ensure proficient SAR operations
 For coordinating SAR operations within SRR
 Doesn’t necessarily provide SAR facilities throughout SRR
 Coastal states or MRCCs may have this responsibility
 Should be familiar with capabilities of all facilities available for SAR
 Developing comprehensive plans for conduct of SAR in its SRR and for coordinating actions
within adjacent SRRs

Rescue sub-centers (RSC)

These are units to subordinate to an RCC. There may be situations where an RCC is not able to
exercise direct and effective control over SAR facilities in an area within SRR. Example of such
situations
 Where the communications facilities in a portion of an SRR are not adequate for close
coordination between RCC and SAR facilities
 SRR is large and for political or administrative reasons, local facilities can only be directed
and controlled through designated local authorities
 Where local control of SAR operation will be effective
RCC may designate in such cases, some or all of its responsibilities including communications,
planning and arrangements for SAR facilities.

MRCC
The MRCC performs administrative and operational duties - Administrative duties are
concerned with maintaining the MRCC in a continuous state of preparedness whereas
Operational duties are concerned with the efficient conduct of SAR operations or exercises.
Duties and responsibilities of MRCC includes:
 Monitors and evaluates Maritime Safety Information (MSI)
 Manages the Ship Reporting System (like SAFREP)
 Executes a Maritime Assistance Service (MAS)
 Manage the reception and dissemination of Maritime Security information
 Acts as the Navigational Communications Search and Rescue (NCSR) agency (IMO) and
the COSPAS SARSAT agency (ICAO)
 Acts as the custodian for NCSR beacon registration database and
 Promote International SAR standards
 Implementing the requirements of bilateral SAR agreements and
 Providing a National and Regional maritime SAR coordinators training capability
SAR Coordination
The SAR system has 3 levels of coordination

1. SAR Coordination – Management (SAR coordinators (SCs) at national level)

2. SAR mission coordination – Mission Planning (SMCs) based at Rescue coordination
centers (RCCs))
3. OSC – Operational oversight

SAR coordinator
 SCs are the top-level SAR managers;
 each State normally will have one or more persons or agencies for whom this designation
61
may be appropriate.
 They are not normally involved in conduct of SAR operations.

SCs duties include

 establishing, staffing, equipping and managing the SAR system
 establishing RCCs and rescue sub-centres (RSCs)
 providing or arranging for SAR facilities
 coordinating SAR training
 developing SAR policies.

SAR mission coordinator

 SMC is defined as an official who is temporarily assigned to coordinate the response to an
actual or apparent distress situation.
 A SMC should be designated for each specific SAR operation with adequate staff and
resources and acts as in charge of SAR operation responsible for planning the SAR
operations and coordinating the transit of SAR facilities to and from scene
 Each SAR operation is carried out under the guidance of an SMC.
 This function exists only for the duration of a specific SAR incident and is normally
performed by the RCC chief or a designee.

Note: In practice, the terms RCC and SMC are often used interchangeably due to their close
association.

SMC duties include

 obtain and evaluate all data on the emergency
 ascertain the type of emergency equipment carried by the missing or distressed craft
remain informed of prevailing environmental conditions
 if necessary, ascertain movements and locations of vessels and alert shipping in likely
search areas for rescue, lookout and/or radio watch
 plot the areas to search and decide on methods and facilities to be used
 develop the search action plan and rescue action plan as appropriate
 dispatch and coordinate the resources to carry out SAR missions.
 coordinate the operation with adjacent RCCs when appropriate
 arrange briefing and debriefing of SAR personnel
 evaluate all reports and modify action plans as necessary arrange for refueling of aircraft
 and, for prolonged search, make arrangements for the accommodation of SAR personnel
 arrange for delivery of supplies to sustain survivors
 maintain in chronological order an accurate and up-to-date record
 issue progress reports
 determine when to suspend or terminate the search
 release SAR facilities when assistance is no longer required
 notify accident investigation authorities
 if applicable, notify the State of registry of the aircraft missing or distressed craft
 prepare a final report.

On-scene coordinator 62
 The types of facilities involved and the region of the SAR incident may affect on-scene
coordination.
 When 2 or more SAR facilities are working together on same mission, one may be needed
to coordinate the activities of all participating facilities.

Designation of on-scene coordinator (OSC)

 When two or more SAR facilities conduct operations together, the SMC may designate an
OSC.
 If this is not practicable, facilities involved may designate, by mutual agreement, an OSC.
 This should, if necessary, be done as early as practicable and preferably before arrival of
facilities on scene.
 Until an OSC has been designated, the first facility arriving at the scene should assume the
duties of an OSC.
 When deciding how much responsibility to delegate to the OSC, the SMC normally
considers the endurance, communication and personnel capabilities of the facilities
involved.
 The poorer the communications on scene with the RCC, the more authority the OSC will
need to initiate actions.

OSC duties and responsibilities

On assuming the duty, the OSC should inform the appropriate RCC, via a CRS or ATS unit as
necessary, and keep it informed of developments at regular intervals.

 The OSC should obtain a search and/or rescue action plan from the SMC via the RCC as
soon as possible.
 Normally, search planning is performed using trained personnel, advanced search
 planning techniques, and information about the incident or distressed craft not normally
available to the OSC.
 However, the OSC may still need to plan a search under some circumstances. Search
operations should commence as soon as facilities are available at the scene.
 If a search plan has not been provided by the SMC, the OSC should do the planning until
an SMC assumes the search planning function.
 Provide information to and coordinate operations of all SAR facilities on-scene. An ACO
may be designated to coordinate aircraft operations
 Modify the plan as the situation on-scene dictates, keeping the SMC advised (discuss
 proposed modifications with the SMC when practicable).
 Coordinate on-scene communications.
 Monitor the performance of other participating facilities and ensure operations are
conducted safely
 Make periodic situation reports (SITREPs) to the SMC.
 SITREPs should include but not be limited to:
- weather and sea conditions, the results of search and/or rescue action to data, any
modifications made or suggested to the action plan, any future plans or
recommendations.
 Maintain a detailed record of the operation:
- on-scene arrival and departure times of SAR facilities, other vessels and aircraft 63
engaged in the operation, areas searched, track spacing used, sightings and leads
reported, actions taken, results obtained.
 Advise the SMC to release facilities no longer required.
 Report the number and names of survivors to the SMC.
 Provide the SMC with the names and designations of facilities with survivors on board.
 Report which survivors are in each facility.
 Request additional SMC assistance when necessary (for example, medical evacuation of
seriously injured survivors
 In case of language difficulties, the International Code of Signals, the IMO Standard Marine
Communication Phrases (SMCP) and standard ICAO phraseology should be used.

Requirements for coordination

 When a SAR incident occurs, an SMC will normally be designated, within an RCC.
 The SMC will obtain SAR facilities, plan SAR operations, and provide overall coordination.
 The SMC may also designate an OSC to provide coordination at the scene to carry out
plans to locate and rescue survivors.
 If no SMC has been designated or communications between the SMC and OSC are lost, the
OSC may need to perform some additional functions normally handled by an SMC.
 It may be necessary to designate a vessel OSC for surface activities and an aircraft
coordinator (ACO) for aircraft activities if vessel/aircraft communications on-scene are not
practical.
 When a vessel or aircraft becomes aware of a SAR incident directly, it should alert the
appropriate RCC as follows:
- the RCC responsible for the SRR where the incident occurred
- the nearest RCC
- any RCC which can be reached; or
- any communications facility (e.g., alerting post).
 The first facility to arrive in the vicinity of the SAR incident should assume OSC duties and,
if necessary, SMC duties, until an SMC has been designated, and retain OSC duties until
the SMC has designated an OSC.
 For the maritime environment, ship masters typically perform the OSC function due to
ship endurance on-scene unless more capable SRUs are available.
Receipt of distress notification

Immediate action
 Acknowledge the receipt of message – there is flow chart which specifies the action
required on the receipt of distress DCS alert
 If communication possible by voice, gather the following information
- Position, identity, call sign and name, no of persons onboard, Nature of distress, Type
of assistance required, no of victims if any, Type of craft and cargo carried if any
 Now following information must be communicated to distress craft
- Own ship identity, call sign and name, Own ship position, our speed and best ETA to
site, Range and bearing of distress craft from own vessel
64
 Maintain a continuous watch of corresponding RT
 The ship should contact the nearest CRS (Coast Radio Station) and establish
communication with the SMC and pass on all available information.

Proceeding to area of distress location

 Use all means to remain aware of location of distress craft
 When in close proximity, post extra lookout
 Maintain active radar plots or AIS data of vessels in vicinity
 Maintain communication with other vessels proceeding to area of distress
 Estimate ETA of other assisting vessels to the site
 Access distress situation

Onboard preparations
 Prepare SAR action and possible need to recover people from craft or water
 Assess the risks which may be encountered on scene including risks such as those
associated with leaking cargo etc
 Prepare following equipment

1. Lifesaving and rescue equipment

Lifeboat Life raft Life jackets Survival suits Lifebuoys
Boat hooks Hatchets LTA Hauling lines
Buoyant lifelines Rescue Pilot Scrambling Code of signals
baskets ladders nets
Radio equipment Portable VHF Binoculars Cameras etc Firefighting
equipment
2. Signalling Equipment
Signalling Lamp Search lights Torches Floating lights

Smoke generators Flame and smoke floats Dye markers Laud hailers
3. Preparation for medical assistance
Stretchers Blankets Medical supplies and
medicines
Clothing Food Shelter
4. Miscellaneous Equipment
- Crane or other lifting equipment fitted with recovery device
- Line running from bow to stern at the water’s edge on both sides for boats and crafts
to secure alongside
- Pilot ladder and man ropes to assist in boarding
- Life boats at boarding station
- LTA for making connection with either ship in distress or survival craft
- Floodlights properly set

Own search planning

Normally the SMC will determine the search area by use of search planning tools at the RCC 65
and in cooperation with the OSC.

Considerations in developing a search plan include:

 estimating the most probable position of a distressed craft or survivors, taking drift effect
into consideration
 determining the search area
 selecting SAR facilities and equipment to be used
 selecting a search pattern
 planning on-scene coordination

Situation reports (SITREPs)

 provide earliest notice of an emergency (short form)
 pass urgent essential details when requesting assistance (short form)
 pass, amplifying or updating information during SAR operations (full form).
 The OSC uses SITREPs to keep the SMC informed of on-scene mission progress and
conditions, and addresses SITREPs to the SMC unless otherwise directed.
 Search SAR facilities use SITREPs to keep the OSC informed.
 The SMC uses SITREPs to keep superiors, other RCCs, and any other interested agencies
informed.
 Initial SITREPs should be transmitted as soon as details of an incident become clear
enough to indicate SAR involvement.
 SITREPs should not be delayed unnecessarily for confirmation of all details.
 Further SITREPs should be issued as soon as other relevant information is obtained.
 Information already passed should not does not need to be repeated.
 During prolonged operations, "no change" SITREPs should be issued at intervals of about
three hours to reassure recipients that nothing has been missed.
 When the incident is concluded, a "final" SITREP should be issued as confirmation.
 Each SITREP concerning the same incident should be numbered sequentially.

SITREPs prepared on-scene usually provide the following information:

Identification; Situation; Action taken; Future plans; Status of case

Search action plan and message

The SMC typically provides the search action plan.

The OSC and ACO (if designated) and facilities on-scene implement the search action
Plan.

The search action plan message includes 7 parts.

Situation; Action; Search area(s); Execution; Coordination required; Communications;

Reports

66
Planning a search at sea

Datum
It will be necessary to establish a datum, or geographic reference, for the area to be searched.
The following factors should be considered:
 reported position and time of the SAR incident
 any supplementary information such as DF bearings or sightings
 time interval between the incident and the arrival of SAR facilities
 estimated surface movements of the distressed craft or survival craft, depending on drift.

The datum position for the search is found as follows:

 drift has two components: leeway and total water current
 the observed wind speed when approaching the scene may be used for estimating leeway
speed
 total water current may be
estimated by using the
computed set and drift of
vessels at or near the scene
drift direction and speed are
the vector sum of leeway
and total water current
 drift distance is drift speed
multiplied by the time
interval between the
incident time, or time of the
last computed datum, and
the commence search time
 datum position is found by
moving from the incident
position, or last computed
datum position, the drift
distance in the drift direction
and plotting the resulting
position on a suitable chart.
Sweep width, track spacing, and coverage

 Sweep width (W) is an index or measure of the ease or difficulty of detecting a given
search object with a given sensor under a given set of environmental conditions.
 Tables of "uncorrected" sweep width values based on search object and meteorological
visibility for calm weather, and correction factors based on search object and weather
conditions (fw) are provided in IAMSAR Volume III.
 Multiplying the uncorrected sweep width value (WU) by the appropriate weather
correction factor produces the corrected sweep width (WC): WC = WU × fw
 Most search patterns consist of straight, parallel, equally spaced tracks covering a
rectangular area. The distance between adjacent tracks is called the track spacing (S).
67
 Coverage (C) is the ratio of the corrected sweep width (WC) to the track spacing (S):
C = WC/S
 The recommended coverage (C) for most situations is 1.0, which means the recommended
track spacing (S) in most situations is the same as the corrected sweep width (WC):
Recommended S = WC
 In addition to the weather correction factors, other factors may be considered, such as
time of day, position of the sun, effectiveness of observers, etc.

Searching speed (V)

 To perform a parallel track search with several vessels moving together in a coordinated
manner, all vessels should proceed at the same speed, as directed by the OSC.
 When performing a coordinated search with several vessels moving together, the search
speed should normally be the maximum speed of the slowest vessel present under the
prevailing conditions.
 In restricted visibility, the OSC will normally order a reduction in searching speed.

Search area (A)

 Compute the search radius (R), using one of the following two methods:
 if the search must commence immediately, assume R = 10
NM
 if time is available for computation: compute the area a
craft can cover in a certain amount of time (T) by the
formula: A = S × V × T
the total amount of area (At) which can be covered by
several craft is the sum of the areas each craft can cover: At
= A1 + A2 + A3 + ...
if all craft are searching at the same speed for the same
amount of time, then: At = N × A where N is the number of
search craft
 the search radius (R) of the circle is one-half the square root
of the search area: R = √At 2
 draw a circle centred on datum with radius R
 using tangents to the circle, form a square as shown
Search patterns

Factors to consider in deciding what type of search pattern to use include:

- available number and types of assisting craft
- size of area to be searched
- type of distressed craft
- size of distressed craft
- meteorological visibility
- cloud ceiling
- type of sea conditions
- time of day 68
- arrival time at datum.

 It may be advisable for vessels, especially when searching with either an expanding square
search (SS) or a sector search (VS), to use dead reckoning (DR) navigation.
 DR navigation will minimize pattern distortion relative to the search object as it will
account for the currents affecting the search object's drift during the search.
 If a datum marker buoy or a smoke float or other highly visible object is available, it should
be deployed at datum and the pattern should be performed relative to it.
 Precise search pattern navigation using high-precision methods such as global satellite
navigation systems could allow the search object to drift out of the search area before the
search facility arrives in that vicinity.

General categories of search patterns involve –

1. Visual search patterns,
2. Electronic search patterns,
3. Night search patterns &
4. Land Search patterns
Visual Search Patterns

Expanding square search (SS)

 Most effective if the location of the search object is known within relatively close limits.
 The commence search point is always the datum position.
 Often appropriate for vessels or small boats to use when searching for persons in the
water or other search objects with little or no leeway.
 Due to the small area involved, this
procedure must not be used simultaneously
by multiple aircraft at similar altitudes or by
multiple vessels.
69
 Accurate navigation is required; the first leg
is usually oriented directly into the wind to
minimize navigational errors.
 For successive searches in same area, the
direction of search legs should be changed
by 45 deg
 It is difficult for fixed-wing aircraft to fly legs
close to datum if S is less than 2 NM.
 A suitable marker (for example, a smoke
float or a radio beacon) may be dropped at
the datum position and used as a reference
or navigational aid marking the centre of the
pattern.

Sector search (VS)

 Most effective when the position of the search object is accurately known and the search
area is small e.g., MOB sighted by another crew member.
 Used to search a circular area centred on a datum point
 Any point on circumference is chosen as search commencement point & First leg should
usually be down-drift.
 Due to the small area involved, it must not be used
simultaneously by multiple aircraft at similar altitudes
or by multiple vessels.
 An aircraft and a vessel may be used together to
perform independent sector searches of the same area.
 A suitable marker may be dropped at the datum
position and used as a reference or navigational aid
marking the centre of the pattern. Each leg should be
passed at a close range from this marker.
 For aircraft, radius is usually between 5 NM and 20 NM.
 For vessels, radius is usually between 2 NM and 5 NM,
and each turn is 120°, normally turned to starboard.
 If object is not located, second search can be commenced as shown in diagram.
Track line search (TS)
 Normally used when an aircraft or vessel has disappeared without a trace along a known
route.
 Often used as initial search effort due to ease of planning and implementation.
 Consists of a rapid and reasonably thorough search along intended route of the distressed
craft.
 Search may be along one side of the track line and return in the opposite direction on the
other side (TSR).
 Search may be along the intended track and once on each side, then search facility
continues on its way and does not return (TSN).
 Aircraft are frequently used for TS due to their high speed.
70
 Aircraft search height usually 300 m to 600 m (1,000 ft to 3,000 ft) during daylight or 600
m to 900 m (2,000 ft to 3,000 ft) at night.
(It is assumed that survivors are capable of attracting search facility’s attention at
considerable range using signalling equipments)

Parallel track search (PS)

 Used to search a large area when survivor location is uncertain.
 Most effective over water or flat terrain.
 Usually used when a large search area must be divided into sub-areas for assignment to
individual search facilities on-scene at the same time.
 The commence search point is in one corner of the sub-area, one-half track space inside
the rectangle from each of the two sides forming the corner.
 Search legs are parallel to each other and to the long sides of the sub-area.
 Multiple vessels may be used.
 71

Coordinated vessel–aircraft search pattern

 Normally used only if there is an OSC present to give direction to and provide
communications with the participating craft.
 Creeping line search, coordinated (CSC) is often used as an alternative name.
 The aircraft does most of the searching, while the ship steams along a course at a speed as
directed by the OSC so that the aircraft can use it as a navigational checkpoint.
 The aircraft, as it passes over the ship, can easily make corrections to stay on the track of
its search pattern. (When correctly performed, aircraft should directly pass over the vessel
at the centre of each search leg)
 Gives a higher probability of detection than can normally be attained by an aircraft
searching alone.
 Ship speed varies according to the speed of the aircraft and the size of the pattern.
 The relationship among the speed of the surface facility, the aircraft's speed, the track
spacing and the length of the search legs is defined by the following equation: Vs = (S x Va)
/ (L + S) where Vs is the speed of the surface facility in knots, S is the track spacing in
nautical miles, Va is the aircraft's true air speed in knots, and L is the length of the
aircraft's search leg in nautical miles.

(Basically, same as PS
search pattern except that
search legs are parallel to
the short sides of search
area instead of long sides)
Initiation of search at sea

 When a search facility arrives on-scene in advance of the others, it should proceed directly
to datum and commence an expanding square search.
 If possible, datum may be marked by putting over a life raft or other floating marker with a
leeway similar to that of the search object, as a check on the drift.
 This can then be used as a datum marker throughout the search.
 As other facilities arrive, the OSC should select one of the search patterns, as appropriate,
and allocate search sub-areas to individual facilities.
 In good visibility and with sufficient search facilities, the OSC may let the first facility
continue its expanding square search while the others conduct a parallel track search
72
through the same area.
 In restricted visibility, or if sufficient search facilities are not available, it will probably be
better to have the first facility break off the expanding square search and be available for
initiation of a parallel track search.

