Eee 2407 - Instrumentation Nov-Mar 2019-2

Instrumentation Lecture Notes by J.C.
Simotwo 1
EEE 2407-INSTRUMENTATION
Teaching Organization
No. of Lecture Hrs. /Week: 04 Total No. of Lecture Hrs: 52
CAT Marks: 15 LAB Marks: 15 (At least 3 practicals each 3hrs)
Exam Marks: 70 Total Score: 100
Pass mark: 40
Course Instructor:
Job C. Simotwo
November, 2018.
Prerequisites:
Electrical Measurements, Analogue Electronics III
Course Objectives:
• To provide an in-depth understanding of the different types of sensors and transducers

• To develop a basic understanding of the electronic circuits used to convert sensor outputs to
useful signals.
• To develop an appreciation for the non-ideal characteristics of actual sensors and sensor
circuits
Expected Outcomes:
At the end of this course, the students should be able to:
1. Describe different instrument systems and their characteristics

2. Identify and select appropriate transducers for given applications
3. Understand various types of signal processing circuits used for processing transducer
outputs.
4. Be well acquainted with the measurement techniques of variables like stress, strain,
displacement, acceleration, temperature, and humidity
5. Describe the techniques of microprocessor-based data acquisition and storage.
6. Engineering Workbench) and the IEEE-488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) for data
acquisition and storage.
Instrumentation Lecture Notes by J.C. Simotwo 2
Course Description
1.Chapter One: Generalised Performance and Principles of instrumentation systems

[1] Measurement
[2] Basic requirements
[3] Significance of measurement
[4] Methods of measurement
[5] Instrument and measurement systems
[6] Evolution of instruments
[7] Classification of Instruments/Types of Instrumentation system
[8] Elements of generalized measurement system
[9] Functional elements of an instrument
2.Chapter Two: Instrument Characteristics, Meteorology, Standards and Error

Analysis
1. Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems: Accuracy, Precision,
Sensitivity, Linearity, Reproducibility, Repeatability, Resolution, Threshold, Drift,
Stability, Tolerance, Range or span
2. Dynamic system models: Speed of response, Measuring lag, Fidelity, Dynamic error
3. The Instruments of Meteorology: Meteorological parameters (Air temperature and
pressure, Humidity, Precipitation, Visibility, Wind, Solar radiation, dew point). Modern
Instruments (Thermometers, rain gauges, pressure sensors, wind instruments and
Hygrometer). Upper atmosphere instruments (Rockets and Satellites).
4. Standards & Calibration: Types of Standards: International Standards, Primary Standards
,Secondary Standards, Working Standards
5. Types of Calibration: Primary, Secondary, direct and indirect calibration
6. Error analysis: Systematic Errors, Random Errors, Resolution, Propagation of Errors,
Significant Digits in Numerical Values
3.Chapter Three: Transducers

[1] Types of transducers, Transducer selection, Transducer characteristics, Resistive,
inductive, capacitive, and Hall-effect types.
[2] Transducers for non-electrical quantities/primary variables: mechanical variables
(measurement of stress and strain; displacement; acceleration); temperature (thermal);
humidity and acoustic (sound).
[3] Opto-electronic measurements.
[4] Measurement of Low Level Quantities.
[5] Applications of transducers in measuring devices.
4.Chapter Four: Remote sensing techniques

[1] Meaning and Basics of Remote Sensing
[2] Types of Remote sensing techniques: Satellite Remote Sensing, Optical and Infrared
Remote Sensing, Microwave Remote Sensing
[3] Remote Sensing Images
[4] Application of Active and Passive Sensors in Remote Sensing (LiDAR, RADAR and
Aerial Photography)
[5] Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA): SCADA systems, Elements of
SCADA Control.
5.Chapter Five: Signal conditioning e.g. chopper amplifier and pre-processing

6.Chapter Six: Noise and interference reduction
[1] Definition and Sources of Noise
[2] Effects of noise on small signals
[3] Noise and interference reduction
7.Chapter Seven: Digital Instrumentation and Data Storage System

[1] Principles and examples of digital instruments
[2] Microprocessor applications in instrumentation,
[3] RS-232 and IEEE-488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB),
[4] Digital data acquisition, Data recording/ Data storage system and displays
[5] Chart recorder: X-Y plotters
Practical work/Laboratory Exercises

The practical work/laboratory exercises are to cover the following topics:
• Displacement measurement by Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
• Temperature measurement using Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), Thermocouple,
Thermistor
• Thermocouple calibration.
• Angular position measurement using Potentiometer sensor and an optical encoder.
• Measurement of bending strength or force using strain gauges.
• Rotational speed measurement using a tachometer
• Analogue-to-Digital (A/D) and Digital-to-Analogue (D/A) conversion
• Data acquisition and storage using Lab VIEW and the IEEE-488 General Purpose Interface
Bus (GPIB).
Text Books & Reference Materials
1. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, A. K. Sawhney,

Dhanpatrai and Sons, New Delhi.
2. Measurement and Instrumentation Principles, Third Edition, by Alan S Morris,
Butterworth-Heinemann Publishers, 2001.
3. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measuring Techniques, Cooper D. and A.D.
Heifrick, PHI, 2009 Edition.
4. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement, David A. Bell, Oxford Publication, 2nd
Edition, 2009.
5. Instrumentation Measurement and Analysis, B. C Nakra and K.K.Chaudhry, 3rd
Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd, 2009.
6. Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments, Golding and Widdies, Pitman.
7. Process Control Instrumentation Technology, by Curtis Johnson, 8th Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2005.
CHAPTER ONE: GENERALISED PERFORMANCE AND PRINCIPLES OF

INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS
1.1 Definition of Measurement and Instrumentation
Instrumentation/ Instrumentation System

 An instrumentation system is a physical system which is a collection of a physical object
connected in such a way to give the desired output response.
 An instrumentation system is an assembly of various instruments and other components
interconnected to measure, analyze and control the Electrical, Thermal, Hydraulic and
other non-electrical quantities.
 An instrumentation system is a science and engineering of measuring and/or controlling a
physical variables (quantities)
Example:
Mechanical thermostat, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room
temperature or iron box. A typical unit senses temperature with a bi-metallic strip.
Measurement
 When we decide to study a variable we need to devise some way to measure it. Some
variables are easy to measure and others are very difficult. The values of variables are
made meaningful by quantifying them into specific units. For example, instead of saying
that a particular fluid is hot, we can specify a measurement and specify that the fluid is
having a temperature of 800C.
 Measurement (also called metrology) is the science of determining values of physical
variables.
 The measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured.
 For the result to be meaningful, there are two basic requirements:-
1. The comparison standard is accurately defined and commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus/instrument used and the method adopted must be provable.
 Measurements are made with the help of instruments. An instrument can be defined as
a device or a system which is defined in such a way that it maintains a functional
relationship between a prescribed property of a substance and a physical variable.
Example:
A mercury-in-glass thermometer maintains a linear relationship between thermal expansion
of mercury (prescribed property) and temperature (physical variable).
Measurement system
Measurement system is composed of all elements within the hardware chain and software
algorithm from measured variable through processed data.
1.2 Significance of Measurements

1. It improves precision and confidence in observations made in Science by enabling an
objective observation of the changes in variables.
2. Measurements enlighten the observer about the sources of errors in measurements under
consideration thus minimizing the likelihood to draw erroneous conclusions.
3. It confirms the validity of a given hypothesis or invention and also add to its understanding.
The advancement of Science and Technology is therefore dependent upon a parallel progress
in measurement techniques.
4. The economical design, operation and maintenance require a feedback of information. This
information is supplied by appropriate measurement systems.
Example:
In process industries and industrial manufacturing, measurement serves to improve the quality
of the product, to improve the efficiency of production, and to maintain the proper operation.
1.3 Function of Instrumentation and Measurement Systems

On the basis of the functions they perform, measurement systems and the instruments fall into
four main classes:
i. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the

variable quantity under measurement
Example: The deflection of a pointer of speedometer, pressure gauge.
ii. Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on
paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement against time or against some other
variable. This is a recording function performed by the instrument.
Example: A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records the
instantaneous values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
iii. Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and modify the measured signal
to facilitate recording / control.
iv. Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions especially in the field
of industrial control processes. In this case, the information is used by the instrument or
the system to control the original measured quantity.
1.4 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument

The following are the basic requirements of a good quality measurement system/instrument:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
1.5 Applications of Measurement Systems

Examples:
Properties to be measured Application Field
• Battery fluid level ………………………………...Automobile
• Atmospheric pressure, hygrometry level ………….Metrology
• Beam resistance ……………………………………Civil engineering
• Blood Glucose level………………………………..Biology
• ECG signals ………………………………………..Health, medicine
• Fiber optic flow……………………………………Telecommunications

• Flight speed, altitude………………………………Transportation
• Presence detection …………………………………Home automation
• Radar detection, surveillance………………………Military
• Sugar level in a fruit………………………………..Agriculture
• Undersea pressure, depth…………………………..Marine industry
 Different applications of the instruments and measurement systems are:
i). Monitoring a Process/Operation

There are several applications of measuring instruments that mainly have a function of
monitoring a process parameter. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter
under study and these readings do not provide any control operation.
Example:
A speedometer in a car indicates the speed of the car at a given moment, an ammeter or a
voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes and industries provide the
information on the commodity used so that its cost could be computed and realized from the
user.
ii). Control a Process/Operation

Another application of instruments is in automatic control systems. Measurement of a
variable and its control are closely associated. To control a process variable like
temperature, pressure or humidity etc., the prerequisite is that it is accurately measured at
any given instant and at the desired location. Same is true for all other process parameters
such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the servo-systems for these parameters.
A block diagram of a simple process control system is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1 Process control system
Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-electrical quantity and the
control action is through electrical means. Since the output variable is a non-electrical
quantity, it is converted into a corresponding electrical form by a transducer connected in the
feedback loop. The input to the controller is reference which corresponds to the desired value
of the process parameter. The output process variable is compared with the reference or
desired value with the help of a comparator. In case the desired value and the process variable
differ, there is a resultant error signal. This error signal is amplified and then fed to an
actuator, which produces power to drive the controlled circuitry.
The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as the reference input which
corresponds to the desired output. At this stage, there error signal is zero and hence there is
no input to the actuator and the control action stops.
Examples: The domestic appliances; refrigerator, air conditioner or a hot air oven. All of
these employ a thermostatic control.
iii). Experimental Engineering Analysis

Experimental engineering analysis is carried on to find out solution of the engineering
problems. These problems may be theoretical designs or practical analysis. The analysis
could be grouped into following categories:
1. Obtaining solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.

2. Formulating the generalized empirical relationships in the cases where no proper
theoretical backing exists.
3. Testing the validity of theoretical predications.
4. Generating the basic engineering design data on the properties of the input raw
materials and processed products for R&D application.
5. Design of process equipment for specific applications.
6. Optimization of machine / system parameters, variables and performance indices.
1.6. Elements of Generalized Measurement System/Functional Elements

The operation of a measuring instrument or a system can be described in a generalized manner
in terms of functional elements. Each functional element is made up of a component or groups
of components which perform required and definite steps in the measurement. The functional
elements do not provide the intricate details of the physical aspects of a specific instrument or
a system. These may be taken as basic elements, whose scope is determined by their
functioning rather than their construction. The main functional elements of a measurement
system are:
i) Sensing element
ii) Variable conversion element
iii) Variable manipulation element
iv) Signal conditioning element
v) Data transmission element
vi) Data presentation element.
Figure 1.2 presents the block diagram of functional elements of a generalized measuring
system / instrument.
NB: One must understand the difference between functional elements and the physical
elements of measuring system. Functional element indicates only the function to be
performed. Physical elements are the actual components or parts of the system. One physical
element can perform more than one function. Similarly one function could be performed by
more than one physical element. Also, note that a measurement system can consist of as little
as one of the steps.
1.6.1 Primary sensing element

This is an element which comes first in contact with the process and gives an output which
depends in some way on the variable to be measured.
Example:
Thermocouple where millivolt e.m.f. depends on temperature
Strain gauge where resistance depends on mechanical strain
Orifice plate where pressure drop depends on flow rate.
If there is more than one sensing element in a system, the element in contact with the process
is termed the primary sensing element, the others secondary sensing elements.
1.6.2 Variable conversion element

The output signal of the variable sensing element may be any kind. It could be a mechanical
or electrical signal. It may be a deflection of elastic member or some electrical parameter, such
as, voltage, frequency etc. Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not suited to the
measurement system. For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary
to convert this output signal from the sensor to some other suitable form while preserving the
information content of the original signal.
Example: Suppose the output from the sensing element is in the form of very small
displacement which is difficult to measure mechanically, it is converted in to corresponding
electrical signal with the help of transducer called stain gauge for further processing. In
addition, in case the output at one stage is in analogue form and the next stage of the system
accepts input signal only in digital form, then an Analogue /Digital converter is used.
NB: In many instruments variable conversion element is not required but some
instruments/measuring systems may require more than one element.
Sensing Variable Variable

Quantity
element conversion manipulation
to be
measured element element
(measurand)
Data storage Data

/play back transmission
element element
Data
Observer presentation
element
Fig. 1.2 Block diagram of functional elements of a measurement system / instrument
1.6.3 Variable manipulation element

Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a
variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal presented to this element while
preserving the original nature of the signal. For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable
manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an
output signal which is also voltage but of greater magnitude. The variable manipulation
element could be either placed after the variable conversion element or it may precede the
variable conversion element.
1.6.4 Signal conditioning element

This takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form more suitable for
further processing, usually a d.c. voltage, d.c. current or frequency signal.
Example:
Deflection bridge which converts an impedance change into a voltage change
Amplifier which amplifies millivolts to volts
Oscillator which converts an impedance change into a variable frequency voltage.
The operations performed on the signal, to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is
called Signal Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in
addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation.
Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as, amplification, attenuation,
integration, differentiation, addition and subtraction. Some may be non-linear processes,
such as, modulation, filtering, clipping, etc. The signal conditioning processes are performed
on the signal to bring it to the desired form for further transmission to next stage in the system.
The element that performs this function in any instrument or instrumentation system is known
as Signal Conditioning Element.
1.6.5 Data transmission element

When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to transmit the data
from one stage to other. The element that performs this function is called a Data Transmission
Element.
Example: radio links or telemetry systems for guiding movements of satellites or the air planes
which are physically separated from the control stations at earth. The signal conditioning and
transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
1.6.6 Data presentation element

This communicates the information about the measurand to the human observer or presents it
in an intelligible form. The presented data may be used by the system for monitoring,
controlling, or analyzing purposes. In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are
needed. These devices may be analogue or digital indicating instruments like ammeters,
voltmeters, etc. In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed
camera and T.V. equipment; storage type C.R.T., printers, analogue and digital computers
may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers and the control elements are used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.
1.7. Classification of Measuring Instruments

Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the
means by which the variables and the relations between variables are obtained. The
instruments may be classified into separate classes according to several criteria as follows:
i) Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments
ii) Absolute and secondary instruments
iii) Manual and automatic instruments
iv) Analogue and digital instruments
v) Self operated and power operated instruments
vi) Self contained and remote indicating instruments
1.7.1. Mechanical, Electric and Electronic Instruments
a) Mechanical instruments
The first instruments were mechanical in nature and the principles on which these instruments
worked are even in vogue today. The earliest scientific instruments used the same three
essential elements as our modern instruments do. These elements are a detector, an
intermediate transfer device and an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. There is a large number of
possibilities of mechanical instruments. It could be callipers, micrometres, scales, measuring
tapes, lasers, etc. for measuring distances, a pressure gauge for measuring pressure, strain
gauges for measure how much a part is stretched or compressed when a load is applied,
tachometer for measuring the rotational speed, multi-meter for measuring electrical voltages
and currents.
However, the mechanical instruments suffer from a disadvantage that they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. These instruments have
several moving parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently have a large mass. The
mass presents inertia problems and hence these instruments cannot follow the rapid changes
which are involved in dynamic measurements. Another disadvantage of mechanical
instruments is that most of them are a potential source of noise and cause pollution of silence.
Mechanical instruments are simple in design and application. They are more durable and
relatively cheaper. No external power source is required for the operation of mechanical
instruments. They are quite reliable and accurate for measurements under stable conditions.
b) Electrical instruments
Electrical methods of indicating and transmitting the output are faster than the respective
mechanical methods. However, an electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical
pointer movement as an indicating device. Thus owing to the inertial of mechanical
movements these instruments have a limited time and frequency response.
Example: Some electrical recorders can give full scale response in 0.2 seconds; while the
majority of industrial recorders have response time of 0.5 to 24 seconds. Some of the
galvanometers can follow 50 Hz variations, but as per present day requirements of fast
measurements these are also considered to be slow.
Electrical instruments are light and compact. Amplification produced is greater than that
produced by mechanical means. They provide greater flexibility and are lighter in
construction. These instruments consume less power and hence cause lesser load on the
system.
c) Electronic instruments
Majority of the modern scientific and industrial measurements require very rapid responses.
The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot fulfil these requirements. There
is a requirement of decreasing the response time and also the detection of dynamic changes in
certain parameters. The monitoring time could be of the order of milliseconds (ms) and many
a times, micro seconds (µs). This has led to the design of today’s electronic instruments and
their associated circuitry. These instruments involved vacuum tubes or semi-conductor
devices. The present day practice is to use semi-conductor devices owing to their many
advantages over their vacuum tube counterparts. Since in electronic devices the only
movement involved is that of electrons and the inertia of electrons being very small, the
response time of these devices is extremely small.
Example, a C.R.O. is capable of following dynamic and transient changes of the order of a
few nano seconds (10-9 s).
Electronically controlled power supplies are used to provide stable voltages for studies in the
field of chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation. Electronic instruments are steadily
becoming more reliable on account of improvements in design and manufacturing processes
of semi-conductor devices. Another advantage of using electronic devices is that very weak
signals can be detected by using pre-amplifiers and amplifiers. The foremost importance of
the electronic instruments is the power amplification provided by the electronic amplifiers.
Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection of electro-magnetically produced
signals such as radio, video, and microwave. Electrical and electronic instruments are
particularly useful in the intermediate signal modifying stage. Electronic instruments are light
compact and have a high degree of reliability. Their power consumption is very low.
Electronic instruments make it possible to build analogue and digital computers without which
the modern developments in science and technological are virtually impossible. Computers
require a very fast time response and it is only possible with use of electronic instruments. The
mathematical processing of signal, such as, summation, differentiating and integrating is
possible with electronic measurements. With these instruments non-contact or remote
measurements are also possible.
1.7.2. Absolute/primary and Secondary Instruments

The various electrical instruments may be broadly divided into two categories:
1) Absolute/primary instruments: are those which give the value of electrical quantity to be
measured in terms of the constants of the instruments and their deflection only e.g. tangent
galvanometer. These instruments are rarely used except in standard laboratories,
especially for calibration of secondary instruments.
2) Secondary instruments: are those in which the values of electrical quantity to be
measured can be determined from the deflection of the instruments only when they have
been pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument. Without calibration, the
deflection of such instruments is meaningless. A voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a
pressure gauge are typical examples of secondary instruments. Secondary type of
measuring instruments has been classified in the following categories:
a) Indicating instruments: are those which indicate the instantaneous value of the variables
being measured, at the time at which it is being measured. Their indications are given by
pointers moving over calibrated dials or scales, e.g., ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter.
This movement of pointer or the deflection is not constant but depends on the quantity it
measures. As the needle deflects and indicates the amount of current, voltage or any
quantity, these are called deflection type of instruments.
b) Recording instruments: are those which give a continuous record of variations of the
measured variable over a selected period of time. The moving system of the instrument
carries an inked pen which rests tightly on a graph chart. These instruments will go on
recording on a graph sheet fixed on the instrument all the variations of the quantity in the
time it is connected in the circuit. Normally these recordings will be for one day and the
recorded sheets are kept as a record of variation of the quantity with time.
c) Integrating instruments: are the instruments which will add up the quantity as the time
passes or in other words will give a total account of quantity spent in a given time for
which it is connected in a circuit. For example, an electric meter measure and register, by
a set of dials and pointers, either the total quantity of electricity (in ampere-hours) or the
total amount of electrical energy (in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours) supplied to a circuit
over a period of time and are known as ampere-hour meters, watt hour meters, energy
meters, etc. Another example is house hold water meter.
1.7.3 Manual and Automatic Instruments

Manual require the services of an operator, where as in automatic instruments the operator is
not required. For example, measurement of rotational speed by a hand operated tachometer an
operator is required to make the contact of the instrument with the rotating shaft. For
measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer by Wheat stone bridge in its circuit
an operator is required to indicate the temperature being measured. Whereas, in measurement
of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer, no operator is required.
1.7.4 Self Operated (Passive) and Power Operated (Active) Instruments

A self-operated (or passive) instrument does not require any external power source for its
operation. In such instruments the output energy is supplied by the input signal e.g. a dial
indicator or mercury-in-glass type thermometer.
In power operated (or active) instruments some auxiliary power source is required for its
operation. This external power source could be electricity, compressed air etc. In such cases
the input signal supplies only the insignificant portion of the output power e.g. an electro-
mechanical measurement system.
1.7.5 Self Contained and Remote Indicating Instruments

A self-contained instrument has all the physical elements in one assembly e.g. an analogue
ammeter or a mercury-in-glass thermometer etc. Whereas, in a remote indicating instrument
has primary sensory element and the secondary indicating element are located at two different
locations linked by transmitting element. These locations could be long distance apart. In
modern instrumentation technology such type of arrangement is quite necessary and vogue.
1.7.6 Contact Type and Non-Contact Type Instruments

In contact type instruments the sensing element of the instrument contacts the control medium
for the measurements, for example mercury-in- glass thermometer. Where as in non-contact
type instruments the sensor does not contact the control medium. The non-contact type
measurement includes optical, radioactive or radiation measurements. Such as, radiation or
optical pyrometer, non-touch tachometer etc.
1.7.7 Analog and Digital Instruments

An analog instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured
changes e.g. analog voltmeter
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite
number of values e.g. digital voltmeter
The advantages of digital instruments over analogue instruments are
• Easy readability
• Better resolution
• Greater accuracy
• Automatic polarity and zeroing
1.7.8. Smart and non-smart instruments

Smart or intelligent instruments have or incorporate a microprocessor. Non-Smart or dumb
instruments don’t have or don’t incorporate a microprocessor
1.8. Instrument Selection Criteria

The selection of an instrument for a specific application is an iterative process, carried out as
a joint effort of a process technologist and an instrument engineer. The following are the points
that should be considered while choosing the instrument for particular application:
1. Identify all operating cases, such as normal operation at minimum, normal and maximum
flow, alternative operating modes, start-up, commissioning and emergency operation.
2. Collect all relevant process data for each operating case. Data pertaining to processing
fluids, such as, fluid name and phase, physical properties, corrosiveness and toxicity , presence
of solids or contaminants, special risks such as fouling, plugging and deposition need to be
delineated. Quantify the process operating data, such as, flow rate, pressure, temperature,
density and viscosity etc. Specify the application aspects, such as, continuous/batch operation,
pulsating flow, unidirectional or bi-directional flow, backflow risk, vibration and hydraulic
noise.
3. Specify the environmental conditions that the instrument will be subjected to. As some
conditions will immediately either eliminate the possibility of using certain types of
instrument or else will create a requirement for expensive protection of instrument. One point
to be remembered is that the protection of instruments reduces the performance of some
instruments, especially in terms of their dynamic characteristics.
Example sheaths protecting thermocouples and resistance thermometers reduce their speed of
response. Instrument should be chosen that are as insensitive as possible to operating
environment.
4. The extent to which the measuring system will be disturbed during the measuring process
is another important factor in instrument choice. For example significant pressure loss can be
caused to measured system in some techniques of flow measurement.
5. Consideration of durability, maintainability and consistency of performance are also very
important during selecting the appropriate instrument.
6. Published literature is of considerable help in the choice of suitable instrument for a
particular measurement situation. It is important to keep abreast of latest developments
through appropriate technical publications.
7. Select suitable instrument makes and types for each measurement option from the List of
Selected Instrument Vendors as prepared for each project. The types of instruments already
installed at the Principal's site should be taken into consideration, for the sake of variety
control.
8. Instrument cost: Instrument choice is a compromise between its performance
characteristics, ruggedness, durability, maintenance requirements and purchase cost.
Increasing the accuracy or resolution of an instrument, for example, can only be done at the
penalty of increasing its manufacturing cost. Instruments choice therefore proceeds by
specifying the minimum characteristics required by a measurement situation and finding an
instrument whose characteristics match those required. To select an instrument with
characteristics superior to those required would only mean paying more than necessary for a
level of performance greater than that needed.
Exercise:
1. Describe the fundamental units of measurement and the standards defined to
maintain them.
2. Based on the fundamental units, obtain the SI units for the following derived
quantities:
a) Resistance, ohm (Ω)
b) Capacitance, Farad (F)
c) Inductance, Henry (H)
3. A Generalized Measurement System consists of two main functional elements. State
them.
4. Identify and explain the functions specific elements constituting each of the
categories of functional elements given in Q 3 above.
CHAPTER TWO: INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS, STANDARDS, ERROR

ANALYSIS AND METEOROLOGY
2.1. Introduction
The detailed specifications of the functional characteristics of any instrument are termed its
performance characteristics. The performance characteristics of instruments and measurement
systems can be divided into two distinct categories:
1. Static characteristics, and
2. Dynamic characteristics.
In some situations, the desired input to the instrument may be constant or varying slowly with
respect to time. Under these circumstances, meaningful quantitative descriptions of the
instrument can be made without taking into consideration the dynamic characteristics that
involve the use of differential equations. The characteristics in this set of criteria are called
Static Characteristics. Thus the static characteristics of a measurement system/ instrument
are those which must be considered when the system or instrument is used under a condition
not varying with time. The various static performance parameters include: accuracy,
precision, resolution, sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, drift, overload capacity, impedance
loading etc.
However, in most cases, the desired input to the instrument is not constant but varies rapidly
with time. In such situations, we must examine the dynamic relations which exist between the
output and the input. This is normally done with the help of differential equations or other
methods. Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute the Dynamic
Characteristics of the instrument e.g. Speed of response, Lag, Fidelity and Dynamic error.
2.2. Static Calibration
All the static performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process
called static calibration. The calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular
characteristic with either a primary standard, a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated, or an instrument of known accuracy. It checks the instrument
against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy. Actually all measuring
instruments must be calibrated against some reference instruments which have a higher
accuracy. Thus reference instruments in turn must be calibrated against instrument of still
higher grade of accuracy, or against primary standard, or against other standards of known
accuracy. It is essential that any measurement made must ultimately be traceable to the
relevant primary standards. Fig. 2.1.shows Instrument calibration chain.
Fig. 2.1. Instrument calibration chain.
2.3 Important Terms
Before we look at the static characteristics of measuring instruments, let us revisit some more
quantities which are essential in understanding the above characteristics.
2.3.1. Scale range and scale span
 The region between the limits within which an instrument (analogue or digital) is designed
to operate for measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is called the range of
the instrument.
 The Scale Range of an instrument is thus defined as the measure between the largest and
the smallest reading of the instrument. Supposing the highest point of calibration is Xmax
units while the lowest is Xmin units and the calibration is continuous between the two
points, then the instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax.
 The instrument span is the difference between highest and the lowest point of calibration.
Thus Span = Xmax -Xmin.
Example: For a thermometer calibrated between 1000C to 4000C, the range is 1000C to 4000C
(or 4000C) but the span is 400 -100 = 3000C.
Another factor that must be considered while determining the range of the instrument is the
Frequency Range, which is defined as frequencies over which measurements can be
performed with a specified degree of accuracy. For example a moving iron instrument may
have a 0-250 V range and 0-135 Hz frequency range.
2.3.2. True value

The true value of variable quantity being measured may be defined as the average of an infinite
number of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors
tends to zero. Such an ideal situation is impossible to realize in practice and hence it is not
possible to determine the true value of a quantity by experimental means. The reason for this
is that there are several factors such as lags, loading effects, wear or noise pick-up etc.
Normally an experimenter would never know whether the value or quantity being measured
by experimental means is the true value of the quantity or not.
2.3.3. Scale Readability

This indicates the closeness to/with which the scale of an analogue type of instrument can be
read. The readability of an instrument depends upon following factors: Number of
graduations, Spacing between the graduations, Size of the pointer and Discriminating power
of the observer. The readability is actually the number of significant figures in the
instrument scale. The higher the number of significant figures, the better would be the
readability.
2.3.4. Linearity
It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured. The x-marked points on Fig. 2.2 show a plot of the typical output
readings of an instrument when a sequence of input quantities is applied to it. Normal
procedure is to draw a good fit straight line through the Xs, as shown in Figure 2.2. The non-
linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of any of the output readings marked X
from this straight line. Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
Fig. 2.2 Instrument output characteristic.

