Errors and Bridges

EEE2205:Electrical Measurements
2 Errors in Measurements
2.1 Limiting Errors
Limiting errors or Guarantee errors are deviations from nominal value of a particular quan-
tity. For instruments, the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of full
scale reading. e.g. The nominal magnitude of a resistor is 100Ω within a limiting error of
±10Ω. Therefore the actual value of the resistor is between the limits 100 ± 10Ω
2.2 Relative(Fractional) Limiting Errors
Relative (fractional) error is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified (nominal)
magnitude of a quantity.
relative limiting error is given by:

δA 0
r = = (2.1)
Aδ Aδ
or
0 = δA = r Aδ (2.2)
The actual/limiting values are given as:
Aa = Aδ ± δA
= Aδ ± r Aδ
Aa = Aδ (1 ± r ) (2.3)
Percentage limiting error:
%r = r × 100% (2.4)
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Example
Aδ = 100Ω and δA = ±10Ω calculate the relative limiting error and the percentage limiting
error.
a) Relative limiting error
δA ± 10
r = = = ±0.1
Aδ 100
b) Percentage limiting error
%r = r × 100% = ±0.1 × 100 = ±10%
In limiting errors, the specified quantity Aδ is taken as the true quantity, and the quantity
which has the maximum deviation from Aδ is taken as the erroneous quantity, Aa . Thus we
have the limiting errors as:
δA = Aa − Aδ (2.5)
and Relative limiting error as:

Aa − Aδ
r = (2.6)
Aδ
actual value − nominal value

=
nominal value
Example:
A- 0 − 150V -voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The voltage
measured by this instrument is 75V . Calculate the limiting error in %. Comment upon the
result. [Ans : 2%]
Note:While selecting instruments, particular care should be taken as regards the range.
The values to be measured should not lie in the lower third of range. This is important when
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the meter accuracy is specified in terms of the full scale deflection (f.s.d) as a considerable
error (as a percentage of the actual value) may occur.
Example:
A wattmeter having a range of 1000W has an error of ±1% of full scale deflection. If the
true power is 100W , what would the range of the readings be? [Ans: 100 ± 10W ]
Suppose the error is specified as a percentage of the true value, what would be the range of
the readings? [Ans: 100 ± 1W ]
2.2.1 Combination of quantities with limiting errors
When two or more quantities, each having a limiting error, are combined, it is advantageous
to be able to compute the limiting error of the combination. The limiting error can be easily
found by considering the relative increment of the function if the final result is in the form
of an algebraic equation.
(i) Sum of two quantities Let y be the final result which is the sum of measured
quantities u and v.
∴y =u+v
The relative increment of the function is given by:
dy d(u + v) du dv
= = + (2.7)
y y y y
Expressing the results in terms of relative increment of the component quantities:
dy u du v dv
= . + . (2.8)
y y u y v
If the errors in the component quantities are represented by ±δu and ±δv, then the
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corresponding limiting error δy in y is given by:

δy u δu v δv
=± . + . (2.9)
y y u y v
(ii) Difference of two quantities
Let y = u − v
dy d(u − v) du dv
= = − (2.10)
y y y y
Expressing the results in terms of relative increment of the component quantities:
dy u du v dv
= . − . (2.11)
y y u y v
If the errors in the component quantities are represented by ±δu and ±δv, the signs
may be interpreted to give the worst possible discrepancy i.e. when the error in u is
+δu, the error in v is −δv and vice versa, then the corresponding relative limiting error
δy in y is given by:

δy u δu v δv
=± . + . (2.12)
y y u y v
NB: Equations 2.11 and 2.12 are similar. Hence fractional limiting error of sum of
components and difference of components is the same.
(iii) Product of two components
Let y = uv
∴ lny = lnu + lnv (2.13)
Differentiating w.r.t y
1 1 du 1 dv
= + (2.14)
y u dy v dy
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or
dy du dv
= + (2.15)
y u v
Representing the errors in u and v as ±δu and ±δv respectively, the error δy in y is
given by:

δy δu δv
=± + (2.16)
y u v
(iv) Quotient of two components
u
Let y =
v
lny = lnu − lnv (2.17)
Differentiating equation 2.17 w.r.t y we obtain:
1 1 du 1 dv
= − (2.18)
y u dy v dy
or
dy du dv
= − (2.19)
y u v
Representing the errors in u and v as ±δu and ±δv respectively, the relative error δy
in y is given by:  
δy  δu δv 
= ±
u + v
 (2.20)
y
(v) Power of a factor
Let y = un
lny = nlnu (2.21)
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Differentiating equation 2.21 w.r.t y we obtain:
1 1 du
= n. (2.22)
y u dy
or
dy du
=n (2.23)
y u
Hence the relative limiting error of y is:
δy δu
= ±n (2.24)
y u
Example:
The resistance of a circuit is found by measuring current flowing and the power fed into the
circuit. Find the limiting error in the measurements of resistance when the limiting errors in
the measurements of power and current are respectively ±1.5% and ±1.0%. [Ans: ±3.5%]
Example:
The solution for unknown resistance for a Wheatstone bridge is:
R2 R3
Rx =
R1
where R1 = 100 ± 0.5%Ω, R2 = 1000 ± 0.5%Ω and R3 = 842 ± 0.5%Ω. Determine the
magnitude of the unknown resistance and the limiting error in percent and in Ω for the
unknown resistance Rx . [Ans:8420;±1.5%; ±126.3Ω].
2.3 Known Errors
When the error of a quantity or an instrument is known the effect of this error, when
combined with other errors can be computed in a manner similar to the combinations of
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limiting errors. Difference is that in case of known errors, the signs of relative errors are
given and must be preserved in the calculations.
Example:
Three 250Ω, a 500Ω and 375Ω resistors are connected in parallel. The 250Ω has a +0.025
fractional error, the 500Ω resistor has a −0.036 fractional error, and the 375Ω resistor has a
+0.014 fractional error. Determine:
(a) the total resistance neglecting the errors
(b) total resistance considering the error of each resistor
(c) the fractional error of the total resistance based upon rated values
[Ans: 115.4Ω; 116.3Ω; +0.0776%]
2.4 Types of errors
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy but it is important to find out what
accuracy actually is and how different errors have entered into the measurement.
Errors arise from different sources and are classified as:
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors
2.4.1 Gross Errors
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments and calculating
results. The responsibility of the mistake normally lies with the experimenter.
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2.4.2 Systematic Errors
These errors arise from shortcomings of the instruments and the measured system such as:
defective parts and effects of the environment on the equipment or the user. They are usually
consistently on one side of the correct reading They are divided into three categories:
(i) Instrumental Errors
(ii) Environmental Errors
(iii) Observational Errors
(i) Instrumental Errors
These errors arise due to three main reasons:
• Due to inherent shortcomings: These is where errors are inherent in instruments
because of their mechanical structure. i.e. they may be due to construction,
calibration or operation of the instrument or measuring devices. e.g. spring
used for controlling torque of a permanent magnet becoming weak. They can be
mitigated by:
(a) Procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution method
or calibration against standards may be used for this purpose.
(b) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors
(c) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
• Misuse of instruments: Errors caused due to fault of the operation of an instrument
e.g. failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, using leads
of too high resistance etc. Some misuse such as overloading and overheating may
cause permanent damage to the instrument.
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• Loading Effect
Loading effect is when an instrument connected to a circuit alters the actual cir-
cuit conditions during the measurement process. e.g. a voltmeter may give a
misleading voltage reading when connected across a high resistance circuit. The
same voltmeter when connected to a low resistance circuit may give more depend-
able reading.
Example:
A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000Ω/V reads 100V on its 150V scale when
connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter. When the
milliammeter reads 5mA, calculate:
(a) the apparent resistance of the unknown resistor
(b) actual resistance of the unknown resistor
(c) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter
[Ans: 20kΩ; 23.077kΩ; 13.33%]
Example:
Repeat the above if the milliammeter reads 800mA and the voltmeter reads 40V
on its 150V scale [Ans: 50Ω; 50.017Ω; −0.034%]
NB: Errors caused by loading effect of meters can be avoided by using the meters
intelligently. e.g. when measuring a low resistance by ammeter-voltmeter method
a high resistance voltmeter should be used.
(ii) Environmental Errors
These are errors due to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions
in the area surrounding the instrument. e.g. effects of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Mitigation Measures:
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• Arrangement to keep conditions as nearly as constant as possible
• Using equipment which is immune to these effects e.g.using material with very
low resistance-temperature coefficient.
• Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances e.g. effects
of humidity, dust, etc can be eliminated by sealing the equipment
• Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of
computed corrections but where necessary, they are incorporated for the compu-
tations of results.
(iii) Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors e.g. the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of parallax will be
incurred unless the line of vision is exactly above the pointer.
2.4.3 Random(Residual)Errors
It has been consistently found that experimental results show variation from one reading to
another, even after all systematic errors have been accounted for. These errors are due to
multitude of small factors which change o fluctuate from one measurement to another.
2.4.4 Mathematical analysis of the uncertainty
If an experiment has a number of component sources, each being measured individually using
different instruments, a procedure to compute the total accuracy is necessary.
Let R = f (X1 , X2 , X3 ....., Xn ) where X1 , X2 , X3 ....., Xn are independent variables, with each
variable defined as:
Xi = X̄i ± 4Xi
i.e. nominal value and uncertainty in the variable.
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Then
R = R̄ ± 4R
where
R̄ = f (X̄1 , X̄2 , X̄3 ...Xn )
The uncertainty can be computed using Taylor’s expansion and statistical analysis. All par-
∂f
tial derivatives are taken. The partial derivative shows the sensitivity of R to variable
∂X1
X1
Two methods are commonly used for determining the uncertainty.
Limiting uncertainty
This method is also called method of equal effects. It yields, limiting error or limiting un-
certainty or maximum possible error/maximum uncertainty possible. It is determined by
summing percentage errors in case of product and division operations and by using the par-
tial derivatives:
∂R ∂R
4R = 4X1 + 4X2 + . . . (2.25)
∂X1 ∂X2
Expected value of uncertainty
The second method is called the square root of sum of squares. It yields the expected value
of the uncertainty and computed as:
s 2 2
∂R ∂R
4R = 4X1 + 4X2 + ... (2.26)
∂X1 ∂X2
Example:
A rectangular-sided block has edges of lengths a, b and c and its mass is m. If the values
and possible errors in quantities a, b, c are shown below, calculate the value of density and
the possible error in this value. [Ans : 3330kg/m3 ± 3.5%]
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a = 100mm ± 1%, b = 200mm ± 1%, c = 300mm ± 1%, m = 20kg ± 0.5%
Example:
P=VI, if V = 100 ± 2 volt and I = 10 ± 0.2A determine the maximum allowable uncertainty
and the expected uncertainty in power. [Ans : 40W ; 28.3W ]
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3 DC and AC Bridges
Bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate instruments for measurement of unknown
resistance, inductance, capacitance and some other related quantities. Figure 3.1 gives a
classification of bridges:
Figure 3.1: classification of bridges
3.1 D.C Bridges-Resistance measurement
3.1.1 Null-type Wheatstone bridge
Bridge circuit is a null method and it operates on the principle of comparison. That is a
known(standard) value is adjusted until it is equal to the unknown value. D.C bridge circuits
provide the most commonly used method of measuring medium value resistance values. A
null type bridge with d.c excitation, commonly known as Wheatstone bridge, has the form
shown in figure 3.2. The four arms of the bridge consist of the unknown resistance Ru , two
equal value resistors R2 and R3 and a variable resistor Rv (usually a decade resistance box).
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Figure 3.2: Null-type Wheatstone Bridge
A d.c voltage Vi is applied across the points AC and the resistance Rv is varied until the
voltage across point BD is zero. This null point is usually measured with a high sensitivity
galvanometer.
Normally if a high impedance voltage measuring instrument is used, the current Im drawn
by the measuring instrument will be very small and can be approximated to zero and hence,
for Im = 0
I1 = I3 ; I2 = I4 (3.1)
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Looking at path ADC, we have a voltage applied across a resistance Ru + R3 and by ohm’s
law
Vi
I1 = (3.2)
Ru + R3
similarly for path ABC