Restricted visibility
 A parallel track search in restricted visibility poses problems because of the following
considerations:
- desirability of reducing the interval between SAR facilities as much as possible
consistent with safety
- resulting loss of search area coverage
- potential risk of collision.
 During restricted visibility, the OSC should direct a reduction of vessel speed as necessary.
 In such circumstances, any ship not fitted with radar, or whose radar has become
defective, should consider dropping astern of other ships, informing the OSC of its action.
 the ship's search should continue when it judges its position (relative to other searching
ships) is safe to do so
 if there is a reduction in visibility and ships have already started to carry out a search
pattern, the OSC may decide that the safest action would be to continue the pattern in
force despite the resulting loss of coverage.
 Should it be necessary for the OSC to consider initiating any of the patterns during
conditions of restricted visibility, the following factors should be considered:
 ships will be proceeding at a reduced speed and searches will take longer
 to search the area thoroughly in such conditions must mean a reduction in track spacing
 reduction in track spacing would require a reduction in the interval between SAR facilities
and, thus, the carrying out of more tracks.
 The OSC may decide to accept a reduction in the area searched and should have regard to
the direction and rate of estimated drift in deciding whether to accept a reduction in one
or both of the length and width of the search area.
 If visibility improves, the OSC should initiate such actions as will best make good the lost
coverage which has taken place.
Further action on completion of initial phase
 The initial phase is considered to have been completed when, in the absence of further
information, searching ships have completed one search of the most probable area.
 If at that stage nothing has been located, it will be necessary for the SMC, in consultation
with the OSC, to consider the most effective method of continuing the search.
 Failure to locate the search object may be due to one or more of the following causes:
- Errors in position owing to navigational inaccuracies or inaccuracy in the distress
communications reporting the position.
- An error in drift estimation.
 Failure to sight the search object during the search although it was in the search area.
This is most likely to occur if the search object is a small craft, a survival craft, survivors in
73
the water, a light aircraft forced down in rough or densely vegetated terrain, or survivors
in rough or densely vegetated terrain.

Navigational inaccuracies of searching ships

 This is most likely to apply when navigational fixes cannot be obtained.
 In this situation, the OSC may:
- re-search the same area, allowing for added drift during the time elapsed since
calculating last datum;
- expand the most probable area, after allowing for added drift, and search the expanded
area; or
- expand the area more in one direction than another, depending on circumstance and
information available.
- Determine a new probable area based upon any additional information received.
- Where information is received to indicate that the original datum was grossly
inaccurate, determining an entirely new probable area would be advisable.
 A small search object, which is easily missed in the daytime, may become visible at night if
it shows lights, flares, or other pyrotechnics.
 The SMC and OSC should, therefore, consider using surface craft at night to search again
areas covered by day.
 It is good practice when searching for survivors in small craft, in survival craft, or in the
water, to stop the engines occasionally at night and in restricted visibility by day to listen
for cries for help.

Evidence of distressed craft found

 In some cases, the search may provide evidence of the distressed craft without survivors
being found.
 This evidence may provide information for a recalculation of datum and revision of the
search area.
 A derelict may drift at a considerable angle off the prevailing wind direction.
 When wreckage is located it usually consists of debris, possibly with an oil slick.
 Should this have come from the distressed craft, survival craft will usually be found
downwind from the debris.
 In some cases, however, a ship may have been abandoned some time before sinking, in
which case survival craft may be upwind.
Search unsuccessful
 The OSC should continue the search until all reasonable hope of rescuing survivors has
passed.
 The OSC may need to decide whether to terminate an unsuccessful search. This should be
discussed with an RCC whenever practicable. For this determination, factors to consider
include the following:
- probability that survivors were in the search area
- probability of detection of the search object, if it were in the areas searched
- time remaining that search facilities can remain on-scene
- probability that survivors might still be alive.
 Remember that the graph can only be indicative. Predicting survival times in immersion 74
victims is not a precise science; there is no formula to determine exactly how long
someone will survive or how long a search should continue.
 In water temperatures above 20°C (68°F) search times exceeding 24 hours should be
considered.
 The OSC, after consultation with other assisting craft and land-based authorities / RCC,
should take the following action:
- terminate active search and inform the RCC
- advise assisting craft to proceed on passage
- send a message to all ships in the area asking them to continue to keep a look-out.

Search successful
 Once the distressed craft or survivors have been sighted, the OSC should assess the best
method for the rescue and direct the most suitably equipped craft to the scene.
 Ensure that all survivors are accounted for.
 Survivors should be questioned concerning:
- the ship or aircraft in distress, number of persons on board
- whether other survivors or survival craft have been seen
- this information should be promptly relayed to the SMC.
 When all persons in distress have been accounted for, the OSC should inform all search
facilities that the search has been terminated.
 The OSC should inform the SMC of the conclusion of the search and give the following
details:
- names and destinations of ships with survivors, and
- identities and numbers of survivors in each
- physical condition of survivors
- whether medical aid is needed
- the state of the distressed craft and whether it is a hazard to navigation.
Rescue or assistance by vessels
General maritime considerations

 The rescuing vessel may find it necessary to:

- use recovery equipment
- launch rescue boats
- launch life rafts or other survival aids
- have crew members suitably equipped to assist survivors
- provide initial medical treatment.
 For a fire or extremely heavy weather, or where it is impossible for the rescue ship to
come alongside, then a lifeboat or life raft may be towed to a closer position. 75
 In heavy weather, an area of sea may be calmed significantly by a large vessel circling at
reduced speed.
 Oil may also be used for quelling waves: vegetable oils and animal oils, including fish oils,
are most suitable
 fuel oil should not be used, except as a last resort, as it is harmful to persons in the water
 lubricating oil is less harmful and is more effective.
 A ship with a low freeboard may be better suited to effect rescue.
 A boarding station may be rigged by mooring a life raft alongside.
- it is particularly useful when lifeboats are used
- survivors can be quickly unloaded into the boarding station, releasing the boat for
another trip.
 The direction of approach to the distressed craft (or survivors) will depend upon the
circumstances. Some emergencies, such as a ship on fire, may have to be approached
from windward and others, such as life rafts, from leeward.
 The two key factors are:
- whether a lee-side protection is necessary during the rescue operation and
- the comparative rates of drift of the distressed craft and the rescuing ship.
 If time permits, assess the relative rates of drift.
 this precaution may prevent serious mishaps during the rescue operations
 in general, survivors in the water are best approached from the leeward side.

Medical support

 If practicable, arrange for injured personnel requiring the attention of a medical officer to
be transferred to a ship carrying one.
 If there is no ship available with a medical officer on board, the rescue facility should
request the OSC, if assigned, or the SMC to consider transmitting an urgency message
requesting such a ship to a rendezvous.
 If necessary, a CRS may be contacted for ship reporting systems information on the
availability of ships with a medical officer.
 The SMC should arrange for medical assistance to be sent from shore.
 The local CRS may act as an intermediary.
Recovery of survivors by assisting vessels

 Vessels to which Chapter III of the SOLAS Convention applies shall have, and other vessels
are recommended to have, ship-specific plans and procedures for recovery of people from
the water.
 Seafarers should consider how to recover survivors into their own vessels under various
environmental conditions.
 Recovery methods include:
 using throwing rockets or heaving lines to pass lifebuoys and/or lines to survivors
 streaming a rope, with lifebuoys or other flotation attached
 utilizing specialized recovery equipment
76
 rigging pilot ladders, Jacob’s ladders or nets, preferably clear of the ship's side, with safety
lines.
 If survivors are unable to climb, ladders or nets may have to be recovered with the
survivors secured to them.
 Where practicable:
- rig ladders or nets from pilot doors or other low openings
- deploy safety lines with rescue strops or loops
- use suitably equipped crew members to assist survivors directly
- deploy a life raft with the ladder or net to act as a transfer platform
 pulling survivors up suitable marine evacuation systems
 deploying life rafts or lifeboats for survivors to hold onto, or climb into
 using rafts or boats as lifts, leaving them on the falls if conditions permit
 lifting survivors using gantries, cranes, davits or derricks, with lines rigged to minimize
swinging against the ship's side
 deploying purpose-built or improvised recovery baskets
 rigging a boat rope for boats and survival craft to secure alongside
 lowering embarkation ladders.
 Any lights in use must not be directed towards helicopters operating in the area.
 Survivors in the water should be lifted in a horizontal or near-horizontal position, if
possible, to minimize the risk of shock induced by sudden transfer from the water and
possible hypothermia.
 However, especially for short lifts, do not delay if the survivor's airway (mouth/ nose) is
threatened by, for example, backwash from the rescuing vessel, but lift by the quickest
method.
 If a rescue craft has been deployed to recover the survivor, he should, if possible, remain
in the craft during its recovery on board the ship.
 Assisting vessels should also be prepared to receive survivors from helicopters
 When the risks involved in recovery operations outweigh the risks of leaving the survivors
in life-saving appliances, consider the following actions:
- using the ship to provide a lee for the survivors;
- deploying life-saving appliances from the assisting vessel;
- maintaining visual and communications contact with the survivors;
- updating the coordinating authority;
- transferring essential survival and medical supplies.
Man overboard

Three situations
Immediate action
 The person overboard is noticed from the bridge and action is taken immediately.
Delayed action
 The person is reported to the bridge by an eyewitness and action is initiated with some
delay.
Person-missing action
 The person is reported to the bridge as missing.
77
Initial actions

At site observing MOB

 Raise alarm – Shout MOB port/Stbd side.
 Continue lookout and keep pointing towards MOB.
On bridge
 Mark MOB on ECDIS/GPS and note position and time from GNSS.
 Throw a life-ring over the side as close to the person as possible.
 Sound three prolonged blasts of ship’s whistle; hail “man overboard”.
 Engage hand steering and commence recovery manoeuvre.
 Note wind speed and direction.
 Inform master of vessel and engine-room.
 Post look-outs to keep the person in sight.

Subsequent Actions
 Alert authorities and ships in vicinity - Broadcast distress signal.
 Inform company, flag state, charterers and insurance as applicable
 Onboard preparation of recovery – brief personnel involved using ship specific recovery
plan.
 Prepare rescue boat, recovery equipments, LSA, signaling items, medical supplies etc. as
required.
 Reduce speed and stand by the engines.
 Distribute portable VHF radios for communication between bridge, deck, and lifeboat.
 Commence recovery
 Once recovered – first aid, seek radio medical advice as required, notify authorities and
cancel distress alert and inform all parties involved.

Man Overboard - Missing for Period of Time

 Activate the MOB (man overboard) position on the ECDIS/GPS.

 Manoeuvre the vessel on a reciprocating course.
 Find out when the missing person was last seen and calculate the ship’s position at that
time.
 This calculated position represents Position Zero. The missing person should be
somewhere between Position Zero and the MOB position on the GPS.
 Determine current conditions, including wind and sea conditions, between Position Zero
and the marking buoy to calculate how the person may have drifted from the course line.
 Determine the most suitable search pattern using IAMSAR Vol III
 Save data on the voyage data recorder.
 Notify company, flag state, charterers and insurance as applicable

Precautions to be taken whilst manoeuvring the ship to be able to launch rescue boats in
bad weather
 As described in IAMSAR Volume III, Lorén turn procedure details the launching and
recovery of rescue boat
 For launching rescue boats in bad weather, the ship must be headed in a direction in
78
which she will lie the steadiest (minimum roll or pitch)
 Vessel must create a good lee for launching the rescue boat. Wind must be kept on the
bow opposite to the side of the rescue boat.
 Bow thrusters if available must be used to maintain appropriate heading.
 When approaching the action scene, the ship must manoeuvre slowly with minimum
speed so as to keep steerage way.
 The rescue boat can be launched when the ship is making way or when stopped,
depending on the ship’s behaviour in the present weather condition.
 The rescue boat must be lowered into the trough of a wave with her engine running.
 The on-load release mechanism must be used if the waves are large and off-load release
seems dangerous.
 Once unhooked, use boat hooks to clear the blocks which should be further hoisted to
avoid injuring the crew members in the rescue boats.
 The aft painter must be let go first so that the boat takes a sheer using her rudder and
then, the forward painter.
 Keep engines full ahead while releasing the forward painter to keep the ship’s side clear.
 Refer Lorén turn procedure.

Various other cases with MOB and their actions specific to incident over and above generic
actions mentioned above
MOB in TSS
MOB in RV
Heavy weather recovery
Launch rescue boat, inform VTS, manoeuvre vessel to ITZ
or separation zone. MOB turn may be executed
depending upon traffic and VTS authorization as
immediate turning might jeopardise the safety of crew
onboard, Oscar flag and Oscar signal on ship’s whistle
SART activation and release will able to assist in better
tracking i.e., marking MOB– Williamson’s turn is most
effective, “O” signal on ship’s whistle; If unable to use
Williamson’s turn, stop the vessel & launch the rescue
boat. Continuous fog signal by vessel and follow the boat
closely. Transmit urgency signal should be followed by a
warning of boat’s movement and approximate position.
Lorén turn procedure with diagram
Factors that will affect the speed of recovery include
 Ship’s manoeuvring characteristics
 Wind direction & sea state
 Crew’s experience and level of training.
 capability of the engine plant
 Location of the incident
 Visibility level
 Recovery technique
 Possibility of having other vessels to assist

Recovery Manoeuvres - standard manoeuvres include 79

1. Williamson Turn
2. Single Turn / One Turn / Anderson Turn
3. Scharnov Turn
4. Loren Turn (New turn as per IAMSAR 2022)

Williamson turn
- makes good original track line
- good in reduced visibility
- simple
- takes the ship farther away from the scene of the incident
- slow procedure

Williamson turn procedure

1. Rudder hard over (in an "immediate action" situation, only to
the side of the casualty).
2. After deviation from the original course by 60°, rudder hard
over to the opposite side.
3. When heading 20° short of opposite course, rudder to midship
position and ship to be turned to opposite course.

Single Turn / One Turn / Anderson Turn

- fastest recovery method
- good for ships with tight turning characteristics
- used most by ships with considerable power
- very difficult for a single-screw vessel
- difficult because approach to person is not
straight

Single turn (270° manoeuvre)

1. Rudder hard over (in an "immediate action" situation,
only to the side of the casualty).
2. After deviation from the original course by 250°, rudder
to midship position and stopping manoeuvre to be initiated.
Scharnov turn
- will take vessel back into her wake
- less distance is covered, saving time
- cannot be carried out effectively unless the time
elapsed between occurrence of the incident and
the commencement of the manoeuvre is known

Scharnov turn procedure

1. Not to be used in an "immediate action" situation.
2. Rudder hard over.
3. After deviation from the original course
by 240°, rudder hard over to the opposite side. 80
4. When heading 20° short of opposite course,
rudder to midship position so that ship will turn to
opposite course.

Lorén turn
- facilitates launch and recovery of a rescue boat
- facilitates rescue work by other craft
- circling calms the sea by interfering with wave patterns
- the more turbulence created by the ship the better
- additional ships circling to windward will calm the sea further

Lorén turn procedure

1. Head into the wind at full speed.
2. Begin the circle and reduce to slow
when the wind is abeam.
3. When the wind crosses the stern to the
opposite quarter, increase to half speed.
4. Continue circling as long as calmer
water is needed.
5. Slow down, or stop, to launch and
recover rescue boat on the leeward side,
inside the circle.
Recovery of people from the water (Refer ship specific plan for details and
MSC.1/Circ.1182/Rev.1)

On passage to the incident

 Establish communications with RCC
 Establish communications with OSC
 Re-read the ship specific recovery plan
 Check IMO’s recovery guidance and guidance on cold water survival
 Consider on-scene conditions
 Consider the number and type of people you may have to recover, and the condition they
may be in – injured or incapable
81
 Consider whether to launch rescue craft
 Assess the best point of entry into the ship with prevailing conditions in mind
 Advice RCC/OSC of your expected recovery capability
 Brief the crew
 Prepare recovery equipments including control and safety measures
 Prepare additional LSA in case of accidents during recovery
 Prepare reception facilities for those recovered
 Prepare to provide assistance prior to or instead of recovery
 Assign crew to – Lookout duties, ship handling, recovery and care of survivors

Approaching the scene

 Post Lookouts, well-briefed and in communication with bridge
 Have recovery team(s) standby, well briefed, equipped with PPE and in communication
with bridge
 Assess ship’s manoeuvrability and recovery capability in the prevailing conditions
 Prepare to launch rescue craft, if conditions permit
 Prepare to receive craft and/or people alongside
 Think about best approach
 Determine priorities
 Advise RCC/OSC of arrival and capabilities

During Recovery operation

 Continue to assess the priorities
 Continue your risk assessment, including your own ongoing recovery capability, the
survival chances of those not yet recovered, and the availability of other recovery
resources
 Keep RCC and/or OSC advised of your progress and future capability.
 Continuous use of 3 prolonged blasts on ship’s whistle will boost the morale of the victim
Recovery plan
It will specify the anticipated conditions under which a recovery operation may be conducted
without causing undue hazard to the ship and the ship's crew, taking into account, but not
limited to:
 Manoeuvrability of the ship;
 Freeboard of the ship;
 Points on the ship to which casualties may be recovered;
 Characteristics and limitations of equipment intended to be used for recovery operations;
 Available crew and personal protective equipment (PPE);
 Wind force, direction and spray;
 Significant wave height (Hs); 82
 Period of waves;
 Swell; and
 Safety of navigation.
 To the extent practicable, recovery procedures should provide for recovery of persons in a
horizontal or near-horizontal (“deck-chair”) position. Recovery in a vertical position should
be avoided whenever possible as it risks cardiac arrest in hypothermic casualties (refer to
the Guide for cold water survival (MSC.1/Circ.1185/Rev.1).
 Illumination is necessary for the recovery operation from water. Source of Illumination
and power (where required) should be available for the area where the recovery
operation is conducted.

Safety precautions

 Recovery operations should be conducted at a position clear of the ship's propellers and,
as far as practicable, within the ship's parallel mid-body section.
 If carried, dedicated recovery equipment should be clearly marked with the maximum
number of persons it can accommodate, based on a weight of 82.5 kg per person.

Contents of recovery plan

 Plans and Documents
 Ship-Specific Arrangements
 Ship’s Equipment Specification
 Available Crew and personal protective equipment (PPE)
 Other Equipment details.
 List of other Recovery Tools (Apart from LSA Plan).
 Dynamic Particulars under which Vessel (Ballast / Loaded) can attempt Recovery
Operations
 Maneuverability Parameters
 Operational Methods employed.
Manoeuvring characteristics as outlined in MSC circ 1053
Inherent dynamic stability: A ship is dynamically stable on a straight course if it, after a small
disturbance, soon will settle on a new straight course without any corrective rudder.
Course-keeping ability: it is a measure of the ability of the steered ship to maintain a straight
path in a predetermined course direction without excessive oscillations of rudder or heading.
Initial turning/course-changing ability: The initial turning ability is defined by the change-of-
heading response to a moderate helm, in terms of heading deviation per unit distance sailed
(the P number) or in terms of the distance covered before realizing a certain heading
deviation (such as the "time to second execute" demonstrated when entering the zig-zag
83
manoeuvre).
Yaw checking ability: The yaw checking ability of the ship is a measure of the response to
counter-rudder applied in a certain state of turning, such as the heading overshoot reached
before the yawing tendency has been cancelled by the counter-rudder in a standard zig-zag
manoeuvre.
Turning ability: Turning ability is the measure of the ability to turn the ship using hard-over
rudder.
Stopping ability: Stopping ability is measured by the "track reach" and "time to dead in
water" realized in a stop engine-full astern manoeuvre performed after a steady approach at
full test speed.

Tests required by the Standards

Turning tests - A turning circle manoeuvre is to be performed to both starboard and port with
35° rudder angle or the maximum design rudder angle permissible at the test speed. The
rudder angle is executed following a steady approach with zero yaw rate.
The essential information to be obtained from this manoeuvre is tactical diameter, advance,
and transfer.
Zig-zag tests - A zig-zag test begins by applying a specified amount of rudder angle to an
initially straight approach ("first execute"). The rudder angle is then alternately shifted to
either side after a specified deviation from the ship's original heading is reached ("second
execute" and following). Two kinds of zig-zag tests are included in the Standards, the 10°/10°
and 20°/20° zig-zag tests. The 10°/10° zig-zag test uses rudder angles of 10° to either side
following a heading deviation of 10° from the original course. The 20°/20° zig-zag test uses
20° rudder angles coupled with a 20° change of heading from the original course.
The essential information to be obtained from these tests is the overshoot angles, initial
turning time to second execute and the time to check yaw.
Stopping tests - A full astern stopping test is used to determine the track reach of a ship from
the time an order for full astern is given until the ship is stopped dead in the water.
Turning Circle
Speed reduction is by 25% in
the 1st 90 degree and by
33% in later part.
The time taken to turn
depends on the initial speed
and the angle of rudder
applied.