2.3.5. Hysteresis Effects
Figure 2.3 illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the
input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the
output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). If the input variable is then steadily
decreased, the output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between
these loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis. Two quantities are defined,
maximum input hysteresis and maximum output hysteresis, as shown in Figure 2.3. These are
normally expressed as a percentage of the full-scale input or output reading respectively.
Fig. 2.3 Input and output hysteresis
For example, the hysteresis is reported as 0.2% of output span. Hysteresis is most commonly
found in instruments that contain springs, such as the passive pressure gauge and the Prony
brake (used for measuring torque). Hysteresis results due to the presence of several factors,
such as, mechanical friction, motion in bearings, magnetic and thermal effects. Hysteresis can
also occur in instruments that contain electrical windings formed round an iron core, due to
magnetic hysteresis in the iron. This occurs in devices like the variable inductance
displacement transducer, the LVDT and the rotary differential transformer.
2.3.6. Threshold and Resolution
Threshold of a measuring instrument is the minimum value of input signal that is required to
make a change or start from zero. This is the minimum value below which no output change
can be detected when the input is gradually increased from zero. In digital system, the output
is displayed in incremental digits. Thus, in digital instruments the threshold is the minimum
input signal which is necessary to produce at least one significant digit of output to indicate
on the display.
Resolution refers to the smallest increment in the input or quantity being measured which can
be detected with certainty by an instrument.
Hence resolution defines the smallest measurable input change while threshold is the smallest
measurable value of the quantity being measured.
Both of these values may be expressed in terms of an actual value or as a fraction / percentage
of the full scale value.
2.3.7. Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is the closeness with which the reading measured value approaches an accepted
standard value or the true value of the measured quantity. Precision is the closeness with which
individual measurements are distributed about the mean value. It refers to the degree of
agreement of a set of measurements among themselves.
Accuracy is many a time confused with Precision. Precision is a term that describes an
instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors. If a large number of readings are taken
of the same quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very
small. High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision
instrument may have a low accuracy (see Fig.2.4). Low accuracy measurements from a high
precision instrument are normally caused by a bias in the measurements, which is removable
by recalibration.
Fig.2.4 Comparison between accuracy and precision

2.3.8. Loading Effect
An ideal measuring instrument should not change or distort the original signal. The sensing
element should not draw the process or current from the circuit, thereby resulting in the true
measurement of parameters being measured. Unfortunately, in the real world, all instruments
draw current and invariably draw energy from the system. This is referred to as the “loading
effect”. This causes parameters being measured to change in value.
Loading effects may occur due to both electrical and mechanical elements. The loading effects
of an instrument end up distorting the signal they are supposed to measure in the form of
attenuation or phase shift. The instrument therefore reads the altered value of the quantity and
thus an erroneous measurement is obtained. These loading effects can be better explained by
the following examples.
Let a voltage has to be measured across a resistance R in the circuit. For this purpose, a
voltmeter V is connected across the resistor R in parallel. We know that a voltmeter has a very
high resistance value. But since this value is finite, a fraction of the total current passing
through R will pass through the Voltmeter V. This will lead to power dissipation in the
Voltmeter. The voltmeter extracts this power out of the circuit and thus end up varying the
values of the circuit parameters on being introduced. Another example of loading effects is
found in the measurement of current by an Ammeter. An ammeter is a very low resistance
device that is connected in series in a circuit for the measurement of current. When current
passes through it, because of the low finite resistance of the ammeter, there is a small voltage
drop across the ammeter which results in power dissipation. This power is again borrowed
from the circuit and therefore affects the circuit parameters.
So to minimize this “loading effect”, the best you can do is to use a measuring instrument that
has very high impedance so that the current it draws is minimal.
But practically an infinite or zero impedance in an instrument is not possible. So a condition
of minimum loading effects is tried to be reached by making the values of the impedances of
instruments very high or very low according to their use. That is why Voltmeters always have
very high while Ammeters always have very low impedance values.
2.4. Static Characteristics

The main static characteristics include:
(i) Accuracy, (ii) Static error, (iii) Reproducibility,

(iv) Drift, (v) Sensitivity, and (vi) Dead zone
The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v) and (vi) are undesirable.
The static characteristics defined as follows:
2.4.1. Accuracy
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the instrument
is to the correct (true) value. In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather
than the accuracy figure for an instrument. Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might
be wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument.
If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 0–10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% f.s.
(±1% of full-scale reading), then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar.
This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the possible error is 10% of this value.
2.4.2. Static error

Static error is defined as the difference between the best measured value and the true value of
the quantity. Then: Es = Am -At
Where, Es = error,
Am = measured value of quantity, and
At = true value of quantity.
Es is also called the absolute static error of quantity A. The absolute value of error does not
indicate precisely the accuracy of measurement. For example, an error of ±2 A is negligible
when the current being-measured is of the order of 1000 A while the same error is highly
significant if the current under measurement is 10 A. Thus another term relative static error is
introduced. The relative static error is the ratio of absolute static error to the true value of the
quantity under measurement. Thus the relative static error Er is given by:
Es
Er 
At
Percentage static error % Er = Er x 100
Static Correction: It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the
quantity, or: C  At  Am
2.4.3. Repeatability and Reproducibility

Repeatability is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
It is the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time. The measurement is made on the same instrument, at the same location, by the
same observer and under the same measurement conditions. Reproducibility relates to the
closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument location, conditions of use and time of
measurement. Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift. Reproducibility
and Repeatability are a measure of closeness with which a given input may be measured over
and over again. Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This
spread is referred to as repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant and as
reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary.
2.4.4. Drift
Drift is a departure in the output of the instrument over the period of time. It means that with
a given input the measured values vary with time. Drift is unrelated to the operating conditions
or load. The following factors could contribute towards the drift in the instruments: Wear and
tear, Mechanical vibrations, Stresses developed in the parts of the instrument, Temperature
variations, Stray electric and magnetic fields and Thermal e.m.f.
Continuous stray magnetic or electric fields can be prevented from affecting the measurements
by proper shielding. Effect of mechanical vibrations can be minimized by having proper
mountings. Temperature changes during the measurement process should be preferably
avoided or otherwise be properly compensated for.
Drift may be of any of the following types:
a) Zero drift: Drift is called zero drift if the whole of instrument calibration shifts over by
the same amount. It may be due to shifting of pointer or permanent set.
b) Span drift: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionately it is called span
drift. It may be due to the change in spring gradient.
c) Zonal drift: When the drift occurs only over a portion of the span of the instrument it is
called zonal drift.
Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
2.4.5. Sensitivity
This is the ability of an instrument to respond to small changes in the quantity that it measures.
The static sensitivity of an instrument or an instrumentation system is the ratio of the
magnitude of the output signal or response to the magnitude of input signal of the quantity
being measured. Its units depend upon the type of input and output. If the output is in mm and
the input is in micro ampere then the units would be mm per micro-ampere.
Sometimes the static sensitivity is also expressed as the ratio of the magnitude of the measured
quantity to the magnitude of the response. Thus the sensitivity expressed this way has the units
of micro-ampere per mm. It is reciprocal of the sensitivity as defined above. This ratio is
defined as the inverse sensitivity or defection factor. Many manufacturers define the
sensitivity of their instruments in terms of inverse sensitivity and still call it sensitivity.
The sensitivity is expressed as the slope of the calibration curve if the ordinates are expressed
in actual units. When a calibration curve is linear the slope of the calibration curve, and hence
sensitivity is constant. However, if the curve is not a straight line, the sensitivity varies with
the input. In general, the static sensitivity at the operating point is defined as:
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑞0
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑞𝑖
∆𝑞
Similarly, 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ∆𝑞 𝑖
0
The sensitivity of an instrument should be high and therefore the instrument should not have
a range greatly exceeding the value to be measured. However, some margin should be kept
for any accidental overloads.
2.4.6. Dead Band and Dead Time
Dead band, sometimes called a neutral zone or Dead space or Dead zone, is an area of a signal
range or band where no action occurs, that is, the system is dead e.g. 10 g weight on a 10 kg
balance. In other words it is defined as the range of input values over which there is no change
in output value. See Fig. 2.5.
Dead band is different from hysteresis. Dead band is purposefully used in voltage regulators
and other controllers to prevent oscillation or repeated activation-deactivation cycles.
Dead time is the time required by measuring instrument to begin to respond to a change in the
measured variable. The units of dead zone are the units of the variable, whereas, the units of
the Dead time are the units of time.
Fig. 2.5 Dead band or dead space of measuring instruments
2.5. Problems
1. A meter reads 115.50 V and the true value of the voltage is 115.44 V. Determine the static
error, and the static correction for this instrument.
Solution:
The error is: Es = Am- At = 115.50-115.44 = +0.06 V
Static correction δC = At - Am = -0.06 V.
2. A thermometer reads 71.5 0C and the static correction given is +0.50C. Determine the true
value of the temperature.
Solution:
True value of the temperature
At = Am + δC = 71.5+ 0.5 = 72.00C.
3. A thermometer is calibrated for the range of 1000C to 1500C. The accuracy is specified
within ±0.25 percent. What is the maximum static error?
Solution:
Span of thermometer = 150-100 = 500C
±0.25𝑥50
Maximum static error = 100 = ±0.1250 C
4. An analogue indicating instrument with a scale range of 0 to 2.50 V shows a voltage of
1.46 V. A voltage has a true value of 1.50 V. What are the values of absolute error and
correction? Express the error as a fraction of the true value and the full scale deflection.
Solution:
Absolute error = Am - At
= 1.46 -1.50 = -0.04 V
Absolute correction δC = δA = +0.04 V
−0.04
Relative error 𝜀𝑟 = 1.50 𝑥100 = −2.66%
Relative error expressed as a percentage of full scale division
−0.04
𝜀𝑟 = 2.50 𝑥100 = −1.60% =
5. A pressure indicator showed a reading as 22bar on a scale range of 0-25 bar. If the true
value was 21.4 bars, determine:
i) Static error
ii) Static correction
iii) Relative static error
Solution:
i) Static error = 22-21.4 = + 0.6 bar
ii) Static correction = - (+0.6) = - 0.6 bar
iii) Relative error = 0.6 / 21.4 = 0.028 or 2.8 %
6. A pressure gauge which has a linear calibration curve has a radius of scale line as 120 mm
and pressure of 0 to 50 Pascal is displayed over an arc of 300o. Determine the sensitivity of
the gauge as a ratio of scale length to pressure.
𝜋 5𝜋
Solution: 300% = 300𝑥 180 = 3
5𝜋
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
3
5𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝑥120 = 200𝜋 𝑚𝑚
3
200𝜋
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 50 = 4𝜋 𝑚𝑚/𝑃𝑎
7. A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 7.000 Ω in the unknown arm of the bridge to
produce a change in deflection of 3.000 mm of the galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity.
Also determine the deflection factor.
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 3.000 𝑚𝑚
Solution: 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 0.429 𝑚𝑚/Ω
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 7.000Ω
It may be noted that
i) A sensitive instrument can quickly detect a small change in measurement.
ii) Measuring instruments that have smaller scale parts are more sensitive.
iii) Sensitive instruments need not necessarily be accurate.
8. Determine the resolution of a voltmeter which has a range readout scale with 100 divisions
and a full-scale reading of 100 V. If one tenth of a scale division can be read certainty,
determine the resolution of the voltmeter.
Solution:
100 scale division = 100V
One scale division = 100 /100 = 1V
Resolution = 1 x 1/10
= 0.1 V
9. A transducer measures a range of 0-200 N force with a resolution of 0.20 percent of full
scale. What is the smallest change in the force which can be measured by this transducer?
Solution:
Range of force = 0-200 N
Resolution = 0.20 % of full scale
Smallest change in force which can be measured = 200 x 0.20 / 10= 0.4 N
10. The resistance values given Table 2.1 of platinum resistance thermometer were measured
at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in
ohms/0C.
Table 2.1
Solution:
If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line relationship between resistance change
and temperature change is obvious. For a change in temperature of 30 0C, the change in
7
resistance is7Ω. Hence the measurement sensitivity= 30 = 0.233Ω/0 C
11. An analogue electrical indicating instrument has a moving coil of 4Ω resistance and gives
full-scale deflection when carrying a current of 75𝑚𝐴. Explain, with the aid of sketches and
calculations, how the instrument may be used to indicate at full-scale deflection:
(i) a current of 10𝐴 and
(ii) a p.d. of 100𝑉
Solution
The range of the ammeter can be extended by use of a shunt resistor of lower value relative to
that of the ammeter as shown in Fig. 2.5. The p.d. across the ammeter = p.d. across the shunt resistor
𝑅𝐴 × 75 4 × 75
𝑅𝑠ℎ = = = 0.03023 Ω
9925 9925
Rsh(shunt
9.925A resistance)=0.03023R
10A 0.075A
A
RA(Ammeter
resistance)=4R
Fig. 2.5. Extending the range of a moving-coil instrument/milliameter using shunt resistor
The ammeter can be converted into a voltmeter by use of a multiplier resistor

of higher relative value to that of the ammeter as shown Fig. 2.6.
99.7V 0.3V
V V
0.075A 0.075A
A
Rm (multiplier 0.075A
resistor)=1.3293k
Fig. 2.6. Converting a milliammeter into a voltmeter using the multiplier resistor
Current through the multiplier resistor equals current through the ammeter =75 mA. Hence
99700
𝑅𝑚 × 75 = 99700, 𝑅𝑚 = = 1.3293 𝑘Ω
75
Exercise
1. Pressure is measured by strain gauges. One strain gauge is active and the other is dummy.
These strain gauges form the opposite arms of a Wheatstone bridge. The other two arms
are formed by equal resistances of 120ohms each at 300K. The frequency bandwidth is
100 kHz. The output of the bridge is a voltage signal.
i) When a pressure of 7000𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 the output voltage is 0.12𝑚𝑉. Find the ratio of the output
(signal) voltage to the noise voltage generated by the resistors.
ii) Find the ratio of the output (signal) voltage to the noise voltage if the applied pressure
is7𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . The Boltzmann constant is1.38𝑥10−23 𝐽/𝐾. Comment upon the results.
2. An analogue electrical indicating instrument has a moving coil of 3.8 𝛺 resistance and
gives full-scale deflection when carrying a current of 50𝑚𝐴.
a) Explain, with the aid of sketches, how the instrument may be used to indicate at full-
scale deflection of (i) a current of 15𝐴 and (ii) a p.d. of 80𝑉.
b) Explain how the problem of loading effect is tackled in each of the arrangements in
part (a) above.
3. A mercury thermometer has a capillary tube of 0.25𝑚𝑚 diameter. If the bulb is made
of a zero expansion material what volume must it have if a sensitivity of 2.5𝑚𝑚/0 𝐶 is
desired. Assume that the operating temperature is 200 𝐶 and the coefficient of volumetric
expansion of mercury is 0.181𝑥10−3 /0 𝐶
2.5. Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
The transient response / Dynamic Response in the instruments is on account of the presence
of energy storage elements in the system, such as, electrical inductance and capacitance, mass,
fluid and thermal capacitances etc.
Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the case where the measured
variable changes rapidly. The sensors in control system cannot react to a sudden change in
measured variable immediately. A certain amount of time is required before the measuring
instrument in control system technology can indicate any output based on the input received
by the measuring instrument. The amount of time depends on resistance, capacitance, mass
and dead time of the measuring instrument. Step response, ramp response, frequency response
of the measuring instrument determines the dynamic characteristics of the measuring
instrument in control system technology.
The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:
i) Speed of response and Response time
ii) Lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Out of the above four characteristics the Speed of Response and the Fidelity are desirable in
a dynamic system, while Lag and Dynamic error are undesirable.
2.5.1. Speed of Response and Response Time
Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or measurement system
responds to changes in measured quantity.
Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady
position after the application of the input. For a step input function, the response time may be
defined as the time taken by the instrument to settle to a specified percentage of the quantity
being measured, after the application of the input. This percentage may be 90 to 99 percent
depending upon the instrument. For switch board (panel) type of instruments it is the time
taken by the pointer to come to rest within 1 percent of its final scale length.
2.5.2. Measuring Lag