Vi
I2 = (3.3)
Rv + R2
Voltage drop across AD and AB.
Vi Ru Vi Rv
VAD = I1 Rv = VAB = I2 Rv = (3.4)
Ru + R3 Rv + R2
By principle of superposition:
Vo = VBD = VBA + VAD = −VAB + VAD (3.5)
Thus
Vi Rv Vi Ru
Vo = − + (3.6)
Rv + R2 Ru + R3
At the null point Vo = 0, so:
Rv Ru
= (3.7)
Rv + R2 Ru + R3
inverting both sides:
Rv + R2 Ru + R3
= (3.8)
Rv Ru
hence,
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R3 R2
= (3.9)
Ru Rv
or
R3 Rv
Ru = (3.10)
R2
Thus if
R2 = R3 , Ru = Rv (3.11)
As Rv is an accurately known value because it is derived from a variable decade resistance
box, this means that Ru is also accurately known.
3.2 Deflection type Wheatstone Bridge
Deflection type of bridge with d.c excitation is shown in figure 3.3. This differs from Null
Wheatstone Bridge mainly in that the variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance
R1 of the same value as the nominal value of the unknown resistance Ru . As the resistance
of Ru changes, so the output voltage Vo varies, and the relationship between Vo and Ru must
be calculated.
This relationship is simplified if we again assume that voltage measuring instrument is of
high impedance and the current drawn by it Im is Zero. The analysis is the same as for the
null Wheatstone Bridge except that Rv is replaced by R1 . Thus from equation 3.6, we have:
 
 Ru R1 
Vo = Vi  − 
 Ru + R3 R1 + R2  (3.12)
When Ru is at its nominal value, i.e Ru = R1 , it is clear that Vo = 0 (Since R2 = R3 ). For
other values of Ru , Vo has negative and positive values that vary in a non -linear way with Ru .
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Figure 3.3: Deflection Type Wheatstone Bridge
Example
A certain type of pressure transducer, designed to measure pressures in the range 0 − 10 bar,
consists of a diaphragm with a strain gauge connected to it to detect diaphragm deflections.
The strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 120Ω and forms one arm of a Wheatstone Bridge
circuit, with the other three arms each having a resistance of 120Ω. The bridge output is
measured by an instrument whose input impedance can be assumed infinite.
If, in order to limit heating effects, the maximum permissible gauge current is 30mA, calcu-
late the maximum permissible bridge excitation voltage.
If the sensitivity of the strain gauge is 338mΩ/bar and the maximum bridge excitation
voltage is used, calculate the bridge output voltage when measuring a pressure of 10bar.
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3.2.1 Case where current drawn by measuring instrument is not negligible
For various reasons, it is not always possible to meet the condition that the impedance of the
instrument measuring the bridge output voltage is sufficiently large enough for the current
drawn to be negligible. Hence an alternative relationship between bridge input and output
must be derived that takes the current drawn by the instrument into account. Thevenin’s
theorem is a useful tool for this purpose.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear -two terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VT h in series with a resistor RT h , where VT h
is the open circuit voltage at the terminals and RT h is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
Replacing the voltage source Vi in figure 3.4(a) with by a zero internal resistance produces
the circuit shown in figure 3.4(b) or equivalent resistance shown in figure 3.4(c). RDB is
given by:
R1 R2 Ru R3
RDB = + (3.13)
R1 + R2 Ru + R3
The equivalent circuit derived via Thevenin’s theorem is shown in figure 3.4(d). The open
circuit voltage across DB, Eo is the output voltage calculated earlier, For the case of Rm = 0;