84

Angle of attack

IMO requirements

- Advance <= 4.5 x L

- Tactical Dia <= 5x L
Where L is ship’s
length

Patch traced by pivot point or COG when vessel is turned to one side

Advance - The distance travelled by the vessel in the direction of the original course from
starting the turn up to the point when vessel has changed her heading by 90 deg
Transfer - The distance that the vessel will move, perpendicular to the fore and aft line at the
commencement of the turn up to the point where her heading is changed by 90 deg.
Tactical Diameter - The greatest diameter scribed by the vessel from starting the turn to
completing the turn (ship’s head through 180°) is the tactical diameter.
Final diameter - The internal diameter of the turning circle where no allowance has been
made for the decreasing curvature as experienced with the tactical diameter is the final
diameter.
The drift angle - It is the angle between the ship's fore and aft line and the tangent to the
turning circle at any instant. When a vessel responds to helm movement, the resultant
motion of the vessel is one of crabbing in a sideways direction, at an angle of drift. When
completing a turning circle, because of this angle of drift, the stern quarters are outside the
turning circle area while the bow area is inside the turning circle.

Angle of Attack at the Rudder post - It is the angle made by the direction of incoming fluid
and the plane of the rudder.
Critical angle of attack is the angle at which the fluid flow is such that the formation of eddies
behind the face of rudder increase to such an extent that instead of guiding the fluid flow, the
rudder tends to stop the fluid flow – i.e., instead of changing direction of the vessel, it will
slow down the vessel.
Forces During turning
Rudder Force – it is the force exerted by
the ship’s rudder &
Lateral Resistance – As a ship
commences a turn and thereafter, for
the duration of the turn, the ship is
sliding sideways, resulting in a large
buildup of water resistance, all the way
down the ship’s side.

85
Heel Due to Turning
When a body moves in a circular path there is a ‘centripetal’ force acting on the body which is
equal to Mv2 /r, where M is the mass of the body.
In the case of a ship turning in a circle, the centripetal force is produced by the water acting on
the side of the ship away from the center of the turn. The force is considered to act at the
center of lateral resistance which, in this case, is the centroid of the underwater area of the
ship’s side away from the center of the turn. The centroid of this area is considered to be at
the level of the center of buoyancy.
For equilibrium there must be an equal and opposite force, called the ‘centrifugal’ force, and
this force is considered to act at the center of mass (G).
Consider ship’s rudder is put over to port, the forces on the rudder itself will cause the ship to
develop a small angle of heel initially to port (inward). However, the underwater form of the
ship and centrifugal force on it cause the ship to heel to starboard which is always greater than
port side heel. Consequently, for port rudder helm, the final angle of heel due to turning will
be to starboard (Outboard) and vice versa.
If the wheel is eased quickly, the angle of outward heel will increase, because the
counteractive rudder force is removed while the centripetal and centrifugal forces remain,
until the rate of turning decreases.
Equilibrium is produced by a righting couple (due to centrifugal force) and heeling couple
(Due to centripetal force) must be equal.
At small angles, GZ = GM sin 𝛳

For the diagram, B1Z = BG cos 𝛳

𝐺𝑀 sin𝛳 = 𝑣2 𝑥 𝐵𝐺 cos𝛳 / (𝑟. 𝑔)
Factors affecting turning circle

Rudder angle - If a small rudder angle is employed, a large turning circle will result, with little
loss of speed. However, when a large rudder angle is employed, then, although a tighter
turning circle may be experienced, this will be accompanied by a loss of speed.

Speed - It should be remembered that the rudder is only effective when there is a flow of
water past it. The turning circle will therefore not increase by any considerable margin with
an increase in speed, because the steering effect is increased over the same period.
86
The reasons for this are due to the fact that although we have entered the turn with a much
larger rudder force it is also with a higher speed and therefore higher lateral resistance. In
any turn at constant rpm, rudder force and lateral resistance are always achieving the same
balance thereby assuring that each turning circle is approximately the same in terms of
advance and transfer. The only thing that is saved by entering a turn at higher speeds is time.
It is the rate of turn which varies.

Structural design (Hull form) and length - A ship of fine underwater form (container ship) will
turn in a larger circle than a ship of similar length and draught but of fuller form (tanker).
The longer the ship, generally the greater the turning circle.

Draught and Displacement - The deeper a vessel lies in the water, the more sluggish will be
her response to the helm. On the other hand, the superstructure of a vessel in a light
condition and shallow in draught is considerably influenced by the wind. Hence turning circle
will be greater for the vessel with more draft/ higher displacement.

Distribution and stowage of cargo – Generally, this will not affect the turning circle in any
way, but the vessel will respond more readily if loads are stowed amidships instead of at the
extremities.

List & trim - If a vessel is carrying a list, it can be expected to make a larger turning circle
when turning towards the list and vice versa.
A vessel trimmed by stern will have pivot point further aft than if she were on even keel. This
reduces the turning level and thus resulting in a larger turning circle.

Available depth of water - The vessels will experience greater resistance when navigating in
shallow water. Hence, she may take longer to respond to helm movement, probably
increasing the advance of the turning circle, as well as increasing over the transfer. The
corresponding final diameter will be increased proportionately.
Turning in shallow water

As a rough guide it can be assumed that a ship may experience shallow water effect when the
depth of water is less than twice the draft, i.e., the under-keel clearance is less than the draft
itself.

In shallow waters, the rudder works through partial vacuum as water is not easily replaced.
Also, there is additional buildup of lateral resistance due to restricted water flow which
causes the overall turning force to reduce as compared with open waters.

Now, the rudder force has to overcome a much larger lateral resistance and is therefore
considerably less efficient. Secondly, at the bow, because of the reduced under keel 87
clearance, water which should normally pass under the ship is now restricted and there is a
buildup of pressure, ahead of the ship. Due to the increased longitudinal resistance the pivot
point is pushed backwards. With the reduced rudder thrust and reduced turning lever, the
ship rapidly loses the rudder efficiency as compared to deep water.

Hence, the turning circle will be larger in shallow waters.

Stopping Ability

Also known as Side reach

88
Not to exceed 15L; can be modified for large
ships but not to exceed 20L in any case

Inertial stop – When engines are put to stop and vessel stops from the inertia.
Crash stop – When engines are put to full astern
Stopping distance is defined as the minimum distance that a vessel may be seen to cover to
come to rest over the ground measured in terms of track reach.
Track reach is defined as a distance along the vessel’s track that the vessel covers from the
moment the ‘full astern’ or ‘stop engine’ command is given until the ship changes the sign of
the ahead speed or stops dead in the water.
Head reach is defined as the distance along the direction of the original course measured
from the moment the ‘full stern’ or ‘stop engine’ command was given until the ship the ship
is dead in the water.
* Stopping ability of the vessel is directly attributed to the momentum of vessel which is mass
x velocity. *
Drag Effect - When a vessel is in very shallow water, she drags a large volume of water. When
the vessel stops, this entrained water continues moving and causes the ship to carry her way
longer than in deep waters as drag effect is not experienced in deep waters.
Manoeuvring Data on bridge (As outline is Res.A.601(15))
- Pilot Card
- wheel house poster
- Manoeuvring booklet

Pilot card
The contents of the pilot card are available for use without the necessity of conducting
special manoeuvring trials. 89

This information should describe the current condition of the ship, with regard to its loading,
propulsion and manoeuvring equipment, and other relevant equipment.
Contents of pilot card include

 Ship particulars and maneuvering details

 Engine and steering details
 Operational condition of bridge equipments
 Details of anchor and mooring arrangements including MBL
 Any unusual handling characteristics and limitations of equipments or machinery etc.

wheel house poster

Permanently displayed in wheelhouse containing details of ship’s manoeuvring characteristics.
Contents of wheelhouse poster include

 Ship particulars
 Steering particulars
 Anchor details
 Propulsion particulars
 Thruster effect if fitted
 Heel effect on draft
 Turning circles in laden and ballast conditions in deep and shallow waters
 Emergency manoeuvers in laden and ballast conditions
 Stopping characteristics laden and ballast
 Visibility diagram
 MOB rescue manoeuvre details

Caution or warning on wheelhouse poster – Performance may differ from this record due to
environmental, hull and loading conditions.
Manoeuvring booklet
It contains comprehensive details of ship’s manoeuvring characteristics and other relevant
data. As a minimum it shall include information displayed in wheelhouse poster and data from
sea trials for various manoeuvers.
Contents of wheelhouse poster include
 General description
- Ship's particulars
- Characteristics of main engine
90
 Manoeuvring characteristics in deep water
- Course change performance
- Turning circles in deep water
- Accelerating turn
- Yaw checking tests
- Man-overboard and parallel course manoeuvers
- Lateral thruster capabilities
 Stopping and speed control characteristics in deep water
- Stopping ability
- Deceleration performance
- Acceleration performance
 Manoeuvring characteristics in shallow water
- Turning circle in shallow water
- Squat
 Manoeuvring characteristics in wind
- Wind forces and moments
- Course-keeping limitations
- Drifting under wind influence
 Manoeuvring characteristics at low speed
Additional information
Ship handling

Pivot Point
The imaginary point about which a ship forces are assumed to be acting or about which a ship
will turn. This position is not stationary and will change with vessel’s speed over water.

Ship Activity Location of Pivot Point

Stationary Approximately at COG
Making Sternway 1/3~1/4th of L from
stern
Making Headway 1/3~1/4th of L from 91
forward
At anchor Hawsepipe

Application of Pivot point

So, turning levers will be calculated from the position of pivot point i.e., when using the tug or
rudder, it will be important to understand the position. A ship is making sternway, the effect
of rudder is less as turning lever is reduced due to shifting of pivot point to aft.

Vessel is stationary
Both turning moments are
cancelling each other and vsl will
not turn, it will only move sideways.

Vessel is Making Headway

When vessel is having headway,
similar pulling force from both tugs
will result in vessel turning to stbd
due to difference in their Lever for
force and resultant turning
moments.

Vessel is Making sternway

When vessel is having sternway,
similar pulling force from both tugs
will result in vessel turning to port
due to difference in their Lever for
force and resultant turning
moments.
Transverse thrust/ starting bias

The rotating propeller’s force can be

resolved into two components - Fore and
Aft component providing headway or
sternway and Athwartship component
causing the vessel to cant which is known as
transverse thrust.

Transverse thrust can be attributed to the

following two reasons:
92
- Difference in fullness of the ship’s hull,
forward of upper half of propeller and
lower half of propeller.
- The helical discharge from the propeller.

It would be seen that the stern of the vessel is moved to starboard. Consequently, the bow may
be seen to move to port. The opposite will happen when the vessel is moving astern, the only
difference being that the side component will be resolved with a sternway motion and the result
will be that the stern cants to port, with the bow going to starboard.

The effect is maximum, when starting from rest because at this time the pivot point is right
forward as the ship tends to break in to the water ahead. The effect of transverse thrust,
whilst making an ahead movement is less pronounced than when making an astern
movement.

Effect of transverse thrust on Fixed pitch propeller and controllable pitch propellers

In CPP, the shaft will continue to rotate in same direction both for ahead and astern
movement. So transverse thrust will also be same for both ahead and astern.
Also, transverse thrust is usually not very strong when using CPP and most of the time one
may not notice at all.
Twin-Screw Vessels
Twin-screw vessels are normally designed with their propellers equidistant from the fore and
aft line. Either both are outward turning, the starboard propeller being right-hand fixed and
the port propeller left-hand fixed or both are inward turning.
Easy handling compared to the conventional single-screw vessel.
The transverse thrust on a single-screw vessel strongly affects the steering capability, but
with twin screws the forces tend to counteract each other, preventing the steering problems
experienced by the single-screw vessel.
A distinct advantage of twin screws, apart from the 93
increased speed created, is that if the steering gear
develops a fault, the vessel can still be steered by
adjusting the engine revolutions on one or other of
the propellers. When using propellers for turning -
each propeller being not on the centreline has off-
centre turning effect when operating. Thus, while
turning to starboard the left-handed propeller is
on the ahead mode whereas the right-handed
propeller is on the astern mode. This causes the
transverse thrust effects and off-centre effects to
add up. The result being a brisk turn to starboard.

Variable-pitch propeller or controllable-pitch propeller

The advantages of the CPP or VPP over and above the conventional fixed propeller are as
follows:
 A reduction in fuel costs and consumption is achieved by the regular fixed turning speed
of the shaft.
 Expensive diesel fuel is saved by the use of ‘shaft alternators’ linked to the constant-
speed rotating shaft. Auxiliary generators, though still carried, are not required for the
normal loads that would be expected aboard a conventional vessel with a fixed propeller.
 Should the propeller be damaged, spare propeller blades are carried and can be relatively
easily fitted. Should only one blade be damaged, then the pitch of the propeller can be
increased in order to return to port under the vessel’s own power, though at a reduced
speed.
 A distinct ship handling advantage is obtained by being able to stop in the water without
having to stop main engines.
 The need for compressors and for compressed air for use in starting ‘air bottles’ is greatly
reduced.
Effect of Wind

The centre of effort of the wind (W) is acting upon the combination of super structure and
hull and is much further forward than is sometimes expected. This now needs to be
compared with the underwater profile of the ship and the position of the pivot point (P).

Ship is stationary - The centre of effort

of the wind (W) and the pivot point (P)
are thus quite close together and
therefore do not create a turning
influence upon the ship. Although it will
94
vary slightly from ship to ship, generally
speaking most will lay stopped with the
wind just forward or just abaft the beam.

Vessel Making Headway - With the wind

on the beam, the centre of effort of the
wind remains where it is but the pivot
point moves forward. This creates a
substantial turning lever between P and
W and, depending on wind strength, the
ship will develop a swing of the bow into
the wind.

Vessel Making Sternway - Assuming that

the centre of effort (W) remains in the
same position, with the wind still on the
beam, the shift of pivot point (P) has now
created a totally different turning lever
(WP). This will now encourage the bow to
fall off the wind when the ship is backing,
or put another way, the stern seeks the
wind. The Turning Force will now develop
a turning moment about P, tending to turn
the vessel into the wind again.

Vessel trimmed by stern Making Headway

Trim will cause W to shift in opposing
direction i.e., trim by astern will cause W to
move fwd and hence the levers will change
i.e., reduce for a vessel trimmed by stern
making head way.
The average vessel's three tendencies in a wind:
(1) To lie across it when stopped.
(2) To run across it under headway.
(3) To sternbore into it under sternway.

A vessel under headway with the wind in all its relative directions

1) Wind from right ahead - Easily steered and

stopped. Difficult to bring back. Tries to cross wind.
95
2) Wind from right aft - Easily steered, but difficult
to stop due to leeway direction. Difficult to bring
back. Tries to cross wind.
3) Wind from the bow –Needs constant weather
helm. Resulting skid adds to the leeway. Full speed
needed to swing upwind. Tries to cross wind.
4) Wind abeam – Maximum leeway. Little effect on
steering.
5) Wind on the quarter – Quarter blows downwind
and vessel tries to cross wind. Lee helm is required.

A vessel (1) running with the wind on the port

quarter. As she loses headway when engines are
stopped she runs across the wind to (2). As she
gathers her sternway, her bow develops a reverse
swingto starboard and she bores her stem into the
wind's eye as in (3). She does not, of course, reach
her original position (I) due to the leeway which
she is continually experiencing.
Effect of Current
Tidal stream is movement of entire
water mass in which ship is being
manoeuvred. Imagine if you are turning
a vessel in its own position and it takes
6 minutes with 3 kt of tidal stream. Ship
will move in resultant direction as
shown in picture with beam current. So,
vessel would have moved 1 cable or 180
mtrs by the time turn is completed. We
must ensure that there is sufficient sea- 96
room available to allow for such large
drift downstream.
Using tidal current in ship handling
Force on vessel due to tidal current will increase rapidly with decrease in UKC. Vessel will take
longer to reduce or increase speed and turning circle will be much larger. Hence sufficient
space must be allowed for turning.
While executing turn in tidal current, we must try to build good ROT (rate of turn) and must
finish the turn as quickly as possible. As vessel will experience strong set due to current until
vessel is brought head on to current.
When anchored or berthed in a current, the rudder is effective due to the continual flow of
water past it.

A vessel stemming the stream at slow speed and turning

may complete the first part of her turning circle almost
within her own length, as the stream runs against the
vessel’s broadside. The same vessel when running
downstream and turning will make a wider swing as the
downstream drift will cause the turn radius to be
greater.

Minimum speeds to counter drift

In very narrow channels or breakwater entrances with current/tidal stream flowing across,
sometime it may be necessary to keep a certain minimum speed to keep the drift/set of
vessels within the channel. If someone keep speed too low by being over cautious, it can
result in large drift and vessels hitting the buoys or breakwater.
Hydrodynamic effects
1. Squat
2. Interaction
- Ground (Smelling the ground)
- Interaction with Bank (Bank suction and bow cushion affects)
- Interaction between vessel

Squat
Squat is the decrease in ship’s under keep clearance when it moves in shallow water because
of low pressure created under the ship.
97
Squat can be explained using principle of continuity i.e., the reduction in area through which
a liquid is flowing will cause increase in flow velocity of liquid & Bernoulli’s theorem i.e., in a
flowing liquid if the flow velocity increases, the pressure in the region would decrease.

When a ship moves forward it pushes the water. The water all around it, then must flow
under and around the hull to replace the volume of water pushed by the bow.
In open sea there is no problem for the water to flow under the hull. But in shallow waters,
this flow is restricted. This results in higher flow velocity of water passing under the hull as
the area is reduced (principle of continuity) and thus there is decrease in pressure (Bernoulli’s
theorem).

The pressure at the bottom of the ship decreases. This drop-in pressure is compensated by
the sinkage of the vessel as the direction of this force (low pressure) is downwards
(compensation of the buoyancy force).
Factors Affecting Squat

Squat can be calculated using Barrass’ Formula as an Approximation or Schmiechens’

Formula. For simplification, Squat in open waters is Cb x V2/ 100 and in confined waters Cb x
V2/50 where Cb is block coefficient and V is speed through water.

Speed of the vessel – Directly proportional to the square of speed through water. This is
because with more speed, the vessel will push more water forward and more water
is required to fill that void. This will cause more drop-in pressure under the hull and vessel
need to sink more to compensate for that drop-in pressure.

Block coefficient – Directly proportional to the hull form. How much water is being pushed 98
fwd. If the block coefficient is 0.7, the vessel will squat bodily. If the block coefficient is less
than 0.7, the vessel will squat by stern. Finally, if the block coefficient is more than 0.7, the
vessel will squat by bow.

Blockage factor – Directly proportional to blockage factor. Blockage factor is a ratio of ship’s
immersed cross section to the cross section of water within the canal.
Blockage factor S= b x d / B x D where b is beam and d is draft of the vessel; B is width of
waterway and D is depth of waterway. If blockage factor is between 0.1 and 0.3, it shall be
treated as confined waters for squat calculation.

The signs of Squat are

 Ship’s steering becomes sluggish i.e., comparatively difficult to steer the ship
 Engine rpm will decrease to compensate for the load on the engine.
 The speed of the ship will decrease.
 The ship may start to vibrate
 Mud showing up around ship’s hull
 Vessel’s rolling and pitching reduced
 Turning diameter of the vessel increases (it can become as much as twice to that in
open sea)

Smelling the ground

When a ship is nearing an extremely shallow depth of water, such as a shoal, she is likely to
take a sudden sheer, first towards it and then violently away. This is called ‘smelling the
ground’. The movement of sluggish ship may suddenly become astonishingly lively.
Interaction
The boundary layer of water
that surrounds a ship when it is
making headway can be
assumed to create the
pressure points.
Forward of the pivot point a
positive pressure area builds
up whilst aft of the pivot point
the flow of water down the
ship's side, creates a low- 99
pressure area.

Bank Effect (Bow Cushion/ Bank suction)

The effect when the ship is operating in a river or restricted waterway.

In the picture, we see that area for

water is restricted between bank and
ship’s hull and as per of equation of
continuity, the water flow speed will
increase. According to Bernoulli’s
principle, with increase in velocity,
pressure will drop. Hence lesser water
pressure between hull and bank
compared to water on sea side. As a
result, hull is pushed towards the
bank. This effect of stern moving
towards the bank is called the Bank
suction.

Bow cushion - The positive pressure

at the bow will lead to the pushing of
bow away from bank and this is
known as bow cushioning effect.
Interaction between ships

a) On reciprocal courses

A moving ship will have pressure distribution- which doesn’t create any problem when both
vessels have ample sea room. However, in narrow channels this can lead to significant
interaction between vessels.

100
1 2

3
b) Overtaking situation

In overtaking situation, interaction may occur when the vessels are abeam, resulting in
deflection of the bows and attraction of stern quarters, with dangerous consequences.

Since the period of interaction is more in an overtaking situation, vessel to be overtaken can
reduce the speed and use counter helm.