An instrument does not react to a change in input immediately. The delay in the response of
an instrument to a change in the measured quantity is known as measuring lag. Thus it is the
retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured
quantity. This lag is usually quite small, but this small lag becomes highly important when
high speed measurements are required. In the high speed measurement systems, as in dynamic
measurements, it becomes essential that the time lag be reduced to minimum.
Measuring lag is of two types:
a. Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response begins
immediately after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
b. Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the measurement
system begins after a dead zone after the application of the input.
2.5.3. Fidelity
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same
form as the input. It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error. Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is
applied to a system and if the output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to
have 100 percent fidelity. Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity and the output
should appear in the same form as that of input and there is no distortion produced in the signal
by the system. In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference between output
and input is not included.
2.5.4. Dynamic Error

The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.
However, the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its fidelity and the
time lag or phase difference between input and output of the system.
2.5.5. Overshoot
When an input is applied to instruments, the pointer does not immediately come to rest at its
steady state (or final deflected) position but goes beyond it or in other words overshoots its
steady position. The overshoot is evaluated as the maximum amount by which moving system
moves beyond the steady state position. In many instruments, especially galvanometers it is
desirable to have a little overshoot but an excessive overshoot is undesirable.
A typical overshoot response graph can be shown as the response time stated in terms of rise
time, peak percentage overshoot and settling time. Such an under damped graph in control
system technology of a measuring instrument is shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Overshoot response graph
2.6. Errors during the measurement process

2.6.1. Classification of Error
Errors arising during the measurement process can be divided into two groups, known as
systematic errors and Random errors.
a) Systematic or Cumulative Errors
Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement system that are
consistently on one side of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are positive or they are
all negative. The two major sources of systematic errors:
 System disturbance during measurement and
 The effect of environmental changes (modifying inputs)
Other sources of systematic error include bent meter needles, the use of uncalibrated
instruments, drift in instrument characteristics and poor cabling practices. Systematic errors
can be reduced through:
 Careful instrument design: This is the most useful weapon in the battle against
environmental inputs; by reducing the sensitivity of an instrument to environmental inputs
to as low a level as possible. For instance, in the design of strain gauges, the element
should be constructed from a material whose resistance has a very low temperature
coefficient (i.e. the variation of the resistance with temperature is very small).
 Method of opposing inputs: The method of opposing inputs compensates for the effect
of an environmental input in a measurement system by introducing an equal and opposite
environmental input that cancels it out. One example of how this technique is applied is
in the millivoltmeter using a coil and a compensating resistance introduced into the circuit.
 Calibration: All instruments suffer drift in their characteristics, and the rate at which this
happens depends on many factors, such as the environmental conditions in which
instruments are used and the frequency of their use. Thus, errors due to instruments being
out of calibration can usually be rectified by increasing the frequency of recalibration.
 Manual correction of output reading: In the case of errors that are due either to system
disturbance during the act of measurement or due to environmental changes, a good
measurement technician can substantially reduce errors at the output of a measurement
system by calculating the effect of such systematic errors and making appropriate
correction to the instrument readings. This procedure is carried out automatically by
intelligent instruments.
 Intelligent instruments: Intelligent instruments contain extra sensors that measure the
value of environmental inputs and automatically compensate the value of the output
reading.
 High-gain feedback: This is achieved by adding high-gain feedback device (Kf) to a
measurement system for example in the case of a voltage-measuring instrument. The
transfer function of the system relating the output to the input is reduced to one that is
purely dependent upon Kf. As a result the sensitivity of the other gain constants to the
environmental inputs is rendered irrelevant, except for the environmental input acting on
the feedback device itself.
b) Random Errors
Random errors are perturbations of the measurement either side of the true value caused by
random and unpredictable effects, such that positive errors and negative errors occur in
approximately equal numbers for a series of measurements made of the same quantity.
Random errors often arise when measurements are taken by human observation of an analogue
meter, especially where this involves interpolation between scale points. Electrical noise can
also be a source of random errors.
2.7. Standards and Calibration

 A standard of measurement is defined as the physical representation of the unit
of measurement which could be an arbitrary material standard or a natural
phenomenon that includes physical and atomic constants.
The term “standard” is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical
quantity.
There are four types of standards of measurements, classified according to their function and
type of application:
 International Standards: Are devices designed and constructed to the specifications of
an international forum/agreement. They represent the units of measurements of various
physical quantities to the highest possible accuracy that is attainable by the use of
advanced techniques of production and measurement technology. These standards are
maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France. An
example is the cesium clock for time. Are not available for an ordinary day-to-day use.
 Primary Standards: Are devices maintained by standards organizations/national

laboratories in different parts of the world i.e. are maintained by national standards
laboratories. The main objective of maintaining primary standards is to calibrate/check
and certify secondary reference standards. They are also not easily available for ordinary
use in the stated objective.
 Secondary Standards: are the basic reference standards employed by industrial
measurement laboratories. These are freely available to the ordinary user of the
instruments for checking and calibration of working standards.
 Working Standards: are devices that are commercially available and are duly
checked and certified against either the primary or secondary standards. Working
standards are very widely used for calibrating general laboratory instruments, for
carrying out comparison of measurements or for checking the range of accuracy of
industrial products.
 Example: a standard cell and a standard resistor are the working standards of voltage
and resistance respectively.
 Calibration is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a known standard and
the output of the measuring system measuring the same quantity. It is the process of
checking the inferior instrument against a superior instrument of known traceability
(certified accuracy) certified by a reputed standards organization/national laboratory.
Calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the
instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy. If the
output-input response of the system is linear, then a single point calibration is sufficient, such
that only a single known standard value of the input is employed. However, if the system
response is non-linear, then a set of known standard inputs to the measuring system are
employed for calibrating the corresponding outputs of the system. The calibration procedure
can be classified as follows:
 Primary calibration: Refers to the procedure in which a device/system is calibrated

against primary standards. After primary calibration, the device is employed as a
secondary calibration device. Example standard resistor or standard cell.
 Secondary calibration: Is the procedure in which a secondary calibration device is
used for further calibrating another device of lesser accuracy. For example standard
cell may be used for calibrating a voltmeter or an ammeter with suitable circuitry.
 Direct calibration with known input source: Is generally of the same order of
accuracy as primary calibration. For example, a flow meter such as a turbine flow
meter may be directly calibrated by utilizing the primary measurements such as
weighing a certain amount of water in a tank and recording the time it takes to flow
through the meter. Subsequently, this flow meter may be used for secondary
calibration of other flow meter devices such as an orifice meter or a venturi meter.
 Indirect Calibration: Is based on the equivalence of two different devices that can be
applied in measuring a certain physical quantity i.e. to predict the performance of one
device on the basis of an experimental study of another. For example, a turbine flow
meter. The requirement of dynamic similarity between two geometrically similar flow
meters is obtained through the maintenance of equal Reynold’s number i.e.:
𝐷1 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐷2 𝜌2 𝑉2
=
𝜇1 𝜇2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the “standard” and the meter to be calibrated respectively.
 Routine Calibration: Is the procedure in which the accuracy and proper functioning
of an instrument is periodically checked with standards that are known to be accurately
reproducible. It is used for making various adjustments or checking the scale reading
which conforms to the accepted norms/standards.
The following are some of the usual steps taken in the calibration procedure:
1) Visual inspection of the instrument for the obvious physical defects.
2) Checking the instrument for proper installation as specified by the manufacturer.
3) Zero setting of all the indicators
4) Leveling of the devices which require this precaution
5) Recommended operational tests to detect major defects
6) The instrument should preferably be calibrated in the ascending as well as descending
order of the input values to ensure that errors due to friction/stiction are accounted for.
7) The calibration device should have a superior level of traceability of standard as
compared to the calibrated device.
2.8. Problems
1. A step input of 5 A is applied to an ammeter. The pointer swings to a current of 5.18A and
finally comes to rest at 5.02 A. (a) Determine the overshoot of the reading in ampere and in
percentage of final reading. (b) Determine the percentage error in the instrument.
Solution:
(a) Overshoot = 5.18 -5.02 = 0.16 A
(b) Percentage Overshoot= (0.16/5.02)*100=3.2%
5.02−5.0
(b) 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 5.0 𝑥100 = 0.4%
2. In the circuit of Fig. 2.8, the voltage across AB is measured by a voltmeter whose internal
resistance is 9500 ohm.
Given that:
R1  400, R2  600, R3  1000 , R4  500, andR5  1000 ,
a) Derive the expressions for the equivalent resistance across point CD and AB.
b) What is the measurement error caused by the resistance of the measuring instrument?
Fig. 2.8.Measurement of Error in Electric Circuits

Solution
Given that
𝑅1 = 400Ω, 𝑅2 = 600Ω, 𝑅3 = 1000Ω, 𝑅4 = 500Ω and 𝑅5 = 1000Ω
1 1 1 (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )𝑅3

=𝑅 +𝑅 , 𝑅𝐶𝐷 =
𝑅𝐶𝐷 1 +𝑅2 3 𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 ,
1 1 1 (𝑅4 +𝑅𝐶𝐷 )𝑅5

=𝑅 +𝑅 , 𝑅𝐴𝐵 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐷 +𝑅4 5 𝑅4 +𝑅𝐶𝐷 +𝑅5 ,
(𝑅 +𝑅 )𝑅
( 1 2 3 +𝑅4 )𝑅5
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = (𝑅1 +𝑅2 )𝑅3
+𝑅4 +𝑅5
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3
(𝑅 +𝑅 )𝑅
( 1 2 3 +𝑅4 )𝑅5 (10002 /2000+500)1000 10002
1 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅3
2
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = (𝑅1+𝑅2 )𝑅3
= 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 10002
= = 500Ω
+𝑅4 +𝑅5 ( )+500+1000 2000
𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 2000
𝐸0
𝐼=𝑅 ,
𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑚 𝐸0 𝐸𝑚 𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑚 9500
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑅 , =𝑅 , 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸0 (1 − 𝑅 ) = 𝐸0 (1 − 10000) = 0.95𝐸0
𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝑚 𝐸0 𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝑚 𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝑚
Thus, the error in the measured value is 5%.
3. An elastic type of pressure-measuring instrument is of diaphragm type. The central

deflection of the diaphragm was found to be 0.25mm for an applied pressure of 106 Pa. The
output displacement of the diaphragm has been fed to an LVDT (linear variable differential
transducer) with a built in amplifier having a sensitivity of 40V/mm. Finally, the output is
displayed on an analogue voltmeter which has a radius of scale line as 60mm and has a
voltage range from 0 to 10volts in an arc of 1500.
a) Draw the block diagram of the pressure-measuring instrument in the context of a
generalized instrumentation system and explain the functions performed by various parts.
b) Determine the sensitivity of the given diaphragm gauge in terms of mm/bar (1bar=105 Pa).
Solution:
a) Block diagram of the pressure-measuring instrument is as shown in Fig.2.9
Fig.2.9. Block diagram of the electro-mechanical type of diaphragm pressure gauge

b)
The overall sensitivity of the diaphragm pressure gauge becomes:
4. A load cell calibrated at a temperature of 200C has its output/input characteristics as

shown in Table 2a) while when it is used in an environment of 400C, its characteristics
change to those presented in Table 2b):
Table 2 a
Load in 𝑘𝑁 0.00 0.40 0.80 0.12 0.16 0.20
Deflection of meter in 𝑚𝑚 0 10 20 30 40 50
Table 2 b
Load in 𝑘𝑁 0.00 0.40 0.80 0.12 0.16 0.20
Deflection of meter in 𝑚𝑚 3 14 25 36 47 58
i. Determine (a) zero drift, (b) sensitivity drift, and (c) sensitivity drift per °𝐶
change in ambient temperature.
ii. If 0.5𝑚𝑚 of scale division can be read with a fair degree of certainty, then
determine the resolution of the instrument in both cases, i.e., at 200 𝐶 and400 𝐶.
5. A voltmeter with internal resistance of 200k  is connected across an unknown resistance.