Ru R1
Eo = Vi − (3.14)
Ru + R3 R1 + R2
If the current flowing is Im when the measuring instrument of resistance Rm is connected
across DB, then by ohm’s law Im is given by:
E0
Im = (3.15)
RDB + Rm
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Figure 3.4: Thevenin’s equivalent of Wheatstone Bridge
If Vm is the voltage measured across Rm , then again by ohm’s law:
E0 Rm
Vm = Im Rm = (3.16)
RDB + Rm
Substituting for Eo and RDB in equation 3.16,
 
 Ru R1 
Vi 
 −  Rm
Ru + R3 R1 + R2 
Vm = (3.17)
R1 R2 Ru R3
+ + Rm
R1 + R2 Ru + R3
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Simplifying
Vi Rm (Ru R2 − R1 R3 )
Vm = (3.18)
R1 R2 (Ru + R3 ) + Ru R3 (R1 + R2 ) + Rm (Ru + R3 )(R1 + R2 )
Example
A bridge circuit shown in figure 3.5 is used to measure the value of unknown resistance Ru of
a strain gauge of nominal value 50Ω. The output voltage measured across points DB in the
bridge is measured by a voltmeter. Calculate the measurement sensitivity in V olts/Ohm
change in Ru if the resistance of Rm of the measuring instrument is neglected and secondly
if account is taken of the value of Rm given R1 = R2 = R3 = 50Ω, Rm = 1kΩ.
Figure 3.5: Fig Example
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3.3 A.C bridges
Bridges with a.c excitation are used to measure unknown impedances. As for d.c bridges,
both null and deflection types exist, with null types being generally reserved for calibration
duties.
Alternating current bridges are most popular, convenient and accurate instruments for mea-
surement of unknown inductance, capacitance and some other related quantities. In its
simplest form, ac bridges can be thought of to be derived from the conventional dc Wheat-
stone bridge. An ac bridge, in its basic form, consists of four arms, an alternating power
supply, and a balance detector.
3.3.1 SOURCES AND DETECTORS IN ac BRIDGES
For measurements at low frequencies, bridge power supply can be obtained from the power
line itself. Higher frequency requirements for power supplies are normally met by electronic
oscillators. Electronic oscillators have highly stable, accurate yet adjustable frequencies.
Their output waveforms are very close to sinusoidal and output power level sufficient for
most bridge measurements.
When working at a single frequency, a tuned detector is preferred, since it gives maximum
sensitivity at the selected frequency and discrimination against harmonic frequencies. Vi-
bration galvanometers are most commonly used as tuned detectors in the power frequency
and low audio-frequency ranges. Though vibration galvanometers can be designed to work
as detectors over the frequency range of 5 Hz to 1000 Hz, they have highest sensitivity when
operated for frequencies below 200 Hz.
Head phones or audio amplifiers are popularly used as balance detectors in ac bridges at
frequencies of 250 Hz and above, up to 3 to 4 kHz.
Transistor amplifier with frequency tuning facilities can be very effectively used as balance
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detectors with ac bridges. With proper tuning, these can be used to operate at a selective
band of frequencies with high sensitivity. Such detectors can be designed to operate over a
frequency range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz.
3.3.2 GENERAL BALANCE EQUATION FOR FOUR-ARM BRIDGE
An ac bridge in its general form is shown in Figure 3.6, with the four arms being represented
by four unspecified impedances Z1 , Z2 , Z3 and Z4 . Balance in the bridge is secured by
Figure 3.6: General a.c bridge configuration
adjusting one or more of the bridge arms. Balance is indicated by zero response of the
detector. At balance, no current flows through the detector, i.e., there is no potential
difference across the detector, or in other words, the potentials at points B and C are the
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same. This will be achieved if the voltage drop from A to B equals the voltage drop from A
to C, both in magnitude and phase.
Thus, we can write in terms of complex quantities:
V¯1 = V¯2
or
I¯1 Z̄1 = I¯2 Z̄2 (3.19)
Also at balance, since no current flows through the detector,
V̄
I¯1 = I¯3 = (3.20)
Z̄1 + Z̄3
and
V̄
I¯2 = I¯4 = (3.21)
Z̄2 + Z̄4
Combining Eqs 3.20 and 3.21 into Eq. 3.19, we have:
V̄ V̄
Z̄1 = Z̄2 (3.22)
Z̄1 + Z̄3 Z̄2 + Z̄4
or
Z̄1 Z̄2 + Z̄1 Z̄4 = Z̄1 Z̄2 + Z̄2 Z̄3 (3.23)
or
Z̄1 Z̄4 = Z̄2 Z̄3 (3.24)
or
Z̄1 Z̄2
= (3.25)
Z̄3 Z̄4
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When using admittances in place of impedances, Eq.3.24 can be re-oriented as:
Y¯1 Y¯4 = Y¯2 Y¯3 (3.26)
Equations 3.24 and 3.26 represent the basic balance equations of an ac bridge. Whereas
3.24 is convenient for use in bridge configurations having series elements, 3.26 is more useful
when bridge configurations have parallel elements.
Equation 3.24 indicates that under balanced condition, the product of impedances of one
pair of opposite arms must be equal to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite
arms, with the impedances expressed as complex numbers. This will mean, both magnitude
and phase angles of the complex numbers must be taken into account.
Re-writing the expressions in polar form, impedances can be expressed as Z̄ = Z∠θ where
Z represents the magnitude and θ represents the phase angle of the complex impedance.