A more significant effect will be noted when a large vessel overtakes a smaller vessel. The
positive pressure at the bow of the larger vessel acting on the quarter of the smaller vessel
being overtaken may cause that vessel to sheer towards or in front of the overtaking vessel.
101

1 2

3 Countering interaction Effect:

 Vessel should proceed at slow speed as

the canal effect (bank effect) and shallow
water effect is directly proportional to the
square of ship’s speed.
 A small change in speed will produce a
large change in the canal effect.
 When using correcting helm for
counteracting canal effect, one should be
extremely alert to reduce this helm when
slowing the ship.
 As far as possible, the vessel should be
kept in the true center of the channel.
Effect of narrow canals, rivers and restricted channels
In these localities all the effects of shallow water are present together with others.
The water displaced by a vessel moving
ahead is restricted in movement by the
proximity of banks and can cause surging
effect and bank interaction.
Also, the vessel heels towards the nearer
bank so as to displace constant volume
which is known as canal effect. The drop-
in water level, and thus the canal effect,
varies as the square of the speed. So, a
small change in speed will produce a 102
large change in the canal effect.
Navigators using correcting helm when
experiencing canal effect should be
extremely alert to reduce this helm
when slowing the ship.

Inequalities of the bottom can cause these forces to come into play despite the fact that the
ship is equidistant from both banks e.g., Suez Canal. If the channel is deeper on one side than
on the other, if the bank is steeper on one side, or if the vessel passes over a shoal suction
and cushion will appear suddenly due to the river bed restricting the flow of water. This is
similar to smelling the ground, and dangerous sheers may suddenly be taken.
In (I) she is taking a sheer to port because the
starboard bank is less steep than the port bank
and her stern is sucked towards the former.
She should therefore have been kept closer to
the port bank. In (2) she is taking a similar
sheer because the starboard side of the
channel is shallower than the port side. Again,
her positioning should have been farther to
port. In (3) the channels of constant depth, the
banks are of equal gradient, and the visual
center and true center are the same.

 Hence, the vessel is kept to the true center because if the ship should suddenly take a
sheer, the maximum amount of correcting rudder is available, together with as much
manoeuvring room as possible.
 Due to the slow speed of a vessel navigating in shallow, restricted waters, and the
sluggishness of helm response, the rudder, when used, will have to be moved boldly.
 Further, for a given number of revolutions, her speed will be slower than that in deep
water, due to the increased amplitude of her wave-making.
 A sheer should be instantly corrected by ordering full revolutions and full correcting
helm, reducing both immediately the swing is checked.
 In an emergency the anchor on the side towards which the vessel is sheering should be
let go and held at short stay.
Effect of bends / Navigating bends in a narrow channel
A ship wishing to make a starboard turn in a river bend, can keep well close to the port side
bank and use the bank cushion effect forward to assist her turn. If the cushioning becomes
excessive, port helm may be given in spite of the fact that the turn is to stbd.
Similarly, a vessel wishing to make a port turn in a river bend, can keep well close to the stbd
side of the bank.
This is frequently resorted to in narrow channels, such as are present in the Panama Canal.
If the ship is kept in the true centre of the channel all these forces are equalized.
When a cross wind is causing the vessel to swing her bow downwind, by keeping further
towards the leeway bank, the Bank cushion effect may be used to correct this tendency.
If continuously swinging upwind, in case of a deeply laden vessel, by keeping closer to the
weather bank, the bank effect will make her steady. 103
Figure (1) shows a rounding a bend to
port against the stream.
As the vessel leaves the straight reach
and enters the bend, the current is
flowing along her side aft and on the
port bow as well. This will cause her to
sheer to stbd unless bold correcting
helm is used. When heading upstream,
it is therefore advisable to keep within
the bend, as far as possible from the
‘point’. Bank effect will then assist in
counteracting a sheer, if any.
Figure (2) shows the vessel rounding a
bend to port with the stream astern of
her.
As she changes her course and alters
towards port, the stream aft catches
her port quarter, causing her to sheer
to port. When heading downstream, it
is therefore advisable to keep close to
the point, so that the bank effect will
then assist in counteracting a sheer, if
any.

In all ship handling situations, the vessel stemming the tide will have better control.
Turning Vessel Short Round

The vessel fitted with a right-hand fixed propeller, when turning ‘short round’, would expect to
turn more easily to starboard, than to port.
1) Start the manoeuvre from the port
side of the channel to provide the
maximum distance for head reach and
allow the greatest effect from transverse
thrust when moving the vessel astern.
2) Rudder hard starboard, main engines
full ahead. Stop engines. Do not allow the
vessel to gather too much headway. 104
3) Rudder amidships, main engines full
astern.
4) As sternway is gathered, the bow of
the vessel will cant to starboard while the
port quarter will move in opposition,
owing to the effects of the transverse
thrust. Stop engines.
5) Rudder to starboard, engines ahead.
Tugs

As per intact stability code

Ship engaged in harbour towing means a ship engaged in an operation intended for assisting
ships or other floating structures within sheltered waters, normally while entering or leaving
port and during berthing or unberthing operations.

Ship engaged in coastal or ocean-going towing means a ship engaged in an operation

intended for assisting ships or other floating structures outside sheltered waters in which the
forces associated with towing are often a function of the ship's bollard pull.
105

Types of tugs according to their working method

i) Conventional tugs
ii) Tractor tugs
iii) Azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD)

Conventional Tugs - The propulsion unit is usually a single right- or left-handed propeller
with a standard rudder configuration. The towing hook is generally at midships.

Advantages
Simple construction and requires less
maintenance
self-sufficient and thus require no support
system.
Smaller is the propeller, larger be the open
water.
Operation cost is relatively low and seems
economical while working with moderate-
sized vessels
Disadvantage
Old Design degrades the performance
standards.
unidirectional and cannot work in the
reverse direction until provided with a
reduction gear to facilitate reverse flow
more chances of cavitation in these tugs.
The repositioning of the tugs is relatively
slow due to the limited manoeuvring
capacity.

Conventional tugs have low values of astern

power

The combination of towing hook amidships and limited manoeuvrability, has a tendency to
place the conventional tug at particular risk to either interaction or girting.

Tractor Tugs – The tugs fitted with two multi-directional propulsion units
Advantages Disadvantage
full thrust over 360 degrees less bollard pull as compared to ASD tugs.
They have rapid power-on response time the initial and maintenance cost of tractor tugs
and are well known for their outstanding is very high.
manoeuvrability
 able to re-position quickly if so, required Handling in an open seaway might be poor with
by the pilot. the short distance between the pivot point and
the thrust creating a short turning lever
simple control systems. Sophisticate under-water units may be
damaged on grounding
very low risk of girting. draft may be up to 5m which is large in
comparison to conventional tugs
may decrease the 'turn around time' of
port movements
reliable, robust propulsion units.
work efficiently in sideways movement
106
due to the close location of the
propulsion unit to the turning point.
improved operational capability in a
restricted area such as a lock flow
channel.

Azimuth Stern Drive (ASD) - This tug utilizes some of the benefits of both conventional and
tractor tug alike. It can employ two towing positions, one amidships and one forward, and
main propulsion is from two rotating azimuth units which although similar to those employed
in tractor tugs, are placed aft, rather like a traditional twin-screw tug. The ASD tug can
therefore be used in the same manner as a conventional tug, using the amidships towing
position but with considerably improved handling. However, it is when using the forward
towing position, usually direct from a bow towing winch, that the ASD tug realizes its full
potential secured alongside a ship in the push-pull mode. With virtually the full length of the
tug between the thrust units (T) and the forward towing point (P) the ASD tug can be used to
great effect.
Advantages Disadvantage
better directional stability at speed. side stepping ability not as good.
more suitable hull form for open waters and squat at the stern and flooding of the aft
working in a seaway. deck has been known to occur with certain
design types when backing with full power
improved bollard pull per kilowatt power still susceptible to girting when using the
after towing position
azimuth units easy to withdraw for slightly more at risk from the effects of
maintenance and repair. interaction.
maximum heel with side thrust less than 15° Complex control systems
shallower average draft of 3m
Interaction with Tug/ or Pilot boat
a ship making headway through the water - positive pressure forward of its pivot point
extending out from the ship, whilst a low pressure or suction area exists all the way down the
ship's side from the pivot point to the propeller.

1)Tug interaction – forward

Position 1, if the tug is allowed to get in

too close, it might be bodily and
inexplicably sucked into the ship's side.
This might occur unintentionally in strong
winds, when a tug is in the lee of a large 107
ship which is drifting down upon it.
Once trapped alongside it can be
extremely difficult to get off again, unless
the ship's speed is substantially reduced.

Position 2, the tug is again working in close to the ship's side and passing through an area
where it is half in and half out of the respective pressure and suction zones. A positive force is
pushing the bow out from the ship, while another force is pulling the stern into the ship. This
combined turning couple will create a strong shear away from the ship.

Position 3, when working close in under the bows, the tug may have run slightly ahead of the
ship's bow pressure zone and consequently find a very strong positive force being exerted on
the stern and rudder. This will give a similar effect to that of putting the helm hard over
towards the bow of the ship and the tug could sheer rapidly across its path.

Position 4, if the ship's speed is too high and the interaction forces correspondingly severe, or
if the tug fails to keep control, the tug can find itself with alarming and fatal rapidity.

2) Tug interaction – aft

Position 1, when a tug makes its

approach, it will be influenced by this
suction and may start to take a sheer
towards the ship's stern. As this
maybe a low-pressure area, the tug
will have less water resistance ahead
of it and may also experience an
unexpected increase in speed. The
tug will be drawn unwittingly into the
stern of the ship and become stuck
somewhere alongside.

If the ship is in ballast, partly loaded or has a large overhanging stern the tug could be drawn
into position 3, with the possibility of serious structural damage to the tug's superstructure.
The danger from the propeller is a more obvious threat and, naturally, care should be
exercised whenever a tug is working close under the stern. Whilst it is the safest 'best
practice' for a conventional propeller to be stopped it is not always practicable, informing tug
about engine movements can be good practice.

Whilst procedures vary from port to port, some tugs may opt to make their approach in
relative safety from dead astern, on the center line of the ship. When close in, bow to stern,
the first line is passed down to the tug's bow and then the tug eases out to a safer position, to
complete making fast and taking up station

** A similar interaction is encountered by the pilot boat which is in continuous suction zone 108
during pilot transfer. **

Girting/ Girding a Tug

Girting or Girding is a term used to describe a tug being towed sideways by the vessel she is
supposed to be towing. The danger arises when the towing hook is positioned close to
amidships. The height of the towing hook is an important factor, as are the speed and rate of
swing of the towed vessel.

It can be caused by one, or both of the following

i) the ship turning independently and too quickly away from the tug.
ii) excessive straight-line speed with a tug made fast.

Girting a tug – secured forward

Position 1 - in this area the tug is relatively
safe. Whilst it can remain in attendance such
a small arc of relatively safe effectiveness will
naturally limit its operational capabilities.

Position 2 - if the tug is out in this position

broad on the bow, the ship could as a result of
too much starboard helm or excessive speed,
or both, outrun the tug.

Position 3 - this is the worst possible situation

where the tug is being pulled around on the
radius of the tow line and because of the
position of its hook, is then dragged along with
the tow line out on its beam. A conventional
tug working aft, is perhaps more at risk than
the forward tug, as its design characteristics
frequently oblige it to lay with the tow line
much more inclined towards its beam.
Girting a tug - secured aft
Position 1 - The ship is either stopped or
proceeding at low speeds, a conventional tug
can work quite efficiently in all directions at any
other position around the stern.

Position 2 - if the ship's speed now increases,

the tug will have to work around onto a heading
which is more in keeping with the ship, not only
to keep up with the accelerating ship but also to
maintain a safe lead with the tow line.
109
Position 3 - should the ship's speed become
excessive, or if the stern of the ship is swung
rapidly away from the tug, it may be unable to
respond quickly enough and could fail to keep
the safe station.

Corrective Measures
In all these cases, the danger of girting can be removed, by tripping the quick release gear on
the towing hook, thereby releasing the towing line or by making the use of Gob rope.
Tractor tugs have relatively low risk of girting.

The Gob Rope

The Gob Rope - Its use brings the pivot point
of the tug, aft to the area of the gob rope and
this encourages the tug to pivot around that
point and keep its stern up to the tow,
popularly used on conventional tugs.

Gob rope, limitations and safety

Position 1 - once secured the gob rope clearly limits
the manoeuvrability of the tug's stern under the tow
line to a relatively small arc. On the other hand, it is a
good compromise as it helps to keep the tug's stern
up to the ship. At suitably low speeds the tug can be
usefully employed to dig in and assist when needed.
The tug master may occasionally slacken the gob rope
right off to regain full manoeuvrability if it is
necessary in order to reposition the tug before taking
the weight again.

Position 2 and 3 - these two positions show the tug with its gob rope secured, exposed to the
risk of girting due to excessive ship speed and being swung around on the radius of the tow
line. In this instance, however, because the gob rope has kept the pivot point aft it is being
swung safely around by its stern thus giving the tug master valuable time during which the tow
may be safely slipped.
Bow wave and stern wave

 When a ship is moving ahead, it causes a wave on each side of the bow called the bow 110
wave and a wave on each quarter called the stern wave.
 It also causes a cavity in the space being vacated by the underwater part of the hull.
 The amount of disturbance caused depends majorly on the following factors:
- Ship’s Displacement – Greater the displacement, greater the disturbance.
- Ship’s speed – Greater the speed, greater the disturbance.
- Width of the channel – Narrower the channel, greater is the disturbance.
- Depth of the channel – Shallower the channel, greater is the disturbance.

The bow and stern wave can cause the following problems:

 Passing close to ships at berths will cause surging, heave (move physically up and down)
and sway (move athwartship bumping the wharf).
 The disturbance caused by the bow and stern wave could damage shore facilities that are
not designed to absorb strong waves.
 The bow and stern wave are also a risk to smaller boats found in the harbour.
 If the sides of a canal are made of sand (such as Suez Canal), the bow and stern wave can
cause the sides to erode very quickly and easily.
 The bow wave carries energy away from the ship at the expense of its kinetic energy i.e., it
slows the ship.
 Modern ships are commonly fitted with a bulbous bow to overcome this. The bulb
modifies the way the water flows around the hull, reducing drag and thus, increasing
speed, fuel efficiency and stability.
Pilotage
Passage plan in pilotage waters

 It contains additional details which reflect closer proximity to navigational hazards and the
need to comply with local requirements.
 It shall be prepared after taking into account
- Recommended routes and channel information
- Procedures for pilotage boarding arrangement and position
- Local conditions, rules and restrictions on navigation
- Reporting and communication procedures
111
- Details of perspective berth and or anchorage
- Contingency and abort points
 Passage plan shall be amended as required after taking into account the details received
from Pilots during MPx.
 Any amendments shall be agreed and changes in BTM responsibilities shall be made
before commencing passage.

Bridge team responsibilities when pilot onboard

Responsibilities of bridge team include but are not limited to

 Operating Navigation equipment and providing assistance or advise to pilot as required
 Monitoring action of pilot
 Monitoring ship’s progress against plan and regular fixing of position
 Monitoring UKC
 Confirmation of verbal orders of pilot
 Monitoring helm, ROT, RPM etc.
 Identifying misunderstanding and ensuring that clarifications are sought immediately
 Advise master if safety of ship in doubt

Pilots’ responsibilities

Pilot is any person who is not belonging to the ship who has conduct of her i.e., process of
navigation (so far as the course and speed of the ship is concerned).

Due to his/her expertise in local waters and conditions, pilots help in navigating in their local
areas, ship handling, use of tugs & maneuvering ships while arriving or departing a port or
confined water.
The Master remains in command of the vessel's navigation at all times with only one
exception: when transiting through the Panama Canal.
In circumstances and conditions, master may handover the con to pilot for smooth execution
of orders which in that case directly control steering and engines.
Therefore, it is always the duty of the Master and OOW to keep a situational awareness of all
activities of the pilot.
 Carry out effective MPx which shall involve discussion in all local conditions and ships
passage through local waters including but not limiting to any contingency plans or various
requirements of tugs, standby persons etc.
 The pilot must liaise with the VTS, organize the use of tugs and advise on the use of
moorings and towing lines.
 Use SMCP and ship’s working language for all operations-clear and effective
communication
 Understands roles and responsibilities of BTM
 Make use of information provided in MPx like maneuvering characteristics
 Respond to information, advise and question from BTM
 Advise Bridge team of any failure or deficiencies like no tugs etc.
112
 Keep bridge team appraised of progress and any deviation required
 Inform Bridge team if any handover

Pilot card
As per IMO resolutionA.601(15), The pilot card, to be filled in by the master, is intended to
provide information to the pilot on boarding the ship.
This information should describe the current condition of the ship, with regard to its loading,
propulsion and manoeuvering equipment, and other relevant equipment.
The contents of the pilot card are available for use without the necessity of conducting
special manoeuvering trials.
Contents of pilot card include

 Ship particulars and maneuvering details

 Engine and steering details
 Operational condition of bridge equipments
 Details of anchor and mooring arrangements including MBL
 Any unusual handling characteristics and limitations of equipments or machinery etc.

Master Pilot Exchange

As required by STCW 2010, The master and the pilot shall exchange information regarding
navigation procedures, local conditions and the ship’s characteristics – which shall include
exchange of information regarding pilot’s intentions, ship’s characteristics and operational
factors.
As a minimum master pilot exchange will include the discussion on the following but not
limited to
 Information from ship shall include
- information of bridge team and its equipment which including any limitations or
deficiencies present onboard.
- Ship particulars and maneuvering details which are contained in pilot card including
 limitations and deficiencies if any
- Squat table for vessel
- Any unusual handling characteristics and limitations of equipment or machinery etc.
- BTM composition and watch condition
- Restriction on speed, ER notices required and maneuvering characteristics
- Mooring details of vessel including MBL and arrangements

 Information provided by pilot shall include

- Passage plan – abort point, contingency, settings, UKC etc.
- Information like current, tide, weather, density, nav aids, width of channel berth
restrictions etc. 113
- Reporting requirement
- Traffic expected
- Berthing method – approach, side, mooring configuration etch
- Intended speed of approach and passage
- Critical areas, minimum depth and anticipated UKC
- Tugs – no, RV, type, arrangement etc.
- External reporting requirements
- Whole BTM and ER appraised.

 Any amendments shall be agreed and changes in BTM responsibilities shall be made
before commencing passage
 It shall be discussed in advance where radar/ECDIS is given to pilot and which one ECDIS is
for OOW.
 All pilots should participate in MPx. A timely arrival at PBG will allow sufficient time for
MPx.
 The flow of information between the Pilot and bridge team should be an ongoing process
which continues for the duration of the pilotage.

Arrival at pilot station

 Complete pre-arrival documentation and keep reporting cards ready.
 Passage plan including contingency reviewed and bridge team meeting completed.
 Make a careful study of the area at the pilot boarding point for pre-planning intended
manoeuvers.
 Tides, currents and wind considered and accounted for in passage planning.
 Manning the bridge and engine room in accordance with SMS.
 Having anchors cleared and ready for letting go in case of emergency.
 Complete all pre-arrival checks and tests in accordance with company procedures
 Contacting the VTS or Pilots applicable in accordance with local regulations confirming
ETA, pilot boarding arrangements (which side pilot ladder and height), boarding speed,
etc.
 Rigging pilot ladder / combination ladder as per IMO requirements.
 Pilot card prepared and boarding arrangement checked by responsible officer.
 Vessel to adjust ETA and allow sufficient time for a comprehensive MPx.
 Charted boarding locations provide general guidance for arriving vessels and may be
varied as required in order to provide the safest place for a Pilot transfer in the prevailing
conditions
 Transit to such areas must be included in the passage plan as a contingency.
 VHF radio contact is established between the pilot boat and ship (or VTS as appropriate)
on the specified channel published in the Sailing Directions.
 The traffic in the vicinity and risks associated with interaction with these vessels should
be considered.
 During Pilot transfer, the responsible officer, should be in direct contact with the bridge.