It reads 250V and the milliammeter (with very small internal resistance) connected in
series with the same resistance reads 10mA.
a) Determine the apparent resistance, actual resistance and the loading error due to the
loading effect of the voltmeter.
b) If the same voltmeter and milliameter when connected in another unkown resistance
read100V and 2A respectively, determine the loading error in this case.
Solution
a) Total resistance in the circuit, RT  VT  250
 25k
IT 10 x10 3
Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the apparent value of the unknown resistor,
Rapp  25k
b) Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown restance,therefore,
1 1 1 , where Ract is the actual resistance of the resistor and Rv is the resistance of
 
RT Ract Rv
the voltmeter. OR Ract  RT Rv 

( 25)( 200 )
 28.56 k
Rv  RT ( 200  25)
6. A rectangular-sided block has edges of lengths a, b, and c, and its mass is m. If the values
and possible errors in quantities a, b, c, and m are as shown below, calculate the value of
density and the possible error in this value.
Exercise
1. A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 200 𝐶 and has the
deflection/load characteristics as shown in Table 3a while when it is used in an environment
of 300 𝐶, its characteristics change to those presented in Table 3b.
Table 3 a
Load in (𝑘𝑔) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (𝑚𝑚) 0 20 40 60
Table 3 b
Load (𝑘𝑔) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (𝑚𝑚) 5 27 49 71
Determine (a) zero drift, (b) sensitivity drift, and (b) sensitivity drift per °𝐶 change in ambient
temperature.
2. The decay constant of a ballistic galvanometer can be obtained from the equation:
 2  1e  kT ; Where  1 and  2 are the deflections (on the same side) of the damped oscillation,
T the period of vibration and k the decay constant. In an experiment, T was measured as
6.8±0.1 s,  1 and  2 were observed to be 28.10 and 18.30 with each measurement being
uncertain to±0.20.Determine the value of k and its uncertainty in the given measurements.
3. Two resistors are placed in series and in parallel. If 𝑅1 = (100 ± 0.12)𝛺 and 𝑅2 =
(50.00 ± 0.08)𝛺, calculate the uncertainty in the combined resistance for both series and
parallel arrangements.
4. a) Define Instrument efficiency and explain with the aid of mathematical expressions how
it may be determined for the case of voltmeter.
b)A 5.0 ampere ammeter has a resitance of o.01ohms. Determine the efficiency of the
instrument.
CHAPTER 3: SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

3.1 Introduction
In a measurement system all the quantities being measured, cannot be displayed as such. In
such situation, the accurate measurement of a quantity is usually done by converting the
related information or signal to another form which is more conveniently or accurately
displayed. This is achieved with the help of a device which is known as transducer. A sensor
senses the condition, state and value of the process variable which reflects the output of the
instrument. A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional electrical signal
is called a transducer. The electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or frequency.
A transducer uses many effects to produce such conversion. The process of transforming
signal from one form to other is called transduction. The transduction element transforms the
output of the sensor to an electrical output, as shown in the Fig.3.1. The transducer may be
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, thermal, nuclear, acoustic, or a
combination of two or more of these.
Fig.3.1Principle of transducer
3.2 Functional Parts of a Transducer

The transducers may be thought of consisting of 2 important and closely related parts:
1. Sensing element/detector element: Is that part of a transducer which responds to
physical phenomena in a way that is closely related to the physical phenomena.
2. Transduction element: This transforms the output of a sensing element to an electrical
output. The transducer element in a way acts as a secondary transducer. In addition, there may
be many other auxiliary parts such as amplifiers and other signal processing equipment, power
supplies, calibrating and reference sources and mechanical mounting features.
2.3 Characteristics of the transducer

i. The transducer should recognize and sense the desired input signal and should be insensitive
to other signals present simultaneously in the measurand. For example, a velocity transducer
should sense the instantaneous velocity and should be insensitive to the local pressure or
temperature.
ii. It should not alter the event to be measured.
iii. The output should preferably be electrical to obtain the advantages of modern computing
and display devices.
iv. It should have good accuracy.
v. It should have good reproducibility
vi. It should have amplitude linearity.
vii. It should have adequate frequency response (i.e., good dynamic response).
viii. It should not induce phase distortions (i.e. should not induce time lag between the input
and output transducer signals).
ix. It should be able to withstand hostile environments without damage and should maintain
the accuracy within acceptable limits.
x. It should have high signal level and low impedance. .
xi. It should be easily available, reasonably priced and compact in shape and size (preferably
portable).
xii. It should have good reliability and ruggedness. In other words, if a transducer gets dropped
by chance, it should still be operative.
xiii. Leads of the transducer should be sturdy and not be easily pulled off.
xiv. The rating of the transducer should be sufficient and it should not break down.
3.4 Sensor Technologies

3.4.1 Capacitive and Resistive Sensors
Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates in which the dielectric between the
plates is either air or some other medium. The capacitance C is given by:
  A
C 0 r
d

where 0 is the absolute permittivity,  r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium
between the plates, A is the area of the plates and d is the distance between them. Capacitive
devices are often used as displacement sensors, in which motion of a moveable capacitive
plate relative to a fixed one changes the capacitance. Often, the measured displacement is part
of instruments measuring pressure, sound or acceleration.
Alternatively, fixed plate capacitors can also be used as sensors, in which the capacitance
value is changed by causing the measured variable to change the dielectric constant of the
material between the plates in some way. This principle is used in devices to measure moisture
content, humidity values and liquid level.
Resistive sensors rely on the variation of the resistance of a material when the measured
variable is applied to it. This principle is most commonly applied in temperature measurement
using resistance thermometers or thermistors, in displacement measurement using strain
gauges or piezoresistive sensors and in some moisture meters.
Question
A capacitive sensor which is made of two insulated metal plates each of 600-cm2 effective
area and 5 mm apart in air is used to as a sensor in a process which causes the separation
distance to decrease by 1.5mm. If the capacitor sensor is charged to a p.d. of 5mV, calculate
the change in capacitance between the plates as well as the charge held by the capacitive
sensor. Given that the relative permittivity of air is 1.
3.4.2 Magnetic Sensors

Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance, reluctance and eddy currents
to indicate the value of the measured quantity, which is usually some form of displacement.
Inductive sensors translate movement into a change in the mutual inductance between
magnetically coupled parts. One example of this is the inductive displacement transducer
shown in Figure 2.2:
Figure 2.2: Inductive sensor
In this, the single winding on the central limb of an ’E’-shaped ferromagnetic body is excited
with an alternating voltage. The displacement to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic
plate in close proximity to the ‘E’ piece. Movements of the plate alter the flux paths and hence
cause a change in the current flowing in the winding. By Ohm’s law, the current flowing in
V 1
I I
the winding is L . For fixed values of  and V , this equation becomes KL , where K
is a constant. The relationship between L and the displacement, d, applied to the plate is a non-
linear one, and hence the output-current/displacement characteristic has to be calibrated.
In variable reluctance sensors, a coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather than on an iron
core as in variable inductance sensors. Such devices are commonly used to measure rotational
velocities. Figure 2.3 shows a typical instrument in which a ferromagnetic gearwheel is placed
next to the sensor.
Figure 2.3: Reluctance sensor

As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves towards and away from the pick-up unit, the
changing magnetic flux in the pick-up coil causes a voltage to be induced in the coil whose
magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux. Thus, the output is a sequence of
positive and negative pulses whose frequency is proportional to the rotational velocity of the
gearwheel.
Eddy current sensors consist of a probe containing a coil, as shown in Figure 2.4 that is
excited at a high frequency, which is typically 1 MHz
Figure 3.4: Eddy Current sensor

This is used to measure the displacement of the probe relative to a moving metal target.
Because of the high frequency of excitation, eddy currents are induced only in the surface of
the target, and negative pulses whose frequency is proportional to the rotational velocity of
the gearwheel and the current magnitude reduces to almost zero a short distance inside the
target. This allows the sensor to work with very thin targets, such as the steel diaphragm of a
pressure sensor. The eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this change can
be translated into a D.C. voltage output that is proportional to the distance between the probe
and the target.
3.4.3. Hall-effect Sensors
Basically, a Hall-effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic
field. It consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the
magnetic field, as shown in Figure 2.5. This produces a transverse voltage difference across
the device that is directly proportional to the magnetic field strength. For an excitation current
I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage is given by V = KIB, where K is known as
the Hall constant.
Figure 3.5: Hall-effect sensor

The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as
opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a given
size. In one common use of the device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is provided
by a permanent magnet that is built into the device. The magnitude of this field changes when
the device becomes close to any ferrous metal object or boundary. The Hall Effect is also
commonly used in keyboard push buttons, in which a magnet is attached underneath the
button. When the button is depressed, the magnet moves past a Hall-effect sensor. The induced
voltage is then converted by a trigger circuit into a digital output. Such push button switches
can operate at high frequencies without contact bounce.
3.4.4 Piezoelectric Sensors
Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied to them. They are
frequently used as ultrasonic receivers and also as displacement transducers, particularly as
part of devices measuring acceleration, force and pressure.
Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials. These have an asymmetrical
lattice of molecules that distorts when a mechanical force is applied to it. This distortion causes
a reorientation of electric charges within the material, resulting in a relative displacement of
positive and negative charges. The charge displacement induces surface charges on the
material of opposite polarity between the two sides. By implanting electrodes into the surface
of the material, these surface charges can be measured as an output voltage.
For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by:
kFd
V 
A
where F is the applied force in g, A is the area of the material in mm, d is the thickness of the
material and k is the piezoelectric constant. The polarity of the induced voltage depends on
whether the material is compressed or stretched.
3.4.5 Optical Sensors
Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling between a light source and a
light detector as shown in Figure 2.6. The transmitted light can travel along either an air path
or a fibre-optic cable. Either form of transmission gives immunity to electromagnetically
induced noise, and also provides greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous
environments. Light sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-
filament lamps, laser diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Figure 2.6: Optical sensor

As an alternative to using air as the transmission medium, optical sensors can use fibre optic
cable instead to transmit light between a source and a detector. The basis of operation of fibre-
optic sensors is the translation of the physical quantity measured into a change in one or more
parameters of a light beam. The light parameters that can be modulated are one or more of the
following: intensity, wavelength, phase, transmission time e.t.c.
3.4.6 Piezoresistive Sensors
A piezoresistive sensor is made from semiconductor material in which a p-type region has
been diffused into an n-type base. The resistance of this varies greatly when the sensor is
compressed or stretched. This is frequently used as a strain gauge, where it produces a
significantly higher gauge factor than that given by metal wire or foil gauges. It is also used
in semiconductor-diaphragm pressure sensors and in semiconductor accelerometers.
3.4.7 Strain gauges
Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched or
strained. They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0-50, and are
typically used as part of other transducers, for example diaphragm pressure sensors that
convert pressure changes into small displacements of the diaphragm.
3.4.8 Ultrasonic sensors

Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz, that is, above the sonic range
that humans can usually hear. Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device
that transmits an ultrasound wave and another device that receives the wave. Changes in the
measured variable are determined either by measuring the change in time taken for the
ultrasound wave to travel between the transmitter and receiver, or, alternatively, by measuring
the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted wave.
3.5. Classification of Transducers

The transducers can be classified in several ways e.g. on the basis of their application, method
of energy conversion, the nature of signal output and according to whether they are self
generating or the externally powered units. The transducers can be broadly classified as:
1) Primary transducers and Secondary transducers.
2) Analog transducers and Digital transducers.
3) Active transducers and Passive transducers.
4) Transducers and Inverse transducers
3.5.1 Primary transducers and secondary transducers
The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts the physical property into the
electrical signal is called primary transducer or a sensor e.g. Thermistor. It senses the
temperature directly and causes the changes in its resistance with respect to temperature. On
the other hand, if the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and its output,
which may be of some other form than the input signal, is given as input to another transducer
for conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer is called as secondary transducer.
3.5.2 Analog transducers and digital transducers

A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a continuous function of time,
is known as Analog transducer. Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-
couple are the examples of Analog Transducer.
On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in the form of
pulses i.e., it gives discrete output is called a digital transducer. The digital transducers are
becoming very popular and useful because the digital signals can be transmitted over a long
distance, with minimum distortion.
3.5.3 Active and passive transducers

A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical current or voltage without
any auxiliary source, is called active transducer or the self generating transducers. The energy
required for this is absorbed from the physical phenomenon which is being measured. This
type of transducer draws energy from the system under measurement. Examples are
thermocouples, piezo-electric transducers, photovoltaic cell etc. Such transducers normally
give very small output and so amplification of the signal becomes essential.
Externally powered transducers are those which derive the power required for energy
conversion from an external power source. An electrical transducer, in which electrical
parameter like resistance, inductance or capacitance changes with change in the input signal,
is called as a passive transducer. They may also absorb a little power from the process variable
being measured. Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers viz., potentiometric devices,
differential transformer etc. are known as passive transducers.
3.5.4 Inverse transducers

An inverse transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical
quantity.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse transducer, because current
by it is converted into a force, which causes translational or rotational displacement. A most
useful application of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.
An actuator is an inverse transducer as it is having an electrical input and a low-power non-
electrical output. A piezo-electric crystal also acts as an inverse transducer because when a
voltage is applied across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a mechanical
displacement.
NB:
Types of Transducer based on Quantity to be measured
 Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)
 Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
 Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
 Flow transducers
Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
 Photovoltaic ( e.g. a solar cell )
 Piezoelectric
 Chemical
 Mutual Induction
 Electromagnetic
 Hall effect
 Photoconductors
3.6 Choice of Transducers

The following factors affect the Choice of Transducers:

1. Operating Principle: The transducers are so many times selected on the basis of operating
principle used by them. The operating principles used in transducer may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, opto-electronic, piezoelectric and so on.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer should give a sufficient output signal per unit of measured
input in order to yield meaningful data.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirements and have a
better resolution over its entire range.
4. Accuracy: High degree of accuracy is necessary for measurement.
5. Error: The errors inherent in the operation of the transducer itself, but it should maintain
the expected input-output relationship as described with its transfer function so as to avoid
errors.
6. Transient and Frequency Response: The transducer should meet the desired time domain
specifications as well as it should ideally have a flat frequency response curve.
7. Loading Effects: To avoid loading effect, it is necessary that a transducer has high input
impedance and low output impedance.
8. Physical Environment: The transducer selected should be able to work under specified
environmental conditions and maintain its output-input relationship
2.7 Typical Transducers

2.7.1 Light Transducers
Light transducers are devices which transform the light radiation into an electrical quantity
(resistance, current). They can be used in industry as light transducers and also as indirect
transducers of other physical quantities such as position, angular speed and so on.
When incident on a material, the light radiation produces different effects, among which, there
is the Photoelectric Effect which consists in the liberation of electrons by electromagnetic
radiation incident on a metal surface and in case of semiconductors, in the generation of
electron-hole pairs. Photoelectric effects on semiconductors can be divided into two kinds and
precisely:
• Photoconductive Effect: The conductivity of a semiconductor bar depends on the intensity
of the light radiation which strikes it. Devices belonging to this category are called
photoresistors
• Photovoltaic Effect: The current across a reversely biased P-N junction depends on the
intensity of the light radiation. If the junction is not biased, an electromotive force is generated
across it (Photovoltaic effect).
Devices belonging to this category are called photodiodes, photoelectric cells and
phototransistors.
a) Photoresistors: The photoresistor is a passive semiconductor component without junction.
When crossed by light radiation, it varies its resistance as a result of the photoconductive
effect: the resistance drops when the light increases. In dark conditions, the photoresistor
practically acts as an insulating piece, as it has resistance values measured in M Ω(dark
resistance); if strongly illuminated it has very low resistance values measured up to some tens
of Ω.(Fig.2.8).
Figure 2.8: Photoresistor

b) Photodiode
The photodiode is a device which structure is similar to a common semiconductor diode, with
a P-N junction, and, for this kind of use, it is reversely biased. In dark conditions, the
photodiode operates as a common semiconductor diode, while, when the junction is crossed
by a light radiation, the reverse current increases (Fig.2.9).
Figure 2.9: Photodiode

c) Phototransistor
The phototransistor is a device with a structure similar to the one of a standard transistor, but
with a photosensible base. It is generally NPN kind, it is powered with a positive voltage
between Collector and Emitter and the Base can be left open or connected to the emitter with
a resistor. In this second case, the sensitivity of the phototransistor can be adjusted by varying
the value of the resistor used. On dark conditions, the current of the collector Ic is minimum
and increases with illumination (Fig.2.10).
Photo Conductive Cell
Figure 2.10: Phototransistor