If similar forms are written for all impedances and substituted in eqn 3.24, we obtain:
Z1 ∠θ1 × Z4 ∠θ4 = Z2 ∠θ2 × Z3 ∠θ3 (3.27)
Thus, for balance we have,
Z1 Z4 (θ1 + θ4 ) = Z2 Z3 (θ2 + θ3 ) (3.28)
Equation 3.28 shows that two requirements must be met for satisfying balance condition
in a bridge. The first condition is that the magnitude of the impedances must meet the
relationship;
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3 (3.29)
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The second condition is that the phase angles of the impedances must meet the relationship;
(θ1 + θ4 ) = (θ2 + θ3 ) (3.30)
Example
In the AC bridge circuit shown in Figure 3.6, the supply voltage is 20V at 500Hz. Arm
AB is 0.25µF pure capacitance; arm BD is 400Ω pure resistance and arm AC has a 120Ω
resistance in parallel with a 0.15µF capacitor. Find resistance and inductance or capacitance
of the arm CD considering it as a series circuit.
3.4 MEASUREMENT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE
3.4.1 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
This bridge is used to measure the value of an unknown inductance by comparing it with
a variable standard self-inductance. The bridge configuration and phasor diagram under
balanced condition are shown in Figure 3.7 The unknown inductor L1 of resistance R1 in
the branch AB is compared with the standard known inductor L2 of resistance R2 on arm
AC. The inductor L2 is of the same order as the unknown inductor L1 . The resistances R1 ,
R2 , etc., include, of course the resistances of contacts and leads in various arms. Branch BD
and CD contain known noninductive resistors R3 and R4 respectively.
The bridge is balanced by varying L2 and one of the resistors R3 or R4 . Alternatively, R3
and R4 can be kept constant, and the resistance of one of the other two arms can be varied
by connecting an additional resistor.
Under balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. Under such condition,
currents in the arms AB and BD are equal (I1 ). Similarly, currents in the arms AC and CD
are equal (I2 ). Under balanced condition, since nodes B and D are at the same potential,
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Figure 3.7: Maxwell’s inductance bridge under balanced condition: (a) Configuration (b)
Phasor diagram
voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4 ); similarly, voltage drop across
arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2 ).
At balance,
R1 + jωL1 R2 + jωL2
= (3.31)
R3 R4
or,
R1 R4 + jωL1 R4 = R2 R3 + jωL2 R3 (3.32)
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have;
R1 R4 = R2 R3 (3.33)
R1 R3
= (3.34)
R2 R4
and also,
jωL1 R4 = jωL2 R3 (3.35)
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L1 R3
= (3.36)
L2 R4
Thus,
R1 R3 L1
= = (3.37)
R2 R4 L2
Unknown quantities can hence be calculated as:
R3 R3
L1 = L2 × and R1 = R2 × (3.38)
R4 R4
Care must be taken that the inductors L1 and L2 must be placed at a distance from each
other to avoid effects of mutual inductance.
The final expression 3.38 shows that values of L1 and R1 do not depend on the supply
frequency. Thus, this bridge configuration is immune to frequency variations and even
harmonic distortions in the power supply.
3.4.2 Maxwell’s Inductance − Capacitance Bridge
In this bridge, the unknown inductance is measured by comparison with a standard variable
capacitance. It is much easier to obtain standard values of variable capacitors with accept-
able degree of accuracy. This is however, not the case with finding accurate and stable
standard value variable inductor as is required in the basic Maxwell’s bridge described in
Section 3.4.1.
Configuration of a Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge and the associated phasor
diagram at balanced state are shown in Figure 3.8. The unknown inductor L1 of effective
resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known variable capacitor C4
on arm CD. The other resistances R2 , R3 , and R4 are known as non − inductive resistors.
The bridge is preferably balanced by varying C4 and R4 , giving independent adjustment
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Figure 3.8: Maxwell’s inductance − capacitance bridge under balanced condition: (a) Con-
figuration (b) Phasor diagram
settings.
Under balanced condition, no current flows through the detector. Under such condition,
currents in the arms AB and BD are equal (I1 ). Similarly, currents in the arms AC and CD
are equal (I2 ). Under balanced condition, since nodes B and D are at the same potential,
voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4 ); similarly, voltage drops across
arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2 ).
At balance;
R1 + jωL1 R2
= (3.39)
R3
R4
1 + jωC4 R4
or
R1 R4 + jωL1 R4 = R2 R3 + jωC4 R2 R3 R4 (3.40)
S. CHEGE 33 2018
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
R3
R1 R4 = R2 R3 or R1 = R2 × (3.41)
R4
and also;
jωL1 R4 = jωC4 R2 R3 R4 or L1 = C4 R2 R3 (3.42)
Thus, the unknown quantities are:
R3
L1 = C4 R2 R3 and R1 = R2 × (3.43)
R4
Once again, the final expression 3.43 shows that values of L1 and R1 do not depend on the
supply frequency. Thus, this bridge configuration is immune to frequency variations and
even harmonic distortions in the power supply.