Manoeuvers for pilot boarding

114
Following shall be considered
a) Sea Room for the manoeuvre b) Depth of water c) Shelter d) Seabed gradient e) Traffic and
communication f) Proximity of traffic and potential wash
 The standard approach is to steer a steady course to the Pilot boarding point at the
required speed with the Pilot boarding arrangement rigged on the Lee side.
 When there are heavy swell or confused seas, swinging the ship just before the pilot
boards such that the ship’s quarter is swinging away from the pilot boat. The common
term for this manoeuver is ‘sweeping a lee’.
 If the vessel is unable to create a lee in extremely bad weather, it may be necessary to
wait for the weather conditions to improve.
 Pilot boats will generally consider passing down the opposite side and approaching the
ladder from aft, in order to minimize the effect of the pilot boat’s own wash on the
transfer operation.
 When handling a ship in a current, due allowance must be made for the downstream drift
of the ship, the amount of which will depend on the strength of the stream and the
period of exposure.
 It is always better to stem the stream so as to have easy control.
 Wind shall also be affecting the ship handling and great care is required in maintaining
the steady approach after making due allowance for leeway, set and drift.
 The unexpected change of heading or speed shall be avoided without informing the pilot
boat.
 Due consideration shall be made for interaction between pilot boat and ship.
 Use ‘kick ahead’ when a ship is moving forward at very slow speed and due to minimal
water flow over the rudder, the ship is not responding to helm.

Precautions to be taken in prevailing wind, tide and current when waiting for pilot
 Maintain constant communication with VTS/ Pilots
 Keep monitoring the traffic in vicinity.
 At low speed, current and wind will have greater impact.
 Keep monitoring the set and drift for the vessel.
 If possible, steam the stream for better control and keep adjusting heading as required.
 In order to avoid effect of cross currents, vessel shall maintain minimum speed to
counteract.
Anchoring
Anchoring Methods
1. Let Go - Open the windlass brake to let the anchor go under gravity.
 Approach the anchoring position heading into wind or tide
 Stop the ship over ground i.e., the speed of the vessel relative to the ground is reduced
to zero.
 Walk out he anchor and cable until the anchor is about half a shackle off the bottom
 Hold the cable on brake. Disengage the brake
 When in position, release the brakes.
 Control the speed of cable by brake, noting following cautions
- If cable is paid out too fast, it can result in the anchor and cable piling up on the 115
bottom- poor holding
- If the brakes fail, there is risk of loss of anchor
 As soon as the anchor touch the bottom or the chain touches the ground, the engines
are used to obtain backward momentum with respect to the ground, which will stretch
the cable.
 Just before the required scope is out, the engines are touched ahead so that the vessel
gets to her cable as gently as possible. This method ensures that the cable is clear of
the hull plating at all times.

Advantage - Brakes will render before critical stresses are reached.

Disadvantages - If the brake fails, or there is too much speed over ground, the cable will run
out to the bitter end with consequent damage.
The brake lining could also be damaged due to this Dynamic load.
It is difficult to observe the lead of the cable.

The anchor under its weight will continue to gain momentum until it touches bottom. More
the height, more momentum the anchor will gain. Hence, anchor is lowered just above water
level (1m, 5m or half shackle etc) before letting go.

2. Walk back - Anchor is lowered under power.

 Approach the anchoring position heading into wind or tide
 The speed of the vessel on the ground gradually reduced to zero, and the anchor is
lowered into the water.
 When in position, walk out the anchor and cable under power until the complete
length is paid out.
 As it touches the bottom, a greater length is paid for, and the engines are shifted aft to
develop a little movement aft to lay the cable well when the anchor legs dig into the
seabed.
 Typically, the design speed of the windlass is about 0.3 knots above the ground. Hence,
the ship's ground speed must be carefully controlled to avoid undue stress on the
windlass that is being used while in gear.
Disadvantage - Vessel must be completely stopped to avoid major damage to Windlass.
The anchor is said to be brought up when the chain takes a moderate to heavy strain and
then eases off i.e., when it leads to the long stay and then gradually comes back to short to
medium stay.
Factors to be considered when choosing safe Anchorage
 Suitability of anchorage in accordance to the type or size of the vessel
 Compliance with local regulations
 Proximity of land or other dangers
 Areas to avoid
- Possibility of underwater cable, pipelines, wrecks or other obstructions.
- Company UKC requirements 116
 Prevailing and forecast weather
- Tides and currents
- Shelter
- Wind
 Approach limitations which include
- Contingency/alternative anchorage
- Any vessel constraints
- Speeds and direction
 Determine scope of cable considering:
- Length of stay
- Water depth
- Nature of sea-bed
The above information can be obtained from sailing directions, port regulations or from
local agents.

Forces acting on the ship at anchor

Wind forces – Wind force causes a vessel to sheer back and forth on its chain. Sudden gusts
will have more impact on the behaviour of the ship. Generally, wind force can be broken into
two components – longitudinal along the fore and aft direction and a transverse force acting
perpendicular which produces yawing movement.
Wind force depends on two factors: the wind speed and the exposed surface area. A beam
wind exerts a very large transverse force on exposed side of the ship compared to head wind.
Current forces - The loads exerted by currents are relatively Insignificant when compared
with wind forces. Under keel clearance has the greatest influence on the current drag. The
magnitude of the current forces is also influenced by the bow form in a similar manner to the
wind.
Wave forces – Wave energy can generate several tons of load on anchor. It causes rolling and
pitching of the vessel. This continuous action may be enough to break the anchor out of
bottom. Generally, waves of shorter period are reflected when they come into contact with
the ship’s hull, which imparts a greater force than a longer wave, which tends to ‘roll’ past
the vessel, exerting a lower drift force.
Let T - Total tension acting at the
Hawsepipe.
The Horizontal tension at the cable
is caused by forces of the wind and
current
W - Weight of length of the anchor
chain
Ø – angle with vertical by catenary
The weight of the Cable (W) and the
Horizontal Tension (T) has a
relationship; T = W*TanØ 117

Which means that as long as T < W, anchor will hold i.e., Tension in cable will be less than the
weight of cable. From above equation it will be possible if Ø is below 45 degrees. When the
catenary angle is 5-10 degrees to the vertical there is enough reverse chain in the water.
However, as the angle starts to increase the value of TanØ becomes greater than 1 and thus T
becomes more than the weight of the anchor. This leads to anchor dragging.
In order to minimize the impact of these forces, a sufficient amount of chain shall be used
which will absorb these external environmental forces.

The amount of cable to veer depends upon a number of factors:

 Holding characteristics of the anchor.
 Length of stay.
 Strength of wind, tidal stream or current, and sea / swell.
 Swinging room.
 Type of cable.
 Depth / draught ratio.

Approaching the anchorage position

 Test engines and keep the speed of vessel under control. Certain port may have their own
requirements pertaining to the transit speed through anchorages
 Always head into the wind and tide. If both are from different direction, head into the
one which is strongest. The heading of similar sized anchored vessels will give a fair idea
about prevailing forces of wind or tide.
 If the traffic density, water depth, and sea room permit, approach the anchorage on this
heading when at least 1 mile away. By approaching the anchorage on the same heading,
maneuvering in a confined area can be minimized.
 Slowly commence the reducing manoeuver. When the vessel is around half a mile from
the anchoring position, use stern movement. This is to ensure that vessel is completely
stopped at the anchoring position and there is no headway in the forward direction.
(Refer to ship’s manoeuvring data for exact stopping distance)
 Keep in mind the impact of transverse thrust i.e., RH propeller during Stern movement
would cause vessel to cant to starboard side.
 Now depending upon which anchor to be used, counter helm shall be applied i.e., if port
anchor, cable will be clear of the vessel whereas for starboard anchor, before stern
movement, vessel’s rudder is put to hard port to get some port swing.
 However, in all cases, we must ensure that movement of the vessel does not put
excessive strain on the windlass.
 Walk back anchor
- In shallow waters just above the water
- In deep water just above the seabed 118
 When dead stop in water, let go the anchor or continue lowering anchor depending upon
the water depth i.e., if shallow waters, vessel can use letting go if allowed as per SMS
 It is good practice to have some sternway not more than 0.3kn over ground when
stretching the cable.
 Pay out the required scope, bring the vessel to stop and observe the cable until it is
brought up.

Deep Water Anchoring

As per IACS requirement, windlass is certified for holding weight of anchor and 3 shackles of
anchor chain which is approximately 82m.
Hence, in depths of 80m or over, heaving up the anchor is suffered from limitations of
windlass.
A general range of depth over 40~50m shall be considered as deep water. Company SMS will
provide more specific guidance on the limit of deep waters for anchoring.
Risks associated with deep water anchoring includes failure of windlass or uncontrolled
lowering of anchor chains. Control could be lost with the excessive weight of cable in use,
resulting in possible loss of anchor and cable, together with serious damage and possible
injury.
 Approach the anchorage as outlined above.
 In a wind or tide, it is better to approach the anchorage heading upwind or upstream
whichever is strong.
 The ship is more easily controlled and will make little leeway.
 If the vessel is heading dead into the wind’s eye, she should have her head cast off one
way or the other before letting to the weather anchor. This is to avoid nipping the cable
round the stem.
 Engage the gear and use gypsy to walk back the anchor all the way to bottom.
 When walking back, under no circumstances should the anchor cable be allowed to run
out from the brake.
 As the vessel drops astern once the anchor begins to hold, the cable should be seen to
grow slightly.
 However, because of the considerable weight of cable in the vertical up and down
position, it will be increasingly difficult to see the cable growing to indicate that the vessel
is brought up.
 If the weather is bad or if the holding ground is poor, the engines must be kept on
standby for the entire duration of the anchorage.

Anchor dragging
It is defined as the situation when vessel’s anchor is not holding the ground. Vessel shall be
considered as not under command for the purpose of COLREGS when dragging anchor.
Assessing 119
 Swinging circle – When the position fixed using GPS or other means is outside the
swinging circle. Hence proper calculation and marking of swinging circle is important.
Anchor range and bearings shall be monitored frequently and will be quick aid if vessel is
inside swinging circle.
 Check the anchor chains for slipping. A small pole with a cloth as flag like arrangement
can be tied to the links to understand the slipping of anchor chains.
 The anchor will alternatively shift from long stay to short stay, back and forth. Extra
vibration and strain on the anchor chain can be noticed in this phase.
 Ship’s speed over ground and direction of movement will also indicate that the ship is
moving and the anchor is dragging.

Immediate actions
In the event of suspected anchor dragging, anchor dragging of vessels nearby, or when the
vessel is straying out of the safety swinging circle, the officers on watch should:
 Report to the master immediately
 Inform engine room to start the main engine emergently
 Have anchor party standing by at the anchor station
 The engines must be made ready for manoeuvring and power must be given to the
windlass.
 All other operations must be stopped and all crafts that are made fast alongside must be
cast off.
 Options that could be used depending on the situation
 Start main engine and reduce load on cable,
 Pay out more cable – If dragging has stopped, choose one:
- Not in safe position, weather improving >> Re-anchor
- Not in safe position, weather severe or worsening >> Depart anchorage
- In safe position, weather improving >> Continue monitoring
- In safe position, weather severe or worsening >> Depart anchorage
 Drop another anchor – If dragging stopped
- If no immediate danger >> depart anchorage
  Seek local port authority and tug assistance, if vessel still dragging.
 In paying out more cable, the extra weight of the chain and the additional scope allows
the shank of the anchor to lie horizontally on the seabed causing the flukes to dig in.
 Dropping a second anchor will give extra holding power. This must be done when the
ship has sheered away from the first anchor.
 Port control or VTS must be notified in any case.
 In some cases, the safest thing to do is to proceed to open sea rather than trying to re-
anchor the vessel, especially in bad weather conditions.
 Make a Securite call on VHF notifying other ships in the vicinity giving direction and
speed of own vessel for them to assess the danger and possibly take actions to
mitigate the situation.
120
 If it is not possible to heave up the anchor, it might be possible to manoeuver the ship.
However, this will put tremendous strain on the anchor chain and it may part or slip to
the bitter end. Use bow thrusters for stemming the wind.
 If need arises, the anchor can be let go completely by releasing the bitter end, when
weighing of anchor is not possible.

Anchoring in heavy weather

It is not recommended to anchor in heavy weather and most preferred action will be to
proceed to sea.
To prevent anchor dragging in heavy weather, below are the recommended measures:
 Reduce wind area of the vessel as much as possible
 Use ballast to increase the draft of the vessel
 Reduce trim by stern as much as possible
 Trim by head and increase it if possible. This is to move the wind center backward and
the hydrodynamic center forward to reduce deviation of the vessel and improve the
vessel's stability.
Mooring and Manoeuvering
Berthing with anchors
Anchors can be used for berthing without tug assistance on ships without bow thrusters and,
in an emergency, to stop any ship.
Dredging Down
 A vessel is said to be ‘dredging down’ when she is head to the wind and/or tide
(stemming the tide), with an anchor just on the bottom.
 The amount of cable out is limited to the minimum to put the anchor on the bottom.
 Dredging down occurs when the vessel is not moving as fast as the current, which 121
makes the rudder effective and allows the ship to manoeuvre.
 It is normal to expect a crabwise motion of the vessel over the ground, which is often
employed for berthing operations.
 Used in conjunction with bold helm, the direction of the ship’s head can be appreciably
changed.

Snubbing Round
 A vessel can turn head to tide without too much difficulty, provided that there is
sufficient sea room to do so. Should the sea room not be available then a tighter turn
will be required.
 This can be achieved by means of one of the ship’s anchors, in the operation of
snubbing round on the weight of the cable.
 It is most frequently practiced when the vessel has the tidal stream astern or in
berthing operations.
 The vessel’s speed should be reduced so that she can just maintain steerage way.
 Let go either the port or starboard anchors, at short stay, and allow the cable to lead
aft, dragging the anchor along the bottom.
 The cable will act as a spring, reducing headway, and canting the bow round towards
the side from which the anchor was let go.
 The Master or pilot of the vessel should supplement this anchor/cable action by use of
maximum helm and increase in engine power to bring the vessel through 180°.
 If the manoeuvre is attempted with too much headway on the vessel, excessive weight
will be brought onto the cable as the vessel turns, which could result in the cable
parting.
 In general practice, the anchor is let go to about a shackle, depending on the depth of
water. The brake is then applied to start the turning motion on the vessel.
Emergency anchoring

 In an emergency, anchors can be very effective in stopping a ship.

 Initially, the anchor should be allowed to dredge and gradually build up its holding
power until its braking effect begins to reduce the ship’s speed.
 Care should be taken when trying to stop any ship in this way, especially a large ship,
as the anchor and its equipment may ‘carry away’ causing damage or injury, if the
anchor should snag.
Open Moor

The open moor is used extensively when additional holding power is required in very strong
tide or winds. It would be employed when a single anchor would not provide enough weight
to hold the vessel and prevent the ship from dragging in non-tidal water.

1) Stem the current or wind and position

the vessel to let go the upstream or
windward anchor.
2) Once this first anchor has been ‘let go’,
pay out on the cable (approx. 1/3rd of the
final length) with simultaneous ‘ahead 122
movements on engines’ to manoeuvre
the vessel towards a position of letting go
the second anchor.
3) Once the second position is attained,
let go the second anchor, order astern
movement of the engines, and pay out on
the second anchor cable.
4) The first anchor cable will act as a check
until both cables have an even scope;
once this situation is achieved then cables
can be paid out together as required to
obtain the final position of mooring.

With this method the first anchor may be turned out of the holding ground when the vessel
gathers sternway after the second anchor has been released. To this end it may become
prudent to check both cables prior to coming to rest, so ensuring that both the second and
the first anchors are bedded in and holding.
Running Moor or Flying Moor

4 shackles – ½L

123

Vessel should be manoeuvred to stem the tide, either by turning short round or snubbing
round on an anchor.
1) Speed over the ground should be 4–5 knots, preferred depth of water being dependent on
draught, and good holding ground chosen if possible. Let go the weather anchor (in a position
with distance of 4 shackles minus half ship’s length from final resting line) so that the vessel
will be blown down from the anchor cable before she reaches the desired position.
2) Continue to make headway, paying out the cable of the anchor that has been let go.
Continue to pay out the cable up to nine shackles. The vessel will overrun the desired
mooring position.
3) The vessel should start to drop astern as the engines are stopped. Let go the lee anchor
and pay out the cable. Start heaving away on the weather anchor cable to bring the vessel up
between the two anchors. The vessel may require an astern movement on the engines to
begin drawing astern.
Finally, Port anchor – 5 shackles and stbd anchor – 4 shackles
Standing Moor or ordinary or dropping or straight Moor

5 shackles + ½L

124

4 shackles
5 shackles

The vessel must stem the tide in order to retain control of the operation.
1) The vessel should be head to tide, stopped over the ground. Sternway should be gathered
either by the tidal stream or operating astern propulsion. Let go the lee anchor (riding cable)
and allow the vessel to drop astern. Pay out the anchor cable as sternway is gathered, up to 9
shackles.
2) Take the sternway off the vessel by use of engines ahead and checking on the weight of
the cable. Order maximum helm away from the released anchor, and engines ahead to cant
the vessel before letting go the weather anchor (sleeping cable). Ease the weight on the
windlass as the vessel heaves on the riding cable using engines.
3) Continue to heave on the riding cable and pay out the sleeping cable until the vessel is
brought up between the two anchors.
Finally, Port anchor – 5 shackles and stbd anchor – 4 shackles
Advantages of running moor and standing moor:
 Vessel occupies little swinging room.
 Vessel turns almost to her length about stem.
 Scopes can be pre-adjusted for the prevailing strength of wind or stream.
 Scope of each cable is estimated in the same way as single anchor.

Disadvantages of running moor and standing moor:

 There is a risk of getting a foul hawse. To avoid this, the vessel must always swing on the
clear arc at each tidal change.
 Lee anchor that lies astern has no value to ship if headwind increases or if the vessel
begins to drag.
125
 While leaving anchor, both anchors cannot be heaved simultaneously since one cable
leads aft and other leads forward. Hence, it takes more time to leave the anchorage.

In comparison with the standing moor, A standing moor is sometimes preferred to a running
moor
 when the tidal stream is very strong.
 The standing moor, in theory, could also be carried out by just allowing the tidal stream
and the windlass to do the work, if the vessel was without engine power.
 Additionally, standing moor is advantageous as it offers more control of the ship, anchor
is let go after vessel is stopped and hence minimizing damage due to anchoring at
headway.

The main danger of mooring with two anchors is the possibility of causing a foul hawse when
the vessel swings with the turn of the tide.

Special precautions

 Maintain a constant watch to prevent foul hawse.

 Determine foul arc and clear arc.
 Vessel should always swing to clear arc on each tidal change.
 Use engine to give vessel correct sheer.
 Keep eye on the weather.
 Know the times of tide change.
 Baltic Moor

The vessel should approach the berth with the wind on the beam or slightly abaft the beam.
The stern mooring wire should be secured in bights by light seizings in the forward direction to
join the ganger length of the anchor cable before the approach is begun.

Then proceed as follows:

1) Manoeuvre the vessel to a distance off the
berth of two or three shackles of cable. This
distance will vary with the wind force and
expected weather conditions.
2) Let go the offshore (starboard) anchor. The 126
weight of the anchor and cable will cause the
sail twine securing on the mooring wire to
part, and as the cable pays out so will the stern
mooring wire.
3) Let the wind push the vessel alongside while
you pay out the cable and the stern wire
evenly together.
4) Use the ship’s fenders along the inshore side
between the vessel and the quay, then pass
head and stern lines as soon as practical.
5) Secure head and stern lines on the bitts
before taking the weight on the anchor cable
and the stern mooring wire. This tends to
harden up the inshore (port) moorings.

 One reason behind the Baltic moor is that many ports around the Baltic Sea experience
strong onshore winds.

 When the vessel comes to let go and depart the port, unless she is fitted with bow thrust
units, the Master may encounter difficulties in clearing the berth. However, heaving on the
anchor cable and heaving on the stern mooring will allow the vessel to be bodily drawn off
the quay. Once clear of the berth, full use can be made of engines and helm to get underway,
once the anchor has been recovered.

 The main disadvantage of this moor is that time is required to let the stern mooring go from
anchor/cable.
 Mediterranean Moor

The procedure is as follows:

1) Approach the berth as near parallel as
possible to the quay. Let go the offshore
anchor. Main engines should be ahead and
dead slow.
2) Rudder should be positioned hard over to
turn the vessel away from the quay. Continue
to let the cable run, and pay out as the vessel
moves ahead. A check on the cable as the
vessel starts to turn would accentuate the turn 127
and produce astern-to orientation for the
vessel. Stop main engines.
3) Let go the second anchor and come astern
on main engines, paying out the cable on the
second anchor. As the vessel gathers sternway,
recover any slack cable on the offshore anchor.
Stop engines and check the sternway on the
vessel, as required, by braking on the cables
(astern movement from position 3 will
generate transverse thrust effect to turn the
aft part into the quay).
4) Manoeuvre the vessel to within heaving line
distance of the quay by use of engines and
cable operations. Pass stern moorings to the
quay. Tension on the moorings is achieved by
putting weight onto the cables once the
moorings have been secured on bitts.