This works on the principle that the resistance of the photo cell varies with incident light.
Typical control circuit showing the application of a photo cell is shown in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Photo Conductive Cell

The potentiometer is used to make adjustment to compensate for manufacturing tolerances in
photocell sensitivity and relay operating sensitivity. When light is incident on the photocell,
its resistance becomes low and the current through the relay is consequently high to operate
the relay.
When the light is intercepted, the resistance increases reducing the current through the relay.
This drop in current may de-energize the relay. These transducers are used
1. for counting packages moving in a conveyor belt
2. in burglar alarm circuit where the interception of the light activates an alarm circuit. This
application mostly uses infra red light which a burglar cannot see.
2.7.2 Temperature Transducers

Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate classes according to the
physical principle on which they operate. The main principles used are:
• The thermoelectric effect
• Resistance change
• Sensitivity of semiconductor device
• Radiative heat emission
• Thermography
• Thermal expansion
• Resonant frequency change
• Sensitivity of fibre optic devices
• Acoustic thermometry
• Colour change
• Change of state of material.
2.7.2.1 Thermoelectric effect (Thermocouple)
The working principle of a thermocouple depends on the thermo-electric effect. When two
dissimilar metals are joined so as to form a closed circuit, there are two junctions where they
meet each other. If one of those junctions is heated, then, a current flows in the circuit which
can be detected by a galvanometer. The amount of the current produced depends on the
difference in temperature between the two junctions and on the characteristics of the two
metals. This was first observed by Seebeck in 1821 and is known as Seebeck effect.
The emf produced in thermocouple junction is given by:
𝐸 = 𝑎(∆𝜃) + 𝑏(∆𝜃)2
where ∆𝜃 =temperature difference between the hot thermocouple and the reference junction
of the thermocouple in °𝐶
𝑎, 𝑏 are constants. 𝑎 is usually large as compared to 𝑏 and therefore the emf is approximated
as
𝐸 ≅ 𝑎(∆𝜃)
𝐸
(∆𝜃) ≅
𝑎
Fig. 2.12 Thermocouple

Instrument based on the above principle is known as thermocouple. Fig. 2.12 shows a
thermocouple made from two different kinds of metals. The wires are joined at the ends which
form two junctions: a measuring junction and a reference junction. Heating the measuring
junction produces a voltage greater than the voltages across the reference junction. The
difference between two voltages is measured and voltmeter reading is converted to its
corresponding temperatures. The conversion tables are generally supplied by the
thermocouple manufacturers and are based upon the reference junction temperature of 00C,
therefore, a direct conversion from the tables can be made only when an ice bath is used at the
reference junction. If it is not possible to maintain the reference junction temperature at 00C a
correction factor must be applied to the milli volt values shown in the thermocouple tables.
There are various types of thermocouples which are used in industries, viz. Copper
constantan, iron constantan, chromel alumel, platinum rhodium and chromels-constantan.
Thermocouples can be classified in two categories
i) Base metal thermocouples
ii) Rare metal thermocouples
Base-metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloy of iron, copper and
nickel and are used up to 1450 K. These types of thermocouples are more sensitive, cheaper
and have nearly linear characteristics. But operating range is low and vulnerable to oxidation.
Rare-metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metal and alloys of platinum, tungsten,
rhodium, molybdenum etc. which are used for higher temperature measurement up to 2500oC.
The characteristics of thermocouples are given in the Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Characteristics of thermocouples

Sr. Type Thermocouple Useful temperature Sensitivity
No. o
range ( C) (μV/oC)
1. T Copper-Constantan -180 to 400 20-60
2. J Iron-Constantan -180 to 850 50-55
3. K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 1300 40-55
4. E Chromel-Constantan -180 to 850 50-80
5. R Platinum- 0 to 1600 5-12
6. S Platinum/13%Rhodium 0 to 1400 5-12
Platinum-
Platinum/10%Rhodium
When high sensitivity is required, thermocouples are attached in series. This is known as
thermopile.
The thermocouples used in industries consist of a protective well and head across the
measuring junction to protect thermocouples from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids,
mechanical damage and to support the thermocouples to avoid damages in pressurized
systems. Thermocouples can be connected in parallel to provide the average temperature in a
system. They can also be used to measure the difference between two temperatures.
Measurement of thermocouple output
The output emf of a thermocouple as a result of the difference between temperatures of the
reference junction and the measuring junction can be measured by the following methods
(a) Measuring the output voltage directly with a micrometer since the output is in the order of
mV
(b) Measuring the output voltage with the help of a dc potentiometer.
(c) Measuring the output voltage after amplifying it
Advantages of Thermocouples
(a) Are cheaper than resistance thermocouples
(b) They follow temperature changes with a small time lag and as such are suitable for
recording
comparatively rapid changes in temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) They have a lower accuracy and hence cannot be used for precision wire
(b) They need to be protected in an open or closed end metal protecting tube to prevent
contamination of the thermocouple from precision metals e.g. platinum or its alloys are being
used, the protective tube has to be made chemically inert or vacuum type.
(c) The compensating leads may be very long for a thermocouple placed in a remote place.
Example1: A T type thermocouple has linear calibration between 0 and 500 oC with emf at
maximum temperature (reference temperature oC) equal to 21.5 mV. Determine the correction
to be made to the indicated emf, if the cold junction temperature is 25 oC. If the indicated emf
is 9.0 mV, determine the temperature of the hot junction.
Solution:
Sensitivity = 2.15 / 500 = 0.043 mV/ oC
E correction = 0.043 x 25 = 1.075 mV
Difference of temperature between hot and cold junction = 9.0/0.043 = 209.30 oC
The reference junction temperature = 25 oC
The hot junction temperature = 209.30+25 = 234.3 oC
Example2: A thermocouple circuit uses Chrome - Alumel which gives an emf of 33.3mV when
measuring a temperature of 800°C with reference temperature of 0°C. The resistance of the
metal coil is Rm =50Ω and current of 0.1mA gives a full scale deflection. The resistance of
the junction and leads Re =12Ω. Calculate
(a) Resistance of the series resistance if a temperature of 800°C is to give full scale deflection
(b) The approximate error due to rise of 1Ω in Re
(c) The approximate error due to rise of 10°C in a copper coil of the meter. The resistance
temperature coefficient of the coil is 0.00426/°C
Solution
a)
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑖(𝑅𝑚+ 𝑅𝑒+ 𝑅𝑠 )
33.3𝑥10−3 = 1𝑥10−4 (50 + 12 + 𝑅𝑠 )
33.3𝑥10−3
𝑅𝑠 = − 62 = 271Ω
1𝑥10−4
b) current in the circuit with increased resistance 𝑅𝑒 = 13Ω
33.3𝑥10−3
= = 0.0997𝑚𝐴
(50 + 271 + 13)
Approximate error in temperature
0.0997 − 0.1
= 𝑥800 = −3.40 𝐶
0.1
c) change in resistance with temperature increase of 100 𝐶
= 50𝑥0.00426𝑥10 = 2.13Ω
Current in the circuit with increase in resistance of the coil
33.3𝑥10−3
= = 0.09936𝑚𝐴
(50 + 2.13 + 271 + 12)
Therefore approximate error in temperature
0.09936 − 0.1
= 𝑥800 = −5.120 𝐶
0.1
2.7.2.2.Resistance Varying Devices
i. Thermistor
Basically thermistor is a contraction of a word 'thermal resistors'. The resistors depending on
temperature are thermal resistors. Thus resistance thermometers are also thermistors having
positive -temperature coefficients. But generally the resistors having negative temperature
coefficients (NTC) are called thermistors. The resistance of a thermistor decreases as
temperature increases. Thermistors are composed of a sintered mixture of metallic oxides,
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, and uranium and are available in a wide
variety of shapes and sizes i.e. Dise, Probe, Bead type, Rod and Washer type as shown in the
Fig.2.13
Fig. 2.13 Various types of thermistors

Thermistors are well suited for precision temperature measurement, temperature control, and
temperature compensation, because of their very large change in resistance with temperature.
They are widely used for measurements in the temperature range -1000 C to +2000 C. The
measurement of the change in resistance with temperature is carried out with a Wheatstone
bridge. All types of thermistors are of small sizes and have fast response. These are most
sensitive and are suitable for narrow spans. The thermistor is at least 10 times more sensitive
than the platinum resistance element. Since the resistance is a function of absolute
temperature, cold junction compensation is not necessary. Due to the large resistance, the
contact or lead-wire resistance is considered as negligible as compared to the resistance of
thermistors. The cost of thermistors is very low.
Fig. 2.14: Typical resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistor materials

The major limitations of using thermistors are that they have a highly non-linear resistance-
temperature characteristic and the problems of self-heating effects necessitate the use of much
lower current levels than those with metallic sensors. The temperature-resistance
characteristic of a thermistor is of exponential type and is given by:
where, R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T0 (Kelvin)

R is the resistance at the measured temperature T (Kelvin)
 is the experimentally determined constant for the given thermistor material.
The values of T usually lie between 3000 and 4000 K depending on the formulation or grade.
Example: A thermistor used for temperature measurement has   3140 K and the resistance
at 270C is 1050 . If the resistance of the thermistor is measured as 2330  , find the
temperature.
Solution
The resistance-temperature characteristic of the thermistor is given by:
  1 1 
R  R0 exp     
  T T0 
As per the data given in the statement:
R0 = 1050
T0 = 273 + 27 = 300 K
T  3140 K
R = 2330 
Taking the logarithm of both sides of equation and rearranging we get,
1 ln R  ln R0 1 7.754  6.957 1
   
T  T0 3140 300 = 3.587 x 10-3
T= 278.77 K=5.770C
ii) Resistance Temperature Devices/ Resistance temperature detector (RTD)

Resistance thermometers, which are alternatively known as resistance temperature devices (or
RTDs) rely on the principle that the resistance of a metal varies with temperature according
to the relationship:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑇)
Where:
RT = Resistance at t0C
R0 = Resistance at 00C
α = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 00C
T=Difference between the temperature to be measured and the reference temperature
This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for some metals, notably
platinum, copper and nickel, whose characteristics are summarized in Fig.2.15. Platinum has
the most linear resistance-temperature characteristic, and it also has good chemical inertness,
making it the preferred type of resistance thermometer in most applications. Its resistance-
temperature relationship is linear within ±0.4% over the temperature range between −200oC
and +40oC
Besides having a less linear characteristic, both nickel and copper are inferior to platinum in
terms of their greater susceptibility to oxidation and corrosion. This seriously limits their
accuracy and longevity. However, because platinum is very expensive compared with nickel
and copper, the latter are used in resistance thermometers when cost is important. Another
metal, tungsten, is also used in resistance thermometers in some circumstances, particularly
for high temperature measurements. The working range of each of these four types of
resistance thermometer is as shown below:
Platinum-−270oC to +1000oC
Copper: −200oC to +260oC
Nickel: −200oC to +430oC
Tungsten: −270oC to +1100oC
The characteristics of these resistance thermometers are as shown in Fig.2.15.
Fig.2.15: Typical resistance-temperature characteristics of metals

The wire resistance thermometer usually consists of a coil wound on a mica or ceramic former,
as shown in the Fig 2.16. The coil is wound in bifilar form so as to make it non-inductive.
Such coils are available in different sizes and with different resistance values ranging from 10
ohms to 25,000 ohms.
Fig.2.15 Construction of Resistance Thermometer

2.8 Force and Weight Transducers
a) Electronic load cell
The electronic load cell uses the physical principle that a force applied to an elastic element
produces a measurable deflection. The elastic elements used are specially shaped and
designed, some examples of which are shown in Fig. 2.16. The design aims are to obtain a
linear output relationship between the applied force and the measured deflection and to make
the instrument insensitive to forces that are not applied directly along the sensing axis. Load
cells exist in both compression and tension forms. In the compression type, the measured mass
is placed on top of a platform resting on the load cell, which therefore compresses the cell.
In the alternative tension type, the mass is hung from the load cell, thereby putting the cell
into tension. Electronic load cells have significant advantages over most other forms of mass-
measuring instrument in terms of their relatively low cost, wide measurement range, tolerance
of dusty and corrosive environments, remote measurement capability, and tolerance of shock
loading and ease of installation.
Fig. 2.16 Elastic elements used in load cells
One problem that can affect the performance of load cells is the phenomenon of creep. Creep
describes the permanent deformation that an elastic element undergoes after it has been under
load for a period of time. This can lead to significant measurement errors in the form of a bias
on all readings if the instrument is not recalibrated from time to time. However, careful design
and choice of materials can largely eliminate the problem.
b) Resistance Strain Gauge
This works on the principle that a resistance of a wire of a semiconductor is changed by
elongation or compression due to externally applied stress. It is commonly used in the
measurement of force, torque and displacement. Consider the block of Fig. 2.17 below (load
cell) which is a short column with resistance wire strain gauge bonded to it.
Fig. 2.17: Resistance Strain Gauge

In this case the measurand is a force and is applied in a column therefore producing strain.
The force is first detected by the first column and is converted into strain which is a mechanical
displacement. This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauge. Hence, we have an output
which is a change in the value of resistance. The measurement of force is a 2-stage process
i.e. first conversion of force into strain and second conversion of strain into a change in
electrical resistance.
NB: It is common phenomena that when a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its
resistance changes on account of the fact that both length and diameter of the conductor
change. Also, there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
and this property is called piezo-resistive effect.
Hence, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges. Apart from load
cells, other meters or gauges which employ strain gauges are torque meters, diaphragm type
pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometer and flow-meters may employ strain
gauges as secondary transducers.
Consider a strain gauge made up of a circular wire (Fig.2.18). The dimensions are length L,
area A and diameter D by being strained. Let wire resistivity be  and the resistance of the
strain wire be R. Therefore,
L
R
A (1)
Let a tensile stress S be applied to the wire as shown in Fig.2.18.
Fig. 2.18: Tensile stress

Let L , D and R be the changes in length, area, and resistance respectively. Given
equation 2 that
L dR  L L A L 
R    
A dS A S A2 S A S (2)
Dividing equation 2 by equation 1 we have
1 dR 1 L 1 A 1 
  
R dS L S A S  S (3)
From equation 3 the per unit change in resistance is due to
L
(a) Per unit change in length L

(b) Per unit change in resistivity 
A
(c) Per unit change in area A
D 2
A
4
It follows that
A 2D D