Both the Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge and Inductance − Capacitance Bridge, the unknown
Inductor L1 is associated with a resistance R1 . This series resistance has been included to
represent losses that take place in an inductor coil. An ideal inductor will be lossless irre-
spective of the amount of current flowing through it. However, any real inductor will have
some non − zero resistance associated with it due to resistance of the metal wire used to
form the inductor winding. This series resistance causes heat generation due to power loss.
In such cases, the Quality Factor or the Q−Factor of such a lossy inductor is used to indicate
how closely the real inductor comes to behave as an ideal inductor.
The Q-factor of an inductor is defined as the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance
at a given frequency. Q-factor is a measure of the efficiency of the inductor. The higher the
value of Q-factor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal, loss less inductor. An
ideal inductor would have an infinite Q at all frequencies.
S. CHEGE 34 2018
ωL
The Q−factor of an inductor is given by the formula Q = , where R is its internal
R
resistance R (series resistance) and ωL is its inductive reactance at the frequency ω.
Advantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
1. The balance equations 3.43 are independent of each other, thus the two variables C4
and R4 can be varied independently.
2. Final balance equations are independent of frequency.
3. The unknown quantities can be denoted by simple expressions involving known quan-
tities.
4. Balance equation is independent of losses associated with the inductor.
5. A wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies can be measured.
Disdvantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
1. The bridge, for its operation, requires a standard variable capacitor, which can be very
expensive if high accuracies are asked for. In such a case, fixed value capacitors are
used and balance is achieved by varying R4 and R2 .
2. This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q inductors (1 < Q < 10).
3. Maxwell’s bridge is also unsuited for coils with very low value of Q (e.g., Q < 1).Such
low Q inductors can be found in inductive resistors and RF coils. Maxwell’s bridge
finds difficult and laborious to obtain balance while measuring such low Q inductors.
3.4.3 Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s bridge. This method of measurement is partic-
ularly suited for high Q inductors. Configuration of Hay’s bridge and the associated phasor
S. CHEGE 35 2018
diagram under balanced state are shown in Figure 3.9. The unknown inductor L1 of effective
Figure 3.9: Hay’s bridge under balanced condition: (a) Configuration (b) Phasor diagram
resistance R1 in the branch AB is compared with the standard known variable capacitor C4
on arm CD. This bridge uses a resistance R4 in series with the standard capacitor C4 (unlike
in Maxwell’s bride where R4 was in parallel with C4 ). The other resistances R2 and R3 are
known non − inductive resistors. The bridge is balanced by varying C4 and R4 .
Under balanced condition, since no current flows through the detector, nodes B and D are
at the same potential, voltage drops across arm BD and CD are equal (V3 = V4 ); similarly,
voltage drops across arms AB and AC are equal (V1 = V2 ).
At balance,
R1 + jωL1 R2
= (3.44)
R3
j
R4 −
ωC4
S. CHEGE 36 2018
or
L1 jR1
R1 R4 + + jωL1 R4 − = R2 R3 (3.45)
C4 wC4
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
L1
R1 R4 + = R2 R3 (3.46)
C4
and
R1
ωL1 R4 = (3.47)
wC4
Solving eqns. 3.46 and 3.47 we have the unknown quantities as:
R2 R3 C4
L1 = (3.48)
1 + ω 2 R4 2 C4 2
and
R2 R3 R4 ω 2 C4 2
R1 = (3.49)
1 + ω 2 R4 2 C4 2
Q factor of the inductor in this case can be calculated at balance condition as:
ωL1 1
Q= = (3.50)
R1 ωC4 R4
Hay’s bridge is more suitable for measurement of unknown inductors having Q factor more
than 10. In those cases, bridge balance can be attained by varying R2 only, without losing
much accuracy.
S. CHEGE 37 2018
From eqs 3.48 and 3.50, the unknown inductance value can be written as:
R2 R3 C4
L1 = (3.51)
1
1+
Q2
For inductors with Q > 10, the quantity (1/Q)2 will be less than 1/100, and thus can be
neglected from the denominator of eqn 3.51. In such a case, the inductor value can be
simplified to L1 = R2 R3 C4 , which essentially is the same as obtained in Maxwell’s bridge.
3.5 Capacitance measurement
Bridges are used to make precise measurements of unknown capacitances and associated
losses in terms of some known external capacitances and resistances. An ideal capacitor is
formed by placing a piece of dielectric material between two conducting plates or electrodes.
In practical cases, this dielectric material will have some power losses in it due to dielectric’s
conduction electrons and also due to dipole relaxation phenomena. Thus, whereas an ideal
capacitor will not have any losses, a real capacitor will have some losses associated with its
operation. The potential energy across a capacitor is thus dissipated in all real capacitors
as heat loss inside its dielectric material.
This loss is equivalently represented by a series resistance, called the equivalent series resis-
tance (ESR). In a good capacitor, the ESR is very small, whereas in a poor capacitor the