 This moor is carried out usually for one of two reasons – either quay space is restricted and
several vessels are required to secure, or a stern loading/discharge is required (as for a
tanker).
 The object of the manoeuvre is to position the vessel stern to the quay with both anchors out
in the form of an open moor. The stern of the vessel is secured by hawsers from the ship’s
quarters to the quay.
 However, a disadvantage to the dry cargo vessel lies in the fact that cargo must be discharged
into barges.
 It is not a favourable position in bad weather and there is a distinct possibility of fouling
anchor cables, especially when other vessels are moored in a similar manner close by.
Berthing in a current
 As far as possible tidal current must be from head
while berthing or unberthing due to following
reasons
- Current from ship’s head will reduce the ship’s
speed over ground, improve ships response to the rudder, and also give more time to
assess and correct developing situations.
- Current can be used to push a ship alongside. Position the ship off the intended berth
but at a slight angle towards it, current will produce a sideways movement towards
berth.
128
 Berthing/unberthing in tidal current from stern should be avoided for following reasons
- Due to current from stern, stern lines may foul with rudder or propeller
- Regular astern movement would have to be used to check vessels tendency to move
forward. which may create/increase transverse thrust.
 Care is needed when berthing into a current, because too large an angle between the berth
and the direction of the current will cause the ship to move rapidly sideways. Unless
corrected, contact with the berth may be unavoidable.

 If during berthing the bow’s angle to the berth is

over-corrected then the ship could move away from
the berth as the wedge of water between ship and
berth becomes established. This may cause the
ship’s stern to strike the berth.

Ways to estimate flow of tidal stream

 Difference between ships log (Speed through water) and GPS(Ground) speed.
 Look at buoys (Tilting of buoy, flow of water near buoy).
 Look at flow of water around fixed objects like jetty pillars etc.
 Look at overboard discharges of nearby vessels, once this water reaches the sea surface,
you can easily make out the direction of flow.
 Wake of tug: - This is very important method. When tugs are pushing at 90 deg to own
vessel, take a look at propeller wake of tugs. After leaving the tugs vicinity the wake will
flow in the direction of tidal stream.
 Vessels at anchor in vicinity. Normally you will find small crafts, tugs, boats etc at anchor
or secured to mooring buoys in tidal boat. This can give indication of tidal stream.
Berthing with tugs
The effectiveness of a tug is proportional to the distance between its point of contact and the
ship’s pivot point. << See diagrams in Application of Pivot point>>

When a tug attached by a line leading forward applies a turning force there will also be an
increase in the ship’s speed.
Tugs are most effective when a ship is navigating at slow speed.
The effectiveness of a tug will depend upon the position where it is attached.
Propeller wash from tugs operating close to a ship, and pulling, could initially cause a ship’s 129
bow or stern to move away from the direction in which the tug is pulling.
Conventional tugs connected by a line can exert an unwanted force on a small ship, which
may require corrective action.
Port-side berthing
A bow thruster can be used to position the bow with a degree of precision, however bow
thrust will not help to control the stern.
Transverse thrust can be used to bring the stern of small ships alongside. However, on a
larger ship a tug can be secured aft to control the stern while bow thrust is used to control
the bow.
The simplest procedure is to stop the ship off the berth and then work her alongside, using
bow thrust and a tug to provide lateral power.
Starboard-side berthing
A bow thruster enables the bow to be positioned with a degree of precision. The use of bow
thrust alone to bring the bow alongside, before the stern, is likely to cause the stern to move
away from the berth.
When a tug is secured aft, control of the stern is greatly improved.
Once the ship is in position, berthing can be completed using bow thrust until the bow is
alongside.
Berthing without tugs
When a ship moving forward, it turns by use of engines and rudder alone. The effect of
centrifugal force is to push the ship laterally away from the direction of the turn. When
turning by use of bow thrusters alone, the thruster simply pushes the bow to port or
starboard. There is no centrifugal force or lateral motion
Port-side berthing (a fixed pitch right-handed single screw ship)
Approach the berth at an angle, because astern
thrust will be used to stop the ship and swing
the bow to starboard and the stern to port. This 130
will parallel the ship to the berth.
Once stopped, the ship can be manoeuvred into
the final position using astern power, which
gives transverse thrust and kicks ahead with
appropriate rudder as required.

If sternway is developed and transverse thrust

causes stern to swing to port, lateral motion will
be to starboard and away from the berth. This
may be useful if a new approach is required.

Starboard-side berthing
The ideal approach should be to balance forward speed against the astern power needed to
stop. The greater the forward speed, the greater the astern power required to stop the ship
and, consequently, the greater the effect of transverse thrust, which will bring the bow close
to the berth and throw the stern off.
Aim to approach the berth with the ship parallel.
The effect of transverse thrust will swing the bow
towards the berth.
To stop the ship, it will be necessary to put the
engine astern. Transverse thrust will probably
push the stern to port and bow to starboard. To
correct the effect of the transverse thrust, initiate
a port swing of the bow before applying astern
power.
Berthing port side to with onshore wind

1) Stop the vessel over the ground in a

position with the ship’s bow approximately
level with the middle of the berth. Let go
offshore anchor.
2) Control the rate of approach of the vessel
towards the berth by ahead movements on
main engines, checking and easing out
anchor cable as required. Try and keep the
vessel parallel to the berth.
3) Check cable within heaving line distance of 131
the berth. Make fast fore and aft. Slack down
cable when alongside.

Berthing port side to against an offshore wind

1) Approach berth at a wide angle to reduce

wind effect and prevent the bow from paying
off.
2) Slowly approach berth and maintain
position over ground.
3) Pass head line and stern line together from
the bow area.
4) Dead slow astern on main engines, ease
head line and at the same time take up the
weight and any slack on the stern line. Draw
the vessel alongside and secure. Depending
on the strength of the wind, it would be
advisable to secure breast lines fore and aft
to keep the vessel alongside. Additional head
and stern lines should be set as soon as
practicable.
Securing to buoys, wind and tide ahead
1 The vessel should stem the tide and manoeuvre to a
position with buoy ‘A’ just off the port bow. It may be
necessary for the vessel to turn short round or snub
round on an anchor before stemming the tide. Adjust
main engine speed so that the vessel stops over the
ground. Pass head line via mooring boat to buoy.
2 Although an astern movement of main engines
would
cause the bow to move to port, if required, holding
onto the head line would achieve the same objective 132
by allowing the tide/current to affect the desired
movement from position ‘1’ to position ‘2’. Pass stern
line once vessel is aligned between the two buoys ‘A’
and ‘B’.

Securing to buoys, wind and tide astern

1 Vessel under sternway, stern of the vessel seeking

the
eye of the wind (transverse thrust). Use of rudder may
assist to bring buoy ‘A’ on to the starboard quarter.
2 Run stern line from starboard quarter via mooring
boat
and make fast.
3 The vessel could expect to be moved by wind and
tide to a position between the two buoys. The vessel
may then be secured forward by head lines to buoy
‘B’.

Securing to buoys, no wind or tide

1 Approach buoy ‘B’ at a fine angle on the starboard

bow. Pass head line and overrun the buoy about a
third of the vessel’s length from the bow. Hold onto
the head line to check the vessel’s headway. Allow the
head line to act as a spring.
2 Rudder hard a-starboard, main engines ahead to
turn the vessel about buoy ‘B’.
3 Astern movement on engines will cause the port
quarter to close towards buoy ‘A’. This motion will
further be assisted by the transverse thrust effect of
the propeller. When the vessel is aligned between
buoys, secure fore and aft.
Securing to a single Buoy, Approaching from Windward

When approaching a buoy from windward, the wind

must be kept on the bow and vessel must be allowed to
drift bodily downwind, using occasional ahead
movement on the engine with weather helm as required
to stay clear from the buoy.
The vessel is stopped at the position (1) from where she
will drift bodily downwind to position (2).
133
Before the vessel has reached position (2), a head line is
run away to leeward & the vessel is swung head to wind
on this line.
When the engine is worked ahead under these
conditions, it will have to be used boldly, because little
headway will cause the ship to run beam-on to the wind.

Securing to a single Buoy, Approaching with Wind ahead

As soon as the headway is lost, the bows will tend to pay
off to one side, even though the wind is right ahead.
In position (1) the ship is kept slightly canted to port and
the headline is secured as she drifts downwind to the
buoy.
In the figure, the starboard anchor is let go at position (1)
and the cable is veered away to assist the ship in keeping
head to wind.
If anchor is used, it must be let go well clear of the buoy
moorings.
Dry Docking

Dock is enclosed area for keeping the ship safe and can be classified as
 Wet Dock
 Dry dock - from which water can be pumped out in order to repair parts of the ship which
are below the waterline

Dry dock can be further classified in following categories

Graving dock: A dock provided with a gate on open end which acts as entrance to the dock.
Once the ship enters, then gate is closed and water is pumped out using the fixed pumps. 134

Floating dock: It can be viewed as a floating vessel which can lift a ship out of water and
retain it by means of its own buoyancy. It is a hollow structure made of steel or RCC
consisting of two walls and a floor with the ends open.

Graving dock Floating dock

More protected – Less exposed to tidal or Exposed to tidal effects or currents
currents
Better from stability point of view Less stable
Fixed Versatile
Expensive Cheaper
Most suitable for shallow waters Suitable for both shallow and deep waters
Durable Less durable
Now choice of dock will depend upon
 the ship’s type,
 size and
 extent of repairs

Preparation of repair list

 Each company will have the specific procedures and assign responsibilities to relevant
department or in charge as identified in SMS. Below mentioned in generic procedure
 While the vessel is in normal operations, any defects, maintenance and overhaul work
corrective actions and works for which are beyond the possibilities and capabilities of the
vessel crew, should be listed in the “Ship’s Defect List” and recorded in the dedicated
Company form “Specification of Repairs”.
 The repair works specification shall also take into account those products and activities
which might have impact to the environment and detailed actions to be taken to control
or influence them.
 The work specification description shall be supplemented with drawings, sketches and
pictures as appropriate.

The list of jobs to be carried out shall follow a logical order as follows:
 hull cleaning and painting;
 dry-dock related jobs (rudder, tail shaft, propeller, sea chests and valves, anchors and
 chains, cathodic protection, etc.);
 Structure and fitting, excluding the accommodation block (ballast tanks, cargo
tanks/holds, hatches, cranes, piping, etc.);
 main machinery (main engine, auxiliary engines and boilers);
 Auxiliary machinery (deck machinery, pumps, compressors, etc.);
 Accommodation (structure, fittings, deck equipment etc.).
 Other jobs or inspections as per the scope of the class

Preparing the ship for dry-docking

When a ship is scheduled for a dry-docking, the following precautions are to be taken:
 Calculation of stability in consultation with dock master
135
 Stability will be calculated for stages like arrival port, pre-docking, sitting on blocks etc.
 Information sharing between ship and yard like plans etc.
 Minimum ballast as per stability conditions where propeller is fully immersed.
 For tankers, vessel shall be gas freed prior docking.
 Gas free certificate will be issued by chemist or dock safety officer.
 Fuel tank content is to be kept to minimum.
 Fuel tanks adjacent to tanks in which maintenance work is programmed are to be empty.
 Fuel tanks to be maintained or repaired are to be rendered gas free;
 main and auxiliary engines are to be fed by means of gas oil for the time necessary to
replace possible heavy fuel in the feed piping;
 Gasoil service tanks for auxiliary and emergency generators are to be fully filled.
 In case of auxiliary generators running on HFO, a dedicated tank must be kept filled;
 distilled water tanks for boilers, if needed, are to be fully filled;
 All tanks are to be sounded and the relevant content recorded on a form.
 Comply with particular dock’s specific requirements
 All necessary materials to be ordered well in advance and the delivered to the Ship-yard.

Preparation for docking

Before the vessel will enter the premises of the repair Shipyard/Drydock, make sure that:
 Master is fully informed about:
- the selected Ship-yard;
- the repair period;
- the required arrival conditions;
- the scope of work;
- the environmental aspects and impacts management during dry-dock period;
 Proper delegation of duties and instructions to supervise any part of or specific work to
be carried out at the Shipyard, has been properly instructed and is familiar with the
relevant scope of work;
 The list of works to be carried out by the ship staff is understood and agreed and any
assistance required from the Ship-yard or other specialized company is arranged;
 The Ship-yard personnel have signed the Environmental Company Policy and any
additional environmental requirements;
 The Ship-yard personnel in charge is aware of, agrees on and officially authorizes the
scope of works to be carried out by the vessel’s staff or other specialized company
directly engaged by the Company.
Before flooding the dry dock
The following precautions are to be taken:
 check that all sea valves are shut and that all piping system (repaired, maintained or
connected to machinery/systems submitted to maintenance or repair) are connected and
tight;
 check that bottom plating drain plugs are fitted and that tail shaft oil glands do not show
any oil leakage;
 check that plugs on sea valves and outboard discharges are removed;
 Arrange with the Shipyard Repair Manager to have the drydock filled only up to sea chest
valve height in order to check integrity and tightness of the same, before proceeding with
the complete filling up.
136
 External connections from shore shall be removed
 Mooring area cleared and lines connected with dock as required.
 Dock area is cleared from all equipments and necessary items.
 Take the necessary ballast as per stability conditions.

After flooding the dry dock

The following precautions are to be taken:
 check that sea and overboard discharge valves and relevant piping do not leak;
 sound all compartments to verify that no water has entered;
 check the water surface around the ship to verify that no pollution due to leakage of any
the after-tail shaft gland or any ship’s compartment has occurred;
 Check a few times the Main Engine start forward and aft before the maneuvering to exit
the Drydock/yard should start.
 Change over from shore supply to ship’s supply
 Flooding shall be carried out progressively so that at no times vessel loses her stability.

Critical Period
A Critical Period is the interval of time from, when the stern of the vessel touches the blocks
to the time when the entire weight of the vessel is borne by the blocks (i.e., the vessel sits
completely on blocks). This period is very crucial and continuous monitoring is required.

Vessel shall keep minimum required trim so that the critical period is reduced to minimum.

During the time the vessel is in the Ship-yard premises:

 Ascertain that all vessel safety systems are operative and that power is supplied to
maintain all required systems in working conditions.
 The Ship-yard shall provide customary safety standards in accordance to industrial
practice.
 The Ship-yard shall implement all the contractual requirements related to safety.
 monitor safety and environmental standards are provided by the Shipyard in accordance
with the applicable industrial standard and with the Ship repair industry best practice;
 monitor the correct implementation of all ship-yard contractual requirements related to
safety and environmental protection;
 Liaise between vessel staff and Ship-yard personnel.
Measurement of Rudder and propeller Drop

Pintle Bush Clearance: The pintle bush clearance for top and bottom pintles are measured
using long feeler gauges.
If the clearances are excessive, the bushes are to be renewed after dismantling the rudder.
The clearances are taken at port, starboard, forward and aft and the maximum of these is the
clearance.

Rudder Drop - Rudder Drop is simply the wear down of the bearing of rudder carrier.
It is measured by an instrument called a Trammel gauge.
The top clearance at the steering gear cross-head should be more than the jumping bar
clearance so that when the rudder jumps, the impact force is taken by the jumping bar and 137
not the cross head. However, with time, the rudder carrier bearing will wear off due to
continuous rudder movements and the bottom clearance at the cross head will reduce.
Generally, a point marked on the rudder stock and another point is marked on the hull within
the steering gear room. The distance between these points shall be measured and recorded
at the time of construction.
The difference between the original and the measured points shall be referred to as the
rudder drop or the rudder wear down.

Propeller Drop - Propeller Drop is distance drop due to its own weights. It is measured by
poker gauge.

Due to the weight of propeller and the clearance developed due to wear, the shaft will come
down by a certain amount. This drop, in propeller shaft is termed as propeller wear down or
propeller drop.

The forward end of shaft is connected to the main engine and at the aft end we have a
propeller, which is fitted on it. Basically, it is a cantilever beam with one end fixed and other
end free on which the propeller is fitted and the weight of propeller would attempt to pull
the shaft down.
At a point where the propeller shaft passes through the hull into the sea to prevent sea water
entering into the engine room, a sealing is provided i.e. In the aft peak tank, the propeller
shaft is fitted with inboard and outboard seals that is called lip seal.
These seals contain nitrile rubber or Viton lip seal which fits shrunk around the cast iron
propeller shaft to seal against the bronze liner.
To prevent heat build-up and harm the sealing, lubrication is provided between liner and
sealing.
Naturally after few years, grooves are created on liner surface of shaft due to the loss of seals
and sealing and sea water can find its way within easily.
This reduces the lubrication effect, and creates wear in bronze liner on the propeller shaft.
Now as there is sufficient clearance, due to the weight of the propeller, the shaft will come
down by a certain amount.
This drop is called propeller drop or “propeller stern shaft clearance” or “propeller wear
down” in the propeller shaft.
Steel renewals and thickness measurements

Thickness measurements are carried out using ultrasonic gauges. The age of ship will decide
the extension of thickness measurement and it is carried out in accordance with class rules.

Steel renewal will be decided basis an inspection by ship’s staff, class or UTM or any other
external party followed by the calculation of steel required.

Detailed inspections of the ship’s internal structure and double bottoms can be made prior
the dry dock in order to determine the extent of steel work needed to be accomplished at the
dry-dock.
138
Steel calculation

 Following a Steel survey, Special survey, CAP survey or owner’s interest inspection, a steel
renewal plan can be created, showing the location and extent of necessary repairs.
 This will include weight calculations and specifications. Ship’s staff can use shell
expansion plan to identify the plating requiring the renewal.

 Structural steel renewal is a result of the structural deficiencies beyond the limit set by
the classification societies, regarding either scantling (reduction in thickness) or structural
deformations (yielding, buckling, bulging, etc.), or both.
 Reduction in thickness of steel (mainly caused by corrosion) and distortion (mainly caused
by ship motion and damage due to cargo) are due to many particular natural phenomena.
Structural steel replacement cost is the highest and it also consumes the maximum
resources from a shipyard.
 Hence, prior information about the scope of structural steel replacement might help the
shipowner with proper budget allocation and schedule.
 It may also help the shipyard to prepare a realistic time and berthing plan by optimizing
its resource allocation and utilization.
Dry Dock Safety
Each company will have its specific requirements for safety in dry dock as part of its SMS and
shall be followed. Below is a generic list

 Access to Ship
- A minimum of two separate points of access should be provided to and from the ship.
- These should be located as far apart as is practicable and where possible, on opposite
sides and ends of the ship.
- Clear passageways and guidance notices should be maintained at all times.
- Ship access and escape routes should have their walkways maintained such that they
are clear of cables, hoses, scrap steel, and waste material 139

 Slip, Trip and Falls (STF) and Falling objects

- Good housekeeping practices will minimize these risks.
- Ensure there is adequate lighting.
- Be alert to hazard of falling objects.
- Proper cordoning off procedures shall be followed.

 Combustible Materials and Solvents

- Where substantial combustible or hazardous material is to be used or brought on
board, review its Safety Data Sheet (SDS) to confirm that the hazards associated with
handling the material from both a fire and health point of view, are fully understood
and that proper precautions are implemented.
- Hot work must not be carried out in any space where combustible liquids/vapours
(e.g., painting, or chemical cleaning) are being used. Entry into such spaces must be
strictly controlled.

 Confined Space Entries and Monitoring of Atmosphere

- Monitor the enclosed spaces daily, and record and display their condition:
- Ensure sufficient lighting and ventilation before entering enclosed spaces.
- Before closing manhole covers, notify a member of the Vessel SMT and the shipyard
safety department.
- Before actually closing the manhole, the personnel responsible for closing the manhole
must check and confirm that no personnel remain in the enclosed space.
- Ensure that barriers are placed where workers may fall from height.
- Whenever possible, install a barrier protecting against falls through an opening before
the access is opened.

 Earthing of Equipment
- Ensure that all electrical distribution boards are fitted with earth leakage protection,
which should be situated as close as practicable to the distribution point.