S 4 S
Hence
2
( )D
1 dA D 2 D
 4 
a dS (  ) D 2 S D S
4 (4)
Hence equation 3 can be rewritten as
1 dR 1 L 2 D 1 
  
R dS L S D S  S (5)
Introducing Poisson ratio
 D
LateralStrain
v  D
LongitudinalStrain L
L (6)
Equation 5 for small variation can be written as
 R L L  
  2v 
R L L  (7)
The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in
length.
Gauge factor (Gf )
R
R L
Gf  R   Gf  Gf 
L R L
L (8)
L
  strain 
Where, L
The Gf can be written as
 
 
G f  1  2v   1  2v 
 L
L (9)
Note that if the change in the value of resistivity of a material due to strain is neglected the
gauge
G  1 2v
Factor is: f
The Poisson ratio for the metal is between 0 to 0.5. This gives a gauge factor of approximately
2. The most common value of Poisson ratio for wires is 0.3. This gives a value of 1.6 for wire
wound strain gauges.
Example 1
A strain gauge is glued to a structure. It has a gauge factor of 2.1 and a resistance of 120.2
Ω. The structure is stressed and the resistance changes to 120.25 Ω. Calculate the strain and
convert this into stress. Take E = 205 GPa
Solution
R
  0.05 / 120 .2  4.16 x10  4
∆R = 120.25 – 120.2 = 0.05 Ω R1

  4.16 x10  4 / 2.1  1.981x10  4
G1
  E  1.981x10  4 x 205 x109  40.61MPa
Example 2
A strain gauge is bonded to a beam 0.1m long and has a cross section area 4cm2. Young modulus for steel is
207GN/m2. The strain gauge has unstrained resistance of 240Ω and a gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied
the resistance of the gauge changes by 0.013 Ω. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam and the amount
of force applied to the beam.
Solution
R R 0.013
G f  R  L  R L  240 x0.1  2.46 x10  6 m
L Gf 2 .2
L
207 x109 x 2.46 x10 6
Stress , S  E   5.092 x10 6 N / m 2
0.1
F  SA  5.092 x106 x4.0 x104  2.037 x103 N
The resistance change in strain gauges is small and requires the use of a bridge circuit for
measurement, as shown in Fig.2.19. The strain gauge elements are mounted in two arms of
the bridge, and two resistors, R1 and R2, form the other two arms. The output signal from the
bridge is amplified and impedance matched.
Figure 2.19: Strain gauge bridge circuit
Exercise
c) Piezo Electric Transducers

These transducers use the principle that an emf is generated when an external force is applied
to certain crystalline material such as quartz.
A piezo - electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces
of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by application of a mechanical force.
This potential is produced by the displacement of charge (electric charge). This effect is
reversible i.e. if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it. This effect is known as piezo-electric effect
Materials that exhibit significant and useful piezo electric effect are divided into two
categories:
(a) Natural group e.g. quartz and Rochelle salt

(b) Synthetic group e.g. Lithium phosphate and ethylene diamine tartarate
Fig. 2.20. Piezoelectric crystal measuring acceleration

A piezo-electric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signals
(Fig.2.20) may be thought of as a charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical deformation
generates a charge and the charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The voltage is
given by

E0 
C
The piezo electric effect is direction sensitive.
A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a
voltage of opposite polarity. The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are
proportional to the magnitude and direction of the applied force F. The polarity of the induced
charge depends upon the direction of the applied force
  d * F coulombs
where d=charge sensitivity of the crystal in coulombs/newton and is constant for a given
crystal
F = applied force in Newtons. The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal and
AE
F tN
t
Where
A  Area of crystal in m2
t  Thickness of crystal in m
E  Young modulus of elasticity in N/m2
Therefore,
Stress F 1 Ft
E  ( )x  N / m2
Stress A  t At
t
But A  wl w
where is the width of the crystal in meters and l is the length of the crystal in
meters
t
  dEA( )
t
The charge at the electrode gives rise to an output voltage

E0 
Cp
Where 𝐶𝑝 is the capacitance between the electrodes in Farads
A
C p   0 r
t
 dF dt F
E0   
C p   A  0 r A
0 r
t
F
 p
But A pressure or stress in N/m2
d
E0  tp  gtp
Thus  0 r
d
g
Where  0 r , g is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. This is a constant for a given crystal
circuit. Its units are V − m/N
E0
E
g 0  t
Now, tp p
E0

But t Electric field strength in V/m
ElectricField E
g 
stress p
d   0g
C/N
Now, let us define the following parameters

Charge produced q = kqxi coulombs
kq = Sensitivity c/m
xi = displacement m
RP = leakage resistance of transducer
Cp = capacitance of transducer F
Cc = capacitance of cable F
CA = capacitance of amplifier F
RA = resistance of amplifier
The charge generator in second figure is converted into a constant current generator as in the
third Figure
Fig.2.21: Piezoelectric transducer set-up
Fig.2.22: Piezoelectric transducer equivalent circuit
Fig. 2.23: Reduced equivalent circuit

The total capacitance across the current generator C is given by
C  C P  CC  C A
R A RP
R
R A  RP
Since the leakage resistance of the transducer is very large of the order 1 × 1011Ω,
R  RA
Converting this charge generator into a constant current generator we have
dq dx
i
CR   kq i
dt dt
i
where CR is the current of constant current generator
i
CR i C  i R
Output voltage at the load (e L )
1 1
e L  eC   i Cdt   ( i CR i R)dt
C C
deL 1 i
 ( CR i R)
OR dt C
OR
de dx e
C L ( i CR i R)  k q i  L
dt dt R
deL dx
RC  eL  k q R i
dt dt
de dx
 L  e L  k i
But RC   , dt dt
kq

Where k  sensitivit y constant C V/m
Taking Laplace transform we have:
(s  1) E L ( s)  ksX i ( s)
E L ( s) ks

Transfer function X i ( s ) s  1
For sinusoid function the transfer function is
E L ( j ) j  k

X i ( j ) 1  j 
The amplitude ratio is
E  1
m  L ( j )  
Xi 1  (  ) 2
1
1
(  ) 2
The phase shift

  tan 1  
2 rad
At very high frequencies .  1, m  1 and   0
Hence high frequency sensitivity
e
k L
xi
From equation above it is evident that the steady state response of a piezoelectric transducer
to a constant displacement xi is zero. Therefore piezoelectric transducers cannot be used to
measure static displacement.
Examples
1. A quartz piezoelectric crystal has a thickness of 2𝑚𝑚 and a voltage sensitivity of
0 .055𝑉 − 𝑚/𝑁. It is subjected to a pressure of1.5𝑀 𝑁/𝑚2. Calculate the voltage
output. If the permittivity of quartz is 40.6𝑥1012 𝐹/𝑚, calculate the charge sensitivity.
Solution
𝐸0 = 𝑔𝑡𝜌 = 0.055𝑥2𝑥10−3 𝑥1.5𝑥106 = 165𝑉
Charge sensitivity d,
𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑔 = 40.6𝑥10−12 𝑥0.055 = 2.23𝑥10−12 𝐶/𝑁
2. A Barium titanic pick up has the dimensions of 5 mm by 5 mm by 1.25 mm. The force
acting on it is 5 N, its charge sensitivity is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 × 10−9
F/m. If the modulus of elasticity of Barium titanic is 12 × 106 N/m2, calculate the
strain, the charge and the capacitance.
Solution
Area of plate A
A = 5 × 5 × 10−6 = 25 × 10−6
5
Pressure 𝑝 𝑝 = 25𝑥10−6 = 0.2𝑥106 𝑁/𝑚2
Voltage sensitivity𝑔,
𝑑 150𝑥10−12
𝑔= = = 12𝑥10−3 𝑉𝑚/𝑁
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 12.5𝑥10−9
Voltage generated 𝐸0
𝐸0 = 𝑔𝑡𝜌 = 12𝑥10−3 𝑥1.25𝑥10−3 𝑥0.2𝑥106 = 3𝑉
Strain 𝜀
∆𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 0.2𝑥106
𝜀= = = = 0.0167
𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 12𝑥106
Charge 𝜑
𝜑 = 𝑑𝐹 = 150𝑥10−12 𝑥5 = 750𝑝𝐶
𝜑 750𝑥10−12
Capacitance 𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐸 = = 250𝑝𝐹
0 3
3. A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 140.5 and 100.0Ω
at100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 00 𝐶, respectively. If its resistance becomes 305.3Ω when it is in contact
with a hot gas, determine the temperature of the gas. The temperature coefficient of
platinum is 0.00390 𝐶 −1 .

4. A piezoelectric transducer has a capacitance of 1000pF and a charge sensitivity of
40×10−3C/m. The connecting cable has a capacitance of 300pF, while the ocr used for
read out has a resistance of 1MΩ with a parallel capacitance of 50pF.
(a) What is the sensitivity in V/m of the transducer alone?
(b) What is the high frequency sensitivity in V/m of the entire measuring system?
(c) What is the lowest frequency that can be measured with 5% amplitude error by the entire
system?
(d) What is the value of an external shunt capacitance that can be connected in order to extend
the range of 5% error down to 10Hz?
(e) With external capacitance calculated in (d) above connected in the circuit what is the
system high frequency sensitivity?
Solution
k  40 x10 3 C  1000 x10 12 F
a) q C/m, p
kq 40 x10 3
k   40 x10 6 V / m
C p 1000 x10 12
C  C P  CC  C A
b) =1000+300+50=1350pF
kq 3
40 x10
k  12
 29.63 x10 6 V / m
C 1350 x10
c)   RC  1x10 x1350 x10  1.35ms
6 12
m=0.95
1
0.95  ,    3.04
1
1
(  ) 2
3.04
  2254 rad / s
1.35 x10 3
2254
2f  2254  f   358 .7 Hz
2
3.04 3.04
   48.38ms
d)  2x10

48.39 x10 3
C   48.380 nF
Total capacitance R 1x10 6
C  48380 pF  1350 pF  47020 pF
External capacitance e
e) High frequency sensitivity with Ce
40 x10 3
  827 kV / m
48380 x10 12
5. A copper-constantan thermocouple was found to have linear calibration between
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4000 𝐶 with emf at a maximum temperature (reference junction temperature
00 𝐶)equal to20.68𝑚𝑉.
a) a) Determine the correction which must be made to the indicated emf if the cold
junction temperature is 250 𝐶
b) b) If the indicated emf is 8.92𝑚𝑉 in the thermocouple circuit determine the
temperature of the hot junction.
6. A piezo-electric transducer has the following characteristics:

Capacitance of crystal=10−9 𝐹
Capacitance of cable=3𝑥10−19 𝐹
Charge constant of crystal=4𝑥10−6 𝐶/𝑐𝑚
The oscilloscope used for read-out has a resistance of 1𝑀Ω in parallel with a capacitance of
10−10 𝐹.Find the amplitude of the output voltage, as displayed on the oscilloscope, if the
crystal is subjected to a harmonic deformation of amplitude 10−3 𝑚𝑚 and frequency 200𝐻𝑧.
Solution
K is the voltage sensitivity constant

𝑒𝑜 𝐾𝜏𝜔
| |= 4𝑥10−6 𝐶/𝑐𝑚
𝑥𝑖 √1 + (𝜔𝜏)2
7. A capacitive transducer consists of two plates of diameter 2cm each, separated by an

air gap of 0.25mm. Find the displacement sensitivity.
Solution
𝐴𝜀
𝐶=
3.6𝜋𝑑
𝜕𝐶 −𝐴𝜀
Sensitivity 𝑆 = 𝜕𝑑 = 3.6𝜋𝑑2 ,
𝜋
Putting 𝐴 = 4 (2)2 = 𝜋 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝜀 = 1 for air, 𝑑 = 0.025 𝑐𝑚, 𝑆 = −444𝑝𝐹/𝑐𝑚.
The negative sign indicates decrease of capacitance, with increase of air gap.
Uses of Piezoelectric Transducers
(a) Used for stabilizing electronic oscillators
(b) Used for the measurement of surface roughness and in accelerometers and vibration pick
ups
(c) Used in under water detection systems known as sonar and ultrasonic generation element
(d) Used in measurement of force in rolling miles
Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers
(a) These transducers need no external power and is therefore self generating (active
transducers)
(b) It has a very good high frequency response
Disadvantages of Piezoelectric Transducers
(a) Cannot measure static force or displacement
(b) The output of the transducer is affected by changes in temperature. Hence temperature
compensating devices have to be used
2.9 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Transducers
a) Potentiometer
This works on the principle that positioning of a slider by an external force varies the
resistance in a potentiometer. It is used to measure electrical pressure or voltage or mechanical
displacement. The schematic diagram of a potentiometer (POT) is as shown in Figure 22
below.
Figure 22: Potentiometer

Let L be the total length of the potentiometer and Rt be its total resistance. The input
xi e0
e0  ei xi  L
displacement is xi. The output voltage eo is given by: Land ei
Exercise
The output voltage from a translational motion potentiometer of stroke length 0.1 meter is to
be measured by an instrument whose resistance is 10kΩ. The maximum measurement error,
which occurs when the slider is positioned two-thirds of the way along the element (i.e when
AC=2AB/3in Fig.2.24), must not exceed 1% of the full-scale reading. The highest possible
measurement sensitivity is also required. A family of potentiometers having a power rating of

1watt per 0.01meter and resistances from 100Ω to 10kΩ in 100Ω steps is available.
a) Show that the maximum error is given by:
2𝑅𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
2𝑅𝑡 + 9𝑅𝑚
b) Choose the most suitable potentiometer from the given range and calculate the sensitivity
of the measurement that it gives.
Fig.2.24 The resistive potentiometer
b) Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most widely used inductive
transducer to translate linear motion into electrical signal. LVDT works on the transformer
principle that an emf is induced in a coil whenever the magnetic force linking that coils
changes. It is used to measure pressure, force and displacement (position)
Construction
A differential transformer consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings. The
windings are arranged concentrically and next to each other. They are wound over a hollow
bobbin which is usually of a non-magnetic and insulating material. A ferro-magnetic core
(armature) in the shape of a rod of cylinder is attached to the transducer’s sensing shaft. The
core slides freely within the hollow portion of the bobbin. In the simplex winding
configuration, the linear variable displacement transformer LVDT is shown in Fig.25. There
is one primary and two secondary windings. The secondaries are connected so their outputs
are opposite. If an AC excitation is applied across the primary winding then voltages are
induced in the secondaries. A movable core varies the coupling between it and the two
secondary windings. When the core is in the centre position, the coupling to the secondary
coils is equal. As the core moves away from the centre position, the coupling to one secondary
becomes more and hence its output voltage increases, while the coupling and the output
voltage of the other secondary decreases.
Working principle
The frequency of ac provided to the primary winding maybe between 50Hz - 20 kHz. Since
the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source it provides alternating
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating current in the two secondary windings. The
output voltage of s1 is Es1 and that of s2 is Es2. In order to convert the outputs from s1 and
s2 into a single voltage signal, the two secondary are connected in series opposition.Any
physical displacement of the core causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increase
while simultaneously, reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. The difference of
the two voltages (Eo = Es1 − Es2) appears across the output terminals of the transducer and
gives a measure of the physical position of the core and hence the displacement.
When the core is in the neutral or zero position, voltages induced in the secondary windings
are equal and opposite and cancel out. The net output is negligible.
Thus at Null position
Es1 = Es2
When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux
links the left-hand coil than the right-hand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil, ES1, is
therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand coil, Es2. The magnitude of the output
voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in phase
with the voltage of the left-hand coil. The magnitude of differential output voltage is thus
Eo = Es1 − Es2
Similarly if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking the winding s2
becomes larger than that linking s1. This will result in Es2 becoming larger than Es1. The output
voltage in this case is Eo = Es1 − Es2 and is 180° out of phase with the primary voltage. Using
a phase detector circuit it is also possible to indicate the direction the core has moved. By
comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential) voltage with the input source,
the amount and direction of movement of the core and hence of displacement may be
determined. Variation of output voltage with core position is shown in Fig.2.26.
Fig. 25(a): Normal circuit of LVDT Fig. 2.25(b): Differential circuit of