ESR is large.
A real, lossy capacitor can thus be equivalently represented by an ideal loss less capacitor in
series CR with its equivalent series resistance (ESR).
The quantifying parameters often used to describe performance of a capacitor are ESR, its
dissipation factor (DF), Quality Factor (Q-factor) and Loss Tangent (tan δ). Not
S. CHEGE 38 2018
only that these parameters describe operation of the capacitor in radio frequency (RF) appli-
cations, but ESR and DF are also particularly important for capacitors operating in power
supplies where a large dissipation factor will result in large amount of power being wasted
in the capacitor. Capacitors with high values of ESR will need to dissipate large amount of
heat. Proper circuit design needs to be practiced so as to take care of such possibilities of
heat generation.
Dissipation factor due to the non-ideal capacitor is defined as the ratio of the resistive
power loss in the ESR to the reactive power oscillating in the capacitor;
i2 R R
DF = = = ωCR (3.52)
i2 XC
1
ωC
Loss tangent of a real capacitor is defined as the ratio of voltage drop across the ESR to
the voltage drop across the capacitor only, i.e. tangent of the angle between the capacitor
voltage only and the total voltage drop across the combination of capacitor and ESR.
Figure 3.10: Loss Tangent
VR iR R
tanδ = = = = ωCR (3.53)
VC iXC
1
ωC
S. CHEGE 39 2018
Though the expressions for dissipation factor (DF ) and loss tangent (tan δ) are the same,
normally the dissipation factor is used at lower frequencies, whereas the loss tangent is more
applicable for high frequency applications. A good capacitor will normally have low values
of dissipation factor (DF ) and loss tangent (tan δ).
In addition to ESR, DF and loss tangent, the other parameter used to quantify performance
of a real capacitor is its Quality Factor or Q-Factor. Essentially for a capacitor it is the ratio
of the energy stored to that dissipated per cycle.
i 2 XC XC
Q= = (3.54)
i2 R R
It can thus be deduced that the Q can be expressed as the ratio of the capacitive reactance
to the ESR at the frequency of interest.
XC 1 1 1
Q= = = = (3.55)
R ωCR DF tan δ
A high quality capacitor (high Q-factor) will thus have low values of dissipation factor (DF)
and loss tangent ((tan δ), i.e. less losses. The most commonly used bridges for capacitance
measurement are De Sauty’s bridge and Schering Bridge.
3.5.1 Schering Bridge
Schering bridges are most popularly used these days in industries for measurement of ca-
pacitance, dissipation factor, and loss angles. Figure 3.11 illustrates the configuration of a
Schering bridge and corresponding phasor diagram under balanced condition. The unknown
capacitor C1 along with its internal resistance r1 (representing loss) placed on the arm AB is
compared with the standard loss-less capacitor C2 placed on the arm AC. This capacitor C2
is either an air or a gas capacitor to make it loss free. R3 is a non-inductive resistance placed
S. CHEGE 40 2018
Figure 3.11: Schering bridge under balanced condition: (a) Configuration (b) Phasor diagram
on arm BD. The bridge is balanced by varying the capacitor C4 and the non-inductive
resistor R4 parallel with C4 , placed on arm CD. Under balanced condition, since no current
flows through the detector, nodes B and C are at the same potential, i.e., V1 = V2 and
V3 = V4 .
At balance,
1 1
r1 +
jωC1 jωC2
= (3.56)
R3
R4
1 + jωC4 R4
or    
 1   R3 
R4 
r1 +
=  (1 + jωC4 R4 ) (3.57)
jωC1   jωC2 
or
jR4 R3 R4 C4 jR3
R4 r1 − = − (3.58)
ωC1 C2 ωC2
S. CHEGE 41 2018
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have the unknown quantities:
R3 C4
r1 = (3.59)
C2
and
R4
C1 = C2 (3.60)
R3
Dissipation Factor
I1 r1 R4 R3 C4
D1 = tan δ1 = = ωC1 r1 = ω × C2 × = ωR4 C4 (3.61)
R3 C2
I1
ωC1
Thus, using Schering bridge, dissipation factor can be obtained in terms of the bridge pa-
rameters at balance condition.
3.6 MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
3.6.1 Wien’s Bridge
Wien’s brige is primarily used for determination of an unknown frequency. However, it
can be used for various other applications including capacitance measurement, in harmonic
distortion analysers, where it is used as notch filter, and also in audio and HF oscillators.
Configuration of a Wien’s bridge for determination of unknown frequency and corresponding
phasor diagram under balanced condition is shown in Figure 3.12 Under balanced condition,
since no current flows through the detector, nodes B and C are at the same potential, i.e.,
V1 = V2 and V3 = V4 .
S. CHEGE 42 2018
Figure 3.12: Wien’s bridge under balanced condition: (a) Configuration (b) Phasor diagram
At balance:    
 R1   j 
  R2 − 
 1 + jωC1 R1   ωC2 
= (3.62)
R3 R4
or
R1 R4 ωC2 R2 R3 − jR3
= (3.63)
1 + jωC1 R1 ωC2
or
ωC2 R1 R4 = ωC2 R2 R3 − jR3 + jω 2 C1 C2 R1 R2 R3 + ωC1 R1 R3 (3.64)
Or
ω(C2 R1 R4 ) = ω(C2 R2 R3 + C1 R1 R3 ) − j(R3 − ω 2 C1 C2 R1 R2 R3 ) (3.65)
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
C2 R1 R4 = C2 R2 R3 + C1 R1 R3 (3.66)
S. CHEGE 43 2018
or
R4 R2 C1
= + (3.67)
R3 R1 C2
and
ω 2 C1 C2 R1 R2 R3 = R3 (3.68)
or
r
1
ω= (3.69)
C1 C2 R1 R2
or
1
f= √ (3.70)
2π C1 C2 R1 R2
In most bridges, the parameters are so chosen that, R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C Then,
from Eq. 3.70, we get:

1
f= (3.71)
2πRC
Sliders for the resistors R1 and R2 are mechanically coupled to satisfy the criteria R1 = R2 .
NB: Wien’s bridge is frequency sensitive. Thus, unless the supply voltage is
purely sinusoidal, achieving balance may be troublesome, since harmonics may
disturb balance condition. Use of filters with the null detector in such cases
may solve the problem.
Example
The four arms of a bridge supplied from a sinusoidal source are configured as follows:
Arm AB: A resistance of 100Ω in parallel with a capacitance of 0.5µF
Arm BC: A 200Ω noninductive resistance
Arm CD: A 800Ω noninductive resistance
S. CHEGE 44 2018
Arm DA: A resistance Rx in series with a 1µF capacitance
Determine the value of Rx and the frequency at which the bridge will balance.
Supply is given between terminals A and C and the detector is connected between nodes B
and D. {Ans:350Ω; 1203Hz}
S. CHEGE 45 2018

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EEE2205:Electrical Measurements

2.1 Limiting Errors

2.2 Relative(Fractional) Limiting Errors

relative limiting error is given by:

The actual/limiting values are given as:

Percentage limiting error:

%r = r × 100% (2.4)

a) Relative limiting error

b) Percentage limiting error

%r = r × 100% = ±0.1 × 100 = ±10%

have the limiting errors as:

and Relative limiting error as:

actual value − nominal value

result. [Ans : 2%]

error (as a percentage of the actual value) may occur.

the readings? [Ans: 100 ± 1W ]

2.2.1 Combination of quantities with limiting errors

The relative increment of the function is given by:

Expressing the results in terms of relative increment of the component quantities:

corresponding limiting error δy in y is given by:

(ii) Difference of two quantities

Expressing the results in terms of relative increment of the component quantities:

components and difference of components is the same.

(iii) Product of two components

∴ lny = lnu + lnv (2.13)

(iv) Quotient of two components

Differentiating equation 2.17 w.r.t y we obtain:

(v) Power of a factor

lny = nlnu (2.21)

Differentiating equation 2.21 w.r.t y we obtain:

Hence the relative limiting error of y is:

The solution for unknown resistance for a Wheatstone bridge is:

unknown resistance Rx . [Ans:8420;±1.5%; ±126.3Ω].

2.3 Known Errors

given and must be preserved in the calculations.

+0.014 fractional error. Determine:

(a) the total resistance neglecting the errors

(b) total resistance considering the error of each resistor

[Ans: 115.4Ω; 116.3Ω; +0.0776%]

2.4 Types of errors

Errors arise from different sources and are classified as:

2.4.1 Gross Errors

2.4.2 Systematic Errors

(i) Instrumental Errors

(ii) Environmental Errors

(iii) Observational Errors

(i) Instrumental Errors

These errors arise due to three main reasons:

• Due to inherent shortcomings: These is where errors are inherent in instruments

because of their mechanical structure. i.e. they may be due to construction,

calibration or operation of the instrument or measuring devices. e.g. spring

(a) Procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution method

or calibration against standards may be used for this purpose.

(c) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.

• Misuse of instruments: Errors caused due to fault of the operation of an instrument

cause permanent damage to the instrument.

connected across an unknown resistor in series with a milliammeter. When the

milliammeter reads 5mA, calculate:

%r = r × 100% (2.4)

%r = r × 100% = ±0.1 × 100 = ±10%