 Work at Heights
- For work at heights, ensure that permission is obtained from the relevant authority.
- If the shipyard’s scaffoldings are used, the scaffolding label must be inspected.
Ship’s Plans from dry docking point of view

Structural Plans
 Docking plan as received from dock master will contain all the details regarding vessel’s
stability condition, location of blocks, draft etc. and will be provided by dock master.
 Bottom plug arrangement - It will give details or location of all pipe outlets and bottom
plug marks.
 Shell expansion plan containing details of frames and plates including their dimensions.
 G.A. plan
 Capacity plan with DWT and displacement /draft scale
 Mid-ship Section
140
 Construction profile and Deck plan
 Aft end construction
 Fore end construction

Piping Diagrams
 Hull piping diagram
 Piping diagram in ER and accommodation
 Cargo piping diagram

Miscellaneous
 Painting specifications and etc.
 Fire and safety plan.
 Arrangement of anodes
 Arrangements of ICCP
 Inventory of hazardous materials
 Damage control plan
 Trim and stability booklet
 Ballast water management plan
Lighterage at Sea (STS)

Contents of STS Guide

Title Notes
Section 1 General Principles Includes information on basic
requirements and roles of STS
superintendent and POAC
Section 2 Conditions and requirements Compatibility, notification to
and approval from authorities,
transfer area, environmental 141
conditions
Section 3 Safety Risk assessment of transfer
location and operation, PPE,
checklists, SDS, Risks in
operations, actions in case of
cargo spillage and
infringement of safety, safety
during cargo transfers
Section 4 Communications General communication, pre-
arrival communication,
navigational warnings,
communications during
approach, mooring, unmooring
& cargo operations, procedure
for failure of communication
Section 5 Operational Preparations Joint plan of operation,
preparation of ships
Section 6 Maneuvering and mooring Basic principles and guidance
Section 7 Procedures alongside Pre-transfer procedures,
planning for cargo transfer and
cargo transfer guidance
Section 8 Unmooring Procedures for operation
Section 9 Equipment Requirements for various
equipments being used for
operation like Fenders, hoses,
mooring equipment, PTB etc.
Section 10 Emergencies Contingency planning and
emergency response
Appendices Additional requirements for
oil, chemical and gas tankers,
checklists and other guidance
STS operations plan
 AS required by MARPOL annex I regulation 41, Any oil tanker involved in STS operations
shall carry on board a Plan prescribing how to conduct STS operations.
 The STS operations plan must be written in the working language understood by the
ship’s officers.
 The STS operations plan shall be developed taking into account the information
contained in the best practice guidelines for STS operations identified by the
Organization.
 The STS operations plan may be incorporated into an existing Safety Management
System.
142
Contents of the STS operations plan
 a step-by-step description of the entire STS operation;
 a description of the mooring and unmooring procedures and arrangements, including
diagrams where necessary, and procedures for tending the oil tanker’s moorings during
the transfer of cargo;
 a description of the cargo and ballast transfer procedures including those used while the
ship is either underway or anchored, as well as procedures for:
- connecting and testing the integrity of cargo hoses and the hose to manifold interface;
- topping off cargo tanks; and
- disconnecting cargo hoses.
- the titles, locations and duties of all persons involved in the STS operation;
- procedures for operating the emergency shutdown and communication systems, and
for rapid breakaway;
- a description of the drip trays and procedures for emptying them;
- procedures for reporting spillages of oil into the water;
- an approved contingency plan, which meets the requirements of paragraph 6.2.9; and
- a cargo and ballast plan.

Precautions and preparations required for various stages during STS will be mentioned in
ship specific STS plan.

Few terms used in STS operation

 Lightering operation or STS operation or transshipment area

 Constant heading ship – The ship which maintains course and speed to allow
maneuvering ship to approach and moor

 Maneuvering ship – The ship which approaches constant heading ship for mooring
operations

 Double banked STS operation is one conducted while one ship is alongside berth,
dolphins or moored to buoys within port limits

 Reverse lightering – An operation that involves discharge from one or more smaller
ships into larger ship. In this scenario receiving ship is usually mother ship
Transfer Area
STS transfer operations conducted at sea may be beyond receiving possible assistance from
port services.

Criteria of aborting the STS transfer based on environmental limits, including abort criteria
shall be included in specific risk assessment and a mooring analysis as appropriate is to be
conducted to identify the environmental operating parameters.

In selecting the area for STS transfer, the following should be taken into account, in particular
in the absence of any applicable national legislation:
 the traffic density in the given area;
143
 Whether transfer operations are to be conducted while both vessels are underway, or at
anchor
 Size of ships involved in operation
 the need for sufficient sea room and water depth required for maneuvering during
mooring and unmooring;
 the availability of safe anchorage with good holding ground;
 its shelter being exposed to environmental conditions inclusive appropriate met ocean
analysis of wind, wave, climatic conditions, seasonal variations etc.
 present and forecasted weather conditions;
 availability of weather reports for the areas;
 Distance from shore logistic support and the integrity of resources and operations
 availability of emergency and oil spill response capability (Emergency preparedness)
 Additional spill response resources requirement for the specific location
 proximity to environmentally sensitive areas;
 security threat.
 location navigational hazards
 Local regulations shall prevail and various ports upon completion of risk assessments
have designated transshipment areas in port limits

STS guide has listed the checklists that shall be completed prior various stages
Checklist 1 – Pre- Fixture Information (for each ship)
Checklist 2 – Before Operations Commence
checklist 3 – Before run-in and mooring
Checklist 4 – Before Cargo Transfer
Checklist 5 – Before Unmooring
Checklist 6 – Pre – transfer check list (in port operations)
Checklist 6 – During transfer checklist (in port operations)
Preparation of STS Transfer Operation
Preparations for STS Transfer Operation are to be made well in advance and as early as
practicable by the Masters of the STS ships. The following are to be included in such
preparations

 Local authorities have been notified

 agree with other ship for the actions to be taken if the emergency signal on the oil
tanker’s whistle is sounded; and
 Radio communications with other ship established and language of operations agreed
upon
 obtain a weather forecast for the STS transfer area for the anticipated period of the
144
operation;
 Review operation specific risk assessment
 carefully study the operational guidelines contained in STS plan and STS guide
 Proper rest hour planning for crew
 crew briefing on procedures and hazards, with particular reference to mooring and
unmooring;
 Stability calculation for various stages of cargo operation
 Ensure that each ship is upright, with a suitable trim and the propeller fully immersed
without any overhanging projections;
 Operational readiness of the steering gear and all navigation and communications
equipment
 confirm that engine controls have been tested and the main propulsion plant has been
tested ahead and astern;
 confirm that all essential cargo and safety equipment has been tested;
 confirm that mooring equipment is prepared in accordance with the mooring plan;
 fenders and transfer hoses are correctly positioned, connected and secured;
 cargo manifolds and hose handling equipment are prepared;
 Cargo hoses are properly tested and certified and in apparent good condition
 A navigation warning is broadcasted
 Ensure that the security level at which the ship is operating is in accordance with the
provisions of the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, and the
requirements being taken on board to ensure compliance
 Prepare lights and shapes as required by COLREGS 1972.
 Complete STS checklist 2 before operations commence

Before run-in and mooring

Both vessels must carry out some checks before commencing the manoeuvres which shall
include but not limited to
 Confirm fenders in place as appropriate
 No over side protrusions
 Hand steering engaged
 Cargo manifold connections prepared
 Course and speed information exchanged with other ship
 Navigational signal displayed as appropriate
 Mooring equipments are in state of readiness
 Anchor on opposite side of ship prepared for emergency
 Suitable cutting equipment - Fire axes are in position at the fore and aft mooring stations
 Crew standing by at their mooring stations & Mooring teams are sufficiently manned
 Communications established with mooring personnel and with personnel on the other
ship
 Fire-fighting and anti-pollution equipment ready for use
 Shipping traffic in the area is being continuously monitored
 Automatic Identification System (AIS) status for the ship set

Before commencing the cargo transfer operation 145

 Proper mooring of vessel;
 confirm completion of relevant pre-transfer checklists.
 arrangements made for repetitive checks during the transfer
 Procedures for the transfer of personnel agreed with
 Gangway, if applicable positioned and secured correctly
 Ship to Ship communication systems, back-up agreed with and tested
 Emergency signals and shutdown procedures agreed with
 Engine room will be manned and the main engine standby or on short notice of readiness
 Bridge watch and/or an anchor watch is established
 Deck watch established with particular attention paid to moorings, fenders, hoses etc.
 any valve through which oil could be discharged to the sea is closed and inspected and, if
not used in the operation, is sealed to ensure that it is not inadvertently opened;
 deck scuppers are properly plugged;
 availability of empty drip trays on both oil tankers under couplings of hoses, and means
for drip tray drainage;
 availability of materials on the oil tankers for on-deck clean-up in case of spillage;
 Initial cargo transfer rate agreed with the other ship
 The maximum cargo transfer rate is agreed to and recorded, considering the maximum
flow rates of the transfer system, including hoses
 Arrangements for the regular exchange of information on quantities of cargo transferred
agreed between ships
 Topping-off rate agreed to and recorded
 Procedure for stopping transfer is agreed with
 Ballasting and de-ballasting arrangements agreed with
 proper connection and securing of hoses to manifolds;
 proper condition and position of hoses, hose saddles and supports;
 flanged joints where used, are fully bolted and sealed and ensured oil tight;
 proper blanking of unused cargo and bunker connections;
 Cargo hoses well supported and protected from chafing and the hose release area is clear
of obstructions
 Tools required for rapid disconnection are located at the cargo manifold
 Messengers are prepared, positioned & ready for unmooring.
 Previous cargo details of the receiving ship, including MSDS shared with discharging ship.
 Information on security has been exchanged.
Considerations of Safety during Cargo Transfer
The aspects of safety to be considered for STS transfer operations are similar to those
considered for port cargo operations.
 If simultaneous operations are being carried out on either vessel such as tank cleaning or
shore transfer, the Master of the other vessel is to be informed.
 Naked Lights and Smoking
- Prohibited smoking in undesignated locations and proper warning signs in place.
 Electrical Switchboards Earths
- Faulty earth indications on switchboards should be traced and isolated immediately to
eliminate the possibility of arcing that may in turn cause unwanted risks in areas where
gas may be present.
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 Main Propulsion, Power Generation, Steering Gear and other Machinery
- The main propulsion unit should either be on short notice of readiness or on standby.
- Generators including emergency should be confirmed to be in a state of readiness
- Fuel changeover where applicable should be completed well in advance.
- Timely completion of operational tests for Steering Gear systems.
- Sparking from exhaust uptakes in funnels should be regularly monitored.
 Electrical Isolation
- Due to the electrical potential difference between the hulls during connection and
disconnection of transfer lines, proper electrical isolation is to be ensured.
- No portion of the conducting hose outboard of the isolating flange should come in to
contact with the vessel to which the isolation flange is fitted.
- Main MF/HF radio transmitters should be switched off.
- Metal to metal contact should be avoided by suitable and appropriate measures
 Use of Satellite Communication, Radar and Radio Equipment
- The power output of Very high frequency (VHF) equipment that is used for AIS
broadcasts need not be reduced during STS operations.
- The ships Masters are to carry out consultations before the use of the ships radar
during STS operations.
- Due consideration is to be given to scanner motors of radar that are not certified for
hazardous zones, such zones may be present on the larger of the two STS vessels
 Fire-fighting Equipment
- For immediate use, fire-fighting equipment should always be readily available.
- Additional portable extinguishers are to be located in the manifold area; Fire monitors
are to be pointed towards the cargo manifolds.
 Electrical storms
- The STS transfer operations should be suspended.
 Openings in the Accommodation
- All doors (except when being used for access), other windows or portholes and other
openings should be kept closed during cargo operations.
- Accommodation doors that have to be kept permanently closed when in port or at sea
for security and safety purposes should be clearly identified and marked.
- The accommodation space should be kept under positive pressure to prevent the entry
of flammable or toxic vapors.
 Unauthorized craft
- Not to permit unauthorized craft to come alongside their vessels.
General Guidance on the Transfer of Cargo
 The cargo operation is to be controlled by the receiving vessel as per the cargo plan
 A watch on the cargo manifold areas is to be maintained by both vessels
 Responsible persons on both vessels are to be in communication and be on the ready for
stoppages in normal statuses and emergencies
 During the start of cargo transfer at a slow rate, the pipelines are to be checked for
leakage
 When the receiving tanks are nearing their final ullage, the agreed topping off rate is to
be adhered to
 During the entire transfer, regular checks, at not more than one-hour durations are to
made which include the rate of transfer and the results logged against time
147
 Any differences should be thoroughly investigated and if need be, transfer operations
suspended until the differences are resolved
 Transfer rates of cargo should be determined based on:
- Cargo transfer equipment limitations
- Management of inert gas/vapor system limitations
- Limitations of flow velocities in the ship’s fixed cargo piping or venting systems
- Conducting cargo operations under closed conditions.
- Prevention of overfilling beyond safe limits and / or prevention of cargo carryover in to
vapor systems, operation of independent high-level alarms, considerations of the
impact on vessel’s motion, accuracy of in-tank filling levels
- Prevention of incorrect operation of pumps and valves, causing pressure surges.
- Effective control of pump speeds, in particular when topping off
- Compliance with industry codes of practice for cargoes that accumulate static
 Appropriate ballast procedures in accordance with the ship’s BWPM
 For at sea operations ensure full maneuverability and propeller immersion
 Maintaining a constant watch on mooring lines and fenders to avoid chaffing and undue
stress
 Repositioning of mooring lines and fenders are to be done under strictly controlled
conditions
 Due consideration is to be given to suspend other less important operations in order to
attend the procedures detailed in the STS Operations Plan

Completion of operations
 Adequate ullage space
- Adequate ullage space is left in each tank being filled.
 Closure of valves and drainage of hoses
- Upon completion of the transfer, the vessel with the greatest freeboard should close
the valve at the manifold and drain the cargo contained in the hoses into the tank of
the other vessel.
- Any remaining cargo in the hoses should be drained, after which the hoses should be
disconnected and securely blanked.
- The cargo manifolds should also be securely blanked.
 Coordination of unmooring plan
- co-ordinate the unmooring plan, taking into account weather and sea conditions
prevailing in the area.
STS Transfer Operation - Unmooring

Confirmation of items before unmooring

 The oil transfer documents should be completed, communications checked and the
readiness of both vessels established.
 ensure that all valves in their system are closed and cargo tank openings are closed and
secured for sea.
 Cargo hoses are properly drained prior to hose disconnection
 Cargo hoses or manifolds are securely blanked
 The transfer side of the ship is clear of obstructions (including hose lifting equipment)
 Procedure of letting go moorings and separation of ships has been agreed and crew have
148
been briefed on procedures
 Fenders, including fender rigging, are in order
 Secondary fenders correctly positioned and secured for departure
 Power is available for mooring winches
 Rope stoppers and rope messengers are available at all mooring stations
 Mooring stations crew are standing by at their locations
 Communications established with mooring personnel and with the other ship
 Shipping traffic in the area is being monitored and a very high frequency (VHF) alert has
been transmitted
 Mooring, Maneuvering, and navigational equipment tested and ready for departure
 Mooring personnel instructed to let go only as directed by the Master
 When clear of the other ship agreement reached that navigational warnings will be
cancelled and AIS status updated

Unmooring after Underway Transfer

 For ships having STS transfers underway consideration may be given to:
- The combination of the two-ship system is positioned so that the ship with the highest
freeboard is on the downwind side
- For conditions where there is negligible wind, the combination of the two-ship system
is positioned so that the swell is ahead to assist with the separation of the bows
 Proportional to the weather conditions:
- Speeds are to be maintained at a minimum
- The sequence of mooring line release for each individual mooring operation
 Follow bridge instructions for letting go of lines.
 The sequence of unmooring is to ensure that the propellers are kept clear
 The tension in the mooring lines and the compression of fenders should be monitored
 As the bows open up, the proximity of the aft ends of both vessels and compression on
the aftermost fender should be monitored closely
 The maneuvering ship should avoid crossing close ahead of the other ship
 Until the maneuvering ship advises the constant heading ship that it is clear, the constant
heading ship should not independently carry out maneuvers
 If local conditions or ship configurations do not permit the separation of the two vessels
other alternative means may be considered
Maneuvering during STS

Dangerous positions during STS maneuvering

a) Position "X" shows the bow of the Berthing Vessel getting too close to the starboard
quarter of the constant heading vessel. Strong Interaction forces will tend to attract the bow
of the Berthing Vessel into the side of the constant heading vessel - at the same time, the
constant heading ship will tend to turn to Starboard across the bows of the Berthing Vessel.

b) Position "Y" shows that the Berthing Vessel has overshot the constant heading vessel
during the final approach. Strong Interaction forces will now tend to attract the bows of the
149
constant heading vessel into the after a section of the hull of the Berthing Vessel - at the
same time, the Berthing Vessel will tend to be turned across the bows of the constant
heading vessel.

To avoid these two dangerous positions two distinct methods of approach, and berthing have
been developed

i) The Parallel Approach - a safer slower method.

ii) The Angled Approach - a faster method, where considerable experience and expertise are
required
The Parallel Approach

150

 The Maneuvering Vessel approaches the constant heading vessel from the quarter, and
"takes station" about a ship's length off- this avoids passing through the dangerous
Interaction area around the Guide's stern.
 The Maneuvering Vessel now starts to close the Guide at a fine angle of some 10 deg or
less.
 As the distance closes, care must be taken for both Speed and Position of the
Maneuvering Vessel to match that of the constant heading vessel.
 Interaction Forces around the Bows of each vessel will tend to oppose contact between
the ships.
 It is essential for the constant heading vessel to use the effective rudder to counteract
this force and maintain a steady course. The Maneuvering Vessel will need to use the
rudder to drive the ships together.
 The Maneuvering Vessel should aim to make "first contact" on the forward shoulder
fender, and still maintaining the approach course at a fine angle.
 Immediately after "the first contact" there will be a tendency for the Maneuvering Vessel
to bounce off the shoulder fender; this tendency will be reinforced by Interaction
pressure forcing the Bows apart, and Interaction suction bringing the sterns together.
 At this stage, the Maneuvering Vessel will need to be prepared to use the considerable
port rudder to stop the bows separating, and a gap opening between the two ships.
 Maneuvering Vessel to remain bows into the constant heading vessel at a fine angle until
all the forward mooring lines and springs are secured.
 The Maneuvering Vessel can then ease gently parallel to the Guide assisted by Interaction
suction at the stern.
 After mooring lines and springs can now be secured.
 Depending upon circumstances, the constant heading vessel may proceed to anchor after
the maneuvering Vessel is fully secured.
The Angled Approach

 The Maneuvering Vessel closes from

the quarter at a fine angle, aiming to
make "first contact" on the forward
shoulder fender;
 the Maneuvering Vessel thus needs a
slightly greater speed than the Guide
during this approach.
 The Maneuvering Vessel needs to
maintain this speed advantage when
151
passing through the constant heading
vessel 's quarter wake, and then
through the dangerous Interaction
area around constant heading vessel 's
stern.
 Then reduce the Maneuvering Vessel's
speed, so that by the time of "the first
contact", the two ships speeds (STW)
are matched.
 Once "first contact" is made, then the
procedures described under the
Parallel Approach apply.

Guidance for Maneuvering Alongside

Items to be considered when maneuvering alongside

 If the safety of the maneuvering is in question, the berthing operation shall be

immediately aborted
 The maintenance of a proper lookout is the responsibility of each ship
 Ensuring that the angle of approach adopted by the maneuvering ship is not excessive
 Ensuring that the constant heading ship maintains or adjust its speed as required.
 The effect of ship interaction should be anticipated when maneuvering, the maneuvering
ship’s engines turning to maintain the ahead position
 5 knots or less is the expected maneuvering speed for STS ships conducting underway
operations.
 If the maneuvering ship speed is unable to maintain a compatible speed due to a higher
relative speed, then consider increasing the constant heading ship speed - the effects of
interaction increase as the square of the ship’s speed
 The optimum approach will be dependent on the maneuvering characteristic of each ship
 Examples of approaches:
- the wind and seas on the port bow of the constant heading ship
- to reduce loads on the fender rigging and the relative wind across the deck, keeping
the wind and swell on the port or starboard quarter of the constant heading ship
Ice Navigation

Ice Categories
Classified by its stage of development, into categories related to its thickness and age.
 It can be broadly described as new ice, young ice, first-year ice and old ice.
 New ice is a technical term that refers to ice less than 10 cm thick.
 As the ice thickens, it enters the young ice stage, defined as ice that is 10 to 30 cm thick.
 Young ice is split into two subcategories based on colour: grey ice (10 to 15 cm thick) and
grey-white ice (15 to 30 cm thick).
 First-year ice is thicker than 30 cm, but not more than one winter’s growth. First-year ice
can grow up to 2 m thick and is further subdivided into thin first-year ice (30 to 70 cm 152
thick), medium first-year ice (70 to 120 cm thick) and thick first-year ice (1.2 to 2 m thick).
 Multi-year ice or old ice is ice that has survived a summer melt season. It is much thicker
than first-year ice, typically ranging from 2 to 4 m thick. It has distinct properties from
first-year ice, based on processes that occur during the summer melt.
 Multi-year ice contains much less brine (salt water), which makes the ice much stronger
and significantly increases risks to vessel navigation.
Master’s Obligations as stated in SOLAS Ch V

Regulation 31 - Danger Messages

The master of every ship which meets with dangerous ice, a dangerous derelict, or any other
direct danger to navigation, or a tropical storm, or encounters sub-freezing air temperatures
associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion on superstructures, or winds of
force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received, is
bound to communicate the information by all means at his disposal to ships in the vicinity,
and also to the competent authorities. The form in which the information is sent is not
obligatory. It may be transmitted either in plain language (preferably English) or by means of
the International Code of Signals.
153
Regulation 32 - Information Required in Danger Messages
The following information is required in danger messages:
- The kind of ice, derelict or danger observed.
- The position of the ice, derelict or danger when last observed.
- The time and date (Universal Co-ordinated Time) when the danger was last observed.

On encountering air temperatures below freezing associated with gale--force winds

causing severe ice accumulation on vessels:
- Air and sea temperatures
- Force and direction of the wind
- Position of the ship
- UT (GMT) and date of observations.

Hazards associated with high latitude

Source hazards
Ice Malfunction of safety equipments and system;
Ship stability and structural damage
Low Temperature Degraded crew performance and response to
emergency; performance of safety equipment and
system; Fatigue
extended periods of darkness or Fatigue; human performance degradation
daylight
High Latitude In-operation of certain Navigational systems &
communication system (Equipments like gyro,
magnetic compass, Sat-c etc. have limited
operational capabilities.)
Rapidly changing weather conditions the potential for escalation of incidents; and the
environment with respect to sensitivity to harmful
substances and other environmental impacts and its
need for longer restoration.
Precautions before entering ice/ Cold weather precautions
 Ice should not be entered if an alternative, although longer, route is available.
 Using all ice information and Weather forecasts obtained, choose a track where the least
ice pressure is to be expected.
 Consult latest ice report detailing the type and concentration of the ice in the area
 Draught, with respect to any ice strengthened belt, and depth of water over the propeller
tips and the rudder
 All the heating systems are in working order
 Bunker status taking into account the increased manoeuvring, and add cold--temperature
additives as required
 Fire lines and all other general service lines and fresh water lines should be drained. This 154
includes tank cleaning line, anchor wash, eye wash and shower, etc.
 All cargo heat exchangers and associated piping must be drained of water. If used during
the freezing conditions, they should be drained immediately after their use.
 Drains on the exposed air lines on deck should be kept open.
 Steam lines on deck should be drained. Where deck winches are steam driven, they must
be kept in operation turning slowly during the duration of the freezing conditions.
 Tankers fitted with heating coils for their cargo tanks must ensure that these are well
drained of any water.
 Hydraulic systems must be used carefully as the cold hydraulic oil could cause hoses to
break. keep the oil warm by circulating. Vessels operating in freezing conditions
frequently may have these lines insulated.
 At sea and in port, the radar scanners should be kept turning.
 The bridge window washer system must not be used unless antifreeze has been added.
 Ship’s whistle must be drained if air or steam operated.
 All fresh water tanks and fuel oil tank levels must be kept below 90%. Temperature in
Fuel oil tank must be maintained and hot water may be recirculated in the fresh water
tanks.
 Important deck machinery such as the anchor windlass and winches must be covered to
prevent ice from forming on the equipment and to facilitate easy removal of the ice. All
control boxes of machinery must be covered.
 A greasing and lubrication routine should be carried out for open gears and wires that are
found dry. Low temperature grease must be used for this as it will prevent water from
entering the moving parts of the machinery.
 Cranes must be tried out in order to confirm that all the pulleys are moving in sheaves.
Lifeboat davits can also be tried out for the same reason.
 The coolant of the Lifeboat engine must be checked to see that it has sufficient
concentration of anti-freeze. The lifeboat engine must be tried out and fuel tank level
checked. Batteries charging condition must be checked.
 On tankers fitted with PV Breaker and deck seal, correct amount of antifreeze must be
added to keep them operational. Additionally, fresh water lines and sampling lines
connected to ODME must be well drained.
 If carrying heated cargo, cargo temperatures must be recorded more frequently.
 There must be sufficient quantity of woolen parkas, gloves, innerwear, etc. on board.
 All crew must take precautions against hypothermia and cold burn and their exposure
time to outside temperatures must be kept limited.
 Testing and operational status of all bridge equipments including manouvering system
 Ensure all main/auxiliary/steering/thruster/controllable--pitch propeller (CPP) machinery
space heating systems are fully functional
 All searchlights shall be operational.
 Operational status of bridge window heating and wiper/clear view screen/window wash
heating systems.
 Ensure all lifesaving equipment will be available in freezing conditions, lifeboats are fitted
with working heaters, engines are fitted with anti-freeze and water tanks are slack
 Order salt, or proprietary products, for melting and removal of ice and sand for anti—slip

Making an entry 155

 Entry should not be attempted where the existence of pressure is evident.
 The ice should be entered from leeward, if possible, as the windward edge of an ice field
is more compact than the leeward edge, and also wave action is lesser.
 The ice edge often has bights separated by projecting tongues. By entering at one of the
bights, the surge will be found to be least
 Ice should be entered at very low speed and at right angles to the ice edge to receive the
initial impact.

Precautions when navigating in ice

 The first principle of successful passage through ice is to maintain freedom of manoeuvre.
Once a vessel becomes trapped, she goes wherever the ice goes.
 The ice-free long way round a difficult area whose limits are known is often the quickest
and safest way.
 Keep moving, even if very slowly
 Try to work with the ice movement and not against it
 Excessive speed leads to ice damage
 Always attempt to achieve a right--angle approach to any floe
 Ensure rudder is amidships before making any stern board
 Avoid anchoring in moving close pack ice.
 Mariners should note that, before attempting any passage through ice, it is essential to
determine its type, thickness, hardness, floe size and concentration.
 Use radar and visual data to assess the properties of the ice cover.
 It is very easy and extremely dangerous to underestimate the hardness of ice.
 Ice is seldom uniform. There can be every type/age of ice among drift ice.
 Select safe speeds to reduce the risk of structural or mechanical damage.
 Maneuver in a manner that minimizes impact against vulnerable regions of the hull,
propulsion and steering gear. Select bow up or stern mode of propulsion.
 Engines must be prepared to go full astern at any time, and it should be done with
extreme care, and always with the rudder amidships.
 If a vessel is stopped by a very close concentration of pack ice, the rudder should be put
amidships and the engines kept turning slowly ahead. This will wash the ice clear astern.
 Violent rudder movements should only be used in an emergency, such as when beset, as
they may cause the stern to swing heavily into ice, particularly when navigating in drift ice
which comprises multi-year floes.
 Frequent use of the rudder, especially in the hard-over position, can be employed both as
a means of slowing the vessel’s advance in drift ice, while maintaining the flow past the
rudder.
 In close or more compact concentrations of pack ice, anchoring should be avoided.
 To avoid the risk of becoming stuck in the ice, the propeller should be turning astern
before the vessel stops.
 To avoid propeller and rudder damage, the propeller should be turning ahead before any
stern contact with ice takes place.
 At night or in reduced visibility when passing through fields of drift ice, speed must be
reduced or the vessel stopped until the mariner can distinguish and identify the ice
ahead.
156
 Navigation in drift ice in darkness should only be attempted with the aid of well
positioned searchlights to assist in the interpretation of the radar picture.
 Ice of land origin should be given a wide berth.
 All forms of glacial ice and dirty ice broken away from coastal regions should be given a
wide berth.
 A vessel stopped in ice close inshore should always be pointed to seaward unless it is
intended to anchor.
Freezing spray
 Once the spray is airborne, under the right conditions, it will freeze immediately when in
contact with any surface.
 This will lead to ice accretion on every exposed portion of a vessel, including decks,
superstructures etc.
 This causes a rise in the ship’s COG and loss of stability as GM is reduced.
 Turning through the trough can be deadly for a ship that has been destabilized by ice
accretion.
 Ships operating in areas where ice is prevalent must be provided with stability
information that indicates the effect on stability of ice accretion on exposed parts and
deck cargo.
 The amount of ice accumulation depends on the wind force, wave height, air
temperature, sea water temperature, ship’s course and speed.
 Ice Nomograms can be used to estimate the rate of ice accumulation.
Avoiding Freezing spray
 If in harbour or near a land mass, it is better to seek immediate shelter where the waves
will be comparatively smaller thus minimizing sea spray.
 If can’t seek shelter, then vessel shall reduce speed and alter course to minimize the
spray and thus the ice accumulation i.e., steam downwind to minimize sea spray.
 For some ships, it may be better to minimize sea spray by heading into the seas.
 Preventive coatings can be applied in order to repel water and prevent ice build-up. Ice
that does form over the coating is easier to remove.
 Ship’s crew can be organized to remove ice whenever it is safe to be on deck. The ice
must be removed before it reaches dangerous amounts. Usually, physical removal is the
most effective method.
 Chemicals such as rock salt (sodium chloride), calcium chloride and urea can be sprinkled
on decks to supplement physical removal.
Heavy Weather
Effects of wave motion on a ship
 All ships have a natural period of roll and pitch according to their dimensions and
conditions of loading.
 The roll period is defined as time a ship takes to roll from one side to the other and back
again. The period of pitch is the time the bows of a ship take to rise from the horizontal,
fall below the horizontal, and return to it.
 The period of encounter is the time interval between the passage of two successive wave
crests under the ship.
 The ship’s movement in waves will depend on the size of the waves and the relation
between the period of encounter and the ship’s period of roll or pitch – any 157
synchronization in both will maximize the impact.
 The period of encounter depends on the wave length which governs the wave speed and
also on the course and speed of the ship relative to the waves.
 Thus, the period of encounter can be varied by alteration of the ship’s course and speed.
 When the period of the ship is small in comparison with the period of encounter, she will
tend to ride the waves, keeping her deck parallel to their slope.
- In a beam sea, this will result in rapid, heavy rolling.
- In a head sea, a small period of pitch should result in an easy motion, without much
water being shipped.
 When the period of the ship is large in comparison with the period of encounter, she will
roll or pitch independently of the waves.
- In a beam sea, this should mean a comparatively easy motion, though waves slapping
against the weather side may make her wet.
- In a head sea, a comparatively long period of pitch may result in occasional burying of
the bows and exposure of propellers and rudders.
 As period of encounter approaches synchronization with the period of roll or pitch, the
ship’s motion will be violent.
- In a beam sea, this may result in dangerously heavy rolling, while in a head sea, the
severe and rapid pitching movement may cause frequent racing of propellers and
unfair hogging and sagging strains.

From the above it can be seen that:

 The time period of roll varies directly as K, the radius of gyration. K may be increased by
moving weights away from the axis of oscillation.
 The time period of roll varies inversely as the square root of the initial metacentric height.
Therefore, ships with a large GM (stiff ship) will have a short period and those with a
small GM (tender ship) will have a long period.
 The time period of roll will change when weights are loaded, discharged, or shifted within
a ship, as this usually affects both the radius of gyration and the initial GM.
Synchronous rolling

158

 Synchronization - when the ship’s rolling period is resonant/ synchronous or equal to that
of wave period.
 In such cases, ship will heel over and in exceptional circumstances be rolled further over
by the action of the wave.
 This can happen regardless of the direction of the sea w.r.t. the ship’s heading. But it is
most likely to happen when the natural rolling period of the ship is short or when sailing
in high beam or quartering seas.
 The ship’s forward motion will affect the relationship between the period of encounter
and the wave period.
- For beam seas, the period of encounter is the same as the wave period.
- For head seas, the period of encounter is shorter than the wave period.
- For following seas, the period of encounter is longer than the wave period.

The dangers associated with synchronous rolling are:

 Ship may heel beyond a point or angle of heel from which it can’t return to an upright
condition.

Corrective Actions
 Use water ballast changes to alter the KG of the vessel. This should alter the GMT and
hence the natural rolling period TR to a nonsynchronous value.
 Change the course heading of the ship so that there will be a change in the approaching
wave frequencies. In other words, introduce a yawing effect.
 Alter the ship’s speed until synchronism or resonance no longer exists with the wave
frequency.
 It is imperative that the watch officer recognizes the condition the synchronization
immediately, especially in a small vessel, or when the range of stability is small. An
immediate alteration of the vessel’s course will effectively change the period of
encounter and eliminate the resonance.
Parametric rolling:

159

 Parametric rolling is produced by pitching motions on vessels that have very fine
bowlines together with very wide and full stern contours.
 Since the cause of rolling is ship type specific (parameters of the ship – length, stability,
flare etc.) and hence name parametric rolling.
 Most evident when the pitching period is equal to or half of that of vessel’s rolling period.
 It occurs when the large sea condition is in head / stern or anywhere near to them. The
period of wave encounter is half the natural rolling period of the ship which coincides
when ship’s bow in pitching down
 As the stern dips into the waves, it produces a rolling action. This remains unchecked as
the bow next dips into the waves due to pitching forces.
 In effect, the rolling characteristics are different at the stern to those at the bow.
 This causes a twisting or torsioning along the ship, leading to extra rolling motions.
 Parametric rolling is worse when a ship is operating at reduced speed in heavy sea
conditions.
 IMO suggests that parametric rolling is particularly dangerous when the wavelength is 1~
1.5 times the ship’s length.

Corrective Actions
 A water ballast could be used to alter the GMT, and hence the natural rolling period TR,
to a nonsynchronous value.
 The ship needs to have an anti-rolling acting stabilizing system. Anti-rolling stability tanks
that transfer water across the ship or vertically between two tanks are effective for all
ship speeds. A quick response time is vital to counteract this type of rolling.
 Hydraulic fin stabilizers would also help to reduce parametric rolling. They may be
 telescopic or hinged into the sides of the vessel at or near to amidships.
 Alter the ship’s forward speed.
 Alter the ship’s course.
POOPING

 It is a phenomenon when the stern wave catches up with the boat; either propelling it
forward or breaking over the stern (possibly causing swamping). 160
 Pooping occurs when a vessel is in a large following sea and the speed of the waves is
greater than the speed of the ship or when speed of vessel is reduced too quickly.
 The large waves may come onboard the vessel forcing her stern down.
 Vessel falls into the trough of a wave and does not rise with the wave, or if the vessel falls
as the wave is rising and allows the wave to break over her stern or poop deck area.
 Vessels with a low freeboard are more exposed to the risk of ‘pooping’.
 Pooping may cause considerable damage in the stern area and damage to propeller and
rudder due to severe buffeting. Also, engine room can be flooded if the openings which
face aft are not properly secured.
 Corrective action would be to alter course and head seas or heave to.

BROACHING TO

 Broaching occurs when a vessel is in a large following sea and the speed of the ship is
same as the wave speed. This is known as surf-riding.
 The ship will be directionally unstable as no effective water running across the rudder.
 The forces in stern will cause the bow to bury itself deep into the trough and the stern to
swing violently to the left or right and the vessel will come to rest broadside to the waves.
 The ship once turned beam to the sea, begins to roll heavily, and if a following wave
breaks upon her in such a way as to reinforce her roll to leeward, she may be heeled
further over and capsize.
 Corrective action would be to reduce speed or to alter course and head seas.
Heavy weather precautions - (Mentioned in COSWP Chapter 11.12 and/or company SMS)
 Keep ship’s staff appraised of the weather conditions
 Rig lifelines (Safety lines) on deck.
 All weathertight opening shall be closed.
 Inspect the lashings on deck which shall include - anchors, lifeboats, gangways, deck
cargo if any, davits/ cranes etc.
 All loose and moveable objects in stores, accommodation etc. shall be secured.
 If ship is fitted with hold ventilators, same shall be closed and hatch covers to be
battened properly.
 Cover Spurling pipes and if required should be made weathertight with cement and
canvas. 161
 No seafarers should be on unless it is considered necessary for the safety of the ship,
passengers and crew, or the safety of life at sea.
 Work on deck during adverse weather should be authorized by the master and the bridge
watch should be informed. A risk assessment should be undertaken, and a permit to work
and a company checklist for work on deck in heavy weather completed.
 Any seafarers required to go on deck during adverse weather should wear a lifejacket
suitable for working in, a safety harness (which can be attached to lifelines) and
waterproof personal protective equipment including full head protection, and should be
equipped with a water-resistant UHF radio. Head-mounted torches should be considered.
 Seafarers should work in pairs or in teams. All seafarers should be under the command of
a competent person.
 Check the ship’s stability and minimize the free surface by filling up the slack tanks
 If fitted with heavy weather ballast hold, consider taking water inside that. Take full
ballast so as to lower the value of G.
 G or value of GM will impact the vessel’s behaviour in heavy weather
- A large value of GM will make ship stiff causing damage due to short but rapid rolling
- A small value of GM will make ship tender causing long but slow roll motion
 Once all items have been secured properly, record the preparation in logbook.
 Constantly monitor weather and weather information from routing services.
 Adjust the course and speed as required
 Report to relevant authorities and other ships in vicinity as required by SOLAS Regulation
31 - Danger Messages.

Ship handling options available for heavy weather include:

 Head to sea, or with wind & sea fine on the bow, running at reduced speed.
 Stern to sea, at reduced speed, running before the wind.
 Heaving to, preferably in the lee of a land mass, to allow weather to pass.
 Anchoring, depending on depth of water and shelter provided.
 Altering course in plenty of time to take evasive action away from adverse weather
conditions.
1. Head to Sea (or with wind and sea fine on the bow)
 This is probably the most favoured position for a deep-drafted vessel. Leeward drift is
minimized, but the vessel is liable to sustain continual pounding.
 Heading to seas will reduce the speed of the vessel considerably, which will affect the
period of encounter of the on-coming wave formations and subsequently reduce any
pounding that the vessel is experiencing.
 Courses & speed must be altered to remove possibility of hogging or sagging, and prevent
synchronization.
 It can lead to violent pitching at times. Violent pitching may result in racing of the
propellers, which in turn puts excessive stress on engines.
 Power should be reduced to the minimum necessary to maintain steerage way and avoid
162
undue stress on machinery.

2. Stern to Sea
 It is usual to take up a course with the wind on the quarter rather than dead astern, this
action tending to make things more comfortable on board for all concerned.
 If the wind and sea are acting directly from astern, then a vessel will run the risk of a surf
effect or risk of pooping, as waves build up under the stern.
 Generally, vessel’s speed should be eased down until she is handling comfortably.
 A vessel with following sea will not move as violently as a vessel head to sea.
 Speed adjustment, together with long period of encounter, will probably reduce wave
impact without great delay to a ship’s schedule.
 The main concern for a vessel with the wind and sea abaft the beam arises if and when
the vessel is required to turn.
 Also, a following sea reduces the flow of water past the rudder so that steering may
become difficult and prevent the vessel’s head coming up to wind. With reduced rudder
effect, the vessel may be caught in an undesirable beam sea and may ‘broach to’, being
unable to come into the wind and sea.

3. Heaving to
 The method of heaving to is lying with the sea on the bow and steaming ahead at the
minimum speed consistent with steerage way.
 Heaving to is an easy option but problems associated with crew fatigue or the spoiling of
cargo through heaving to for a lengthy period of time.
 In coastal areas, it may be possible to take advantage of a lee caused by some land
masses.
 But when away from coastlines, the action to be taken will depend on the type & form of
the vessel and prevailing weather conditions.
 A reduction of speed will probably be one of the early actions to reduce the motions of
the vessel and eliminate the possibility of cargo shift. Such reductions
 in the vessel’s speed should be limited, to permit correct steerage under the adverse
weather conditions.
 Power should not be reduced to such an extent that stalling of the main machinery
occurs, nor should revolutions be allowed to oscillate about any critical zone of
revolutions for that type of main engine.