LVDT
Fig. 2.26 Variation of output voltage in LVDT with core position

Advantages of LVDTs
(a) Have high range for measurement of displacement. This can be used to measure
displacement of the order 1.25mm - 250mm
(b) It is a frictionless device and hence no mechanical wear. LVDT has infinite mechanical
life. This feature is vital in high reliability mechanisms and systems found in aircraft ,
missile and space vehicles and critical industrial equipment
c) Have high sensitivity which is typically above 40V/mm
(d)Ruggedness i.e. LVDT can tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations especially when
the core is spring induced without any adverse effects.
(e) It has low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all operating conditions
(f) It is light in weight, stable, easy to align and maintain
(g) It has low power consumption of less than 1W
Disadvantages of LVDTs
(a) Relatively large displacement is required for appreciable differential output
(b) LVDTs are sensitive to stray magnetic field but shielding is possible
(c) They are affected by strong mechanical vibrations
(d) They can only operate on ac signal no dc equivalent
(e) The dynamic response of these transducers is limited mechanically by the mass of the core
and electrically by the frequency of the applied voltage
(f) Temperature affects the performance of the transducer and hence temperature
compensating schemes need to be employed
2.10. Numerical
1. The output of an LVDT is connected to a 10 V voltmeter through an amplifier with a gain
of 250. The voltmeter scale has 100 divisions and the scale can be read up to 1/5th of a division.
An output of 2 mV appears across the terminals of the LVDT, when core is displaced through
a 0.5 mm. Determine the following:
i) Sensitivity of the measuring system
ii) Resolution of instrument
Solution
Given that
The output voltage of LVDT: V0 = 2 mV
Displacement = 0.5 mm
Sensitivity of LVDT = Sensitivity of the measuring system = Amplification factor x

Sensitivity of LVDT = 250 x 4 mV/mm = 1000 mV/mm or 1 V/mm.
Full-scale of voltmeter = 0-10 V
No. of divisions on voltmeter scale = 100
1 Scale division = 10 / 100 = 0.10 V or 100 mV
Minimum voltage that can be read on voltmeter =
mm
c) Electrical Tachometer (Tachogenerator)

This uses the principle that motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. This is
accomplished through the use of electromagnetic induction. There are two types of
electromagnetic tachometers
(a) DC tachometer
(b) AC tachometer
DC tachometer consists of a small armature which is coupled with the machine whose speed
is to be measured. This armature revolves in the field of permanent magnet. The emf generated
is proportional to the product of speed and flux. Since the flux of a permanent magnet is
constant, the voltage generated is proportional to speed. The polarity of output voltage
indicates the direction of resistance. The emf is measured with the help of a moving coil
voltmeter having a uniform scale and calibrated directly in terms of speed.
AC tachometer, have a rotating magnet which may either be permanent or electro magnet.
The coil is wound on the stator and therefore the problems associated with commutators as in
DC tachometers are absent. The rotation of the magnet causes an emf to be induced in the
stator coil. The amplitude and frequency of emf are both proportional to the speed of rotation.
Thus either amplitude or frequency of the induced voltage may be used to measure the
rotational speed. The output voltage of AC tachometer generator is rectified and is measured
with a permanent magnet moving coil instrument (PMMC)
2.11. Level Measurement

1. Dipstick
Dipsticks offer a simple means of measuring level approximately. The ordinary dipstick is the
cheapest device available. This consists of a metal bar on which a scale is etched. The bar is
fixed at a known position in the liquid-containing vessel. A level measurement is made by

removing the instrument from the vessel and reading of how far up the scale the liquid has
wetted. As a human operator is required to remove and read the dipstick, this method can only
be used in relatively small and shallow vessels.
2. Float Systems
Float systems, whereby the position of a float on the surface of a liquid is measured by means
of a suitable transducer, have a typical measurement inaccuracy of ±1%. This method is also
simple, cheap and widely used. The system using a potentiometer is very common, and is well
known for its application to monitoring the level in motor vehicle fuel tanks.
3. Pressure measuring devices (hydrostatic system).The hydrostatic pressure due to a liquid is
directly proportional to its depth and hence to the level of its surface. Several instruments are
available that use this principle, and they are widely used in many industries, particularly in
harsh chemical environments.
In the case of open-topped vessels (or covered ones that are vented to the atmosphere), the
level can be measured by inserting a pressure sensor at the bottom of the vessel, as shown in
Fig.2.27
Fig. 2.27: Pressure measuring device

P
h
The liquid level h is then related to the measured pressure P according to g , where 
is the liquid density and g is the acceleration due to gravity. One source of error in this method
can be imprecise knowledge of the liquid density. This can be a particular problem in the case
of liquid solutions and mixtures and in some cases only an estimate of density is available.
Even with single liquids, the density is subject to variation with temperature, and therefore
temperature measurement may be required if very accurate level measurements are needed.
4. Capacitive devices. Capacitive devices are widely used for measuring the level of both
liquids and solids in powdered or granular form. They perform well in many applications, but
become inaccurate if the measured substance is prone to contamination by agents that change
the dielectric constant. Ingress of moisture into powders is one such example of this. They are
also suitable for use in extreme conditions for measuring liquid metals (high temperatures),
liquid gases (low temperatures), corrosive liquids (acids, e.t.c.) and high pressure processes.
For non-conducting substances two bare-metal capacitor plates in the form of concentric
cylinders are immersed in the substance, as shown in Fig.2.28
Fig.2.28: Capacitive level sensor

The substance behaves as a dielectric between the plates according to the depth of the
substance. For concentric cylinder plates of radius a and b (b>a), and total height L, the depth
of the substance h is related to the measured capacitance C by:
b
C log e ( )  2 0
h a
2 0 (  1)

Where  is the relative permittivity of the measured substance and 0 is the permittivity of
free space.
5. Ultrasonic level gauge: The principle of the ultrasonic level gauge is that energy from an
ultrasonic source above the liquid is reflected back from the liquid surface into an ultrasonic
energy detector.
Measurement of the time of flight allows the liquid level to be inferred. In alternative versions,
the ultrasonic source is placed at the bottom of the vessel containing the liquid, and the time
of flight between emission, reflection off the liquid surface and detection back at the bottom
of the vessel is measured.
3. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.1.Introduction
Signal processing is concerned with improving the quality of the reading or signal at the output
of a measurement system. One particular aim is to attenuate any noise in the measurement signal
that has not been eliminated by careful design of the measurement system. However, signal
processing performs many other functions apart from dealing with noise, and the exact
procedures that are applied depend on the nature of the raw output signal from a measurement
transducer. Procedures of signal filtering, signal amplification, signal attenuation, signal
linearization and bias removal are applied according to the form of correction required in the
raw signal.
Traditionally, signal processing has been carried out by analogue techniques in the past, using
various types of electronic circuit. However, the ready availability of digital computers in recent
years has meant that signal processing has increasingly been carried out digitally, using software
modules to condition the input measurement data.
Digital signal processing is inherently more accurate than analogue techniques, but this
advantage is greatly reduced in the case of measurements coming from analogue sensors and
transducers, because an analogue-to-digital conversion stage is necessary before the digital
processing can be applied, thereby introducing conversion errors. Also, analogue processing
remains the faster of the two alternatives in spite of recent advances in the speed of digital signal
processing.
4.2.Data Aided Measurement

A transducer is a device that performs the initial measurement and energy conversion of a
process parameter into analogous electrical or pneumatic information. Many times further
transformation or signal enhancement may be required to complete the measurement function.
Such processing is known as signal conditioning. As learnt earlier, many signal conditioning
processes may be linear, such as, amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation,
addition and subtraction. Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation, filtering,
clipping, etc.
A typical electronic aided measurement system is as shown in the Fig.3.1.
Fig.3.1 A typical electronic aided measurement system

The first stage is the input device which is nothing but a transducer which converts measured
variable into a usable form i.e. electrical signal. In other words, the quantity measured is
encoded as an electrical signal. The next stage modifies the electrical signal in the form
suitable for the output or read-out devices. Generally, the most frequently used electronic
circuits are amplifiers. The output is obtained from read-out devices such as meter, recorder,
printer, display units etc. In general, the quantity which is measured by using transducer can
be encoded in different ways. For example, as a physical or chemical quantity or property, as
a characteristics of the electrical signal, as a number. The property or different characteristics
used to represent a data is called data domain. The electronic aided measurement system
represents the measurement of physical quantity faithfully in its analog or digital form
obtained from the signal conditioning circuits. For passive transducers, the signal conditioning
circuit mainly includes excitation and amplification circuitry, while for active transducers,
only amplification circuitry is needed and the excitation is not needed. Depending on the type
of the excitation either A.C. or D.C. source, we have A.C. signal conditioning system and
D.C. signal conditioning system
4.3. D.C. Signal Conditioning System

The block diagram of D.C. signal conditioning system is shown in the Fig.3.2.
Fig.3.2 Block diagram of D.C. signal conditioning system

The resistance transducers are commonly used for the D.C. systems. The resistance transducer
like strain gauge forms one or more arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. A separate D.C.
supply is required for the bridge. The bridge is balanced using potentiometer and can be
calibrated for unbalanced conditions. This is the function of calibration and zeroing network.
Then there is D.C. amplifier which also requires separate D.C. supply. The D.C. amplifier
must have following characteristics:
1. Balanced differential inputs.

2. High common mode rejection ratio. (CMRR)
3. High input impedance.
4. Good thermal and long term stability.
The D.C. system has following advantages:
1. It is easy to calibrate at low frequencies.
2. It is able to recover from an overload condition.
But the main disadvantage of D.C. system is that it suffers from the problems of drift. The low
frequency spurious unwanted signals are available along with the required data signal. For
overcoming this, low drift D.C. amplifiers are required. The output of D.C. amplifier is given
to a low pass filter. The function of low pass filter is to eliminate unwanted high frequency
components or noise from the required data signal. Thus the output of low pass filter is the
required data signal i.e. the D.C. output from the D.C. signal conditioning system. The
applications of such system are in use with common resistance transducers such as
potentiometers and resistance strain gauges.
4.4.A.C. Signal Conditioning System

The limitation of D.C. signal conditioning system can be overcome up to certain extent, using
A.C. signal conditioning system. The block diagram of A.C. signal conditioning system is as
shown in the Fig.3.3
Fig.3.3 Block diagram of A.C. signal conditioning system

This is carrier type A.C. signal conditioning system. The transducer used is variable resistance
or variable inductance transducer. The carrier oscillator generates a carrier signal of the
frequency of about 50 Hz to 200 kHz. The carrier frequencies are higher and are at least 5 to
10 times the signal frequencies.
The bridge output is amplitude modulated carrier frequency signal. The A.C. amplifier is used
to amplify this signal. A separate power supply is required for the A.C. amplifier. The
amplified signal is demodulated using phase sensitive demodulator. The advantage of using
phase sensitive demodulator is that the polarity of D.C. output indicates the direction of the
parameter change in the bridge output. Unless and until spurious and noise signals modulate
the carrier, they will not affect the data signal quality and till then are not important. Active
filters are used to reject mains frequency pick up. This prevents the overloading of A.C.
amplifier. Filtering out of carrier frequency components of the data signal is done by phase
sensitive demodulator. The applications of such system are in use with variable reactance
transducers and for the systems where signals are required to be transmitted through long
cables. To connect the transducers to the signal conditioning system further processing of
signals is required which includes linear and nonlinear operations. This type of signal
conditioning includes the circuits like sample and hold, multiplexers, analog to digital
converters etc.
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
4.5.1. Analogue Filtering
Signal filtering consists of processing a signal to remove a certain band of frequencies within
it. The band of frequencies removed can be either at the low-frequency end of the frequency
spectrum, at the high-frequency end, at both ends, or in the middle of the spectrum. Filters to
perform each of these operations are known respectively as low-pass filters, high-pass filters,
band-pass filters and band-stop filters.
Filter: a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate
others. Four types of filters are:
1. Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies
2. High-pass filter: passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies
3. Band-pass filter: passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or
attenuates frequencies outside the band
4. Band-reject filter: passes frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks
or attenuates frequencies within the band
These are illustrated in the figure below:
Analogue filters exist in two forms, passive and active form. The very simplest passive filters
are circuits that consist only of resistors and capacitors. The term active filters come from the
active (amplifying) circuit elements that can generate signal energy.
Exercise
Draw the circuit diagrams and with the aid of equations magnitude (|𝐻|) versus frequency (𝜔) plots show how
the above active filters (a to d) can be implemented using either simple RC networks and/or the operational
amplifier.
4.5.2. Amplification
Signal amplification is carried out when the typical signal output level of a measurement
transducer is considered to be too low. Amplification by analogue means is carried out by an
operational amplifier (Fig.3.4).
Fig.3.4: Signal amplifier

R
V0   2 Vi
R1
The amount of signal amplification is therefore defined by the relative values of R2 and R1.
This ratio between R2 and R1 is known as the amplifier gain. The sign of the processed signal
is inverted. This can be corrected for if necessary by feeding the signal through a further
amplifier set up for unity gain (R1 = R2). This inverts the signal again and returns it to its
original sign.
4.5.3. Types of Electrical Amplifiers
Amplifiers are of several types. The prominent ones used for instrumentation and
measurement work are:
1. AC and DC amplifiers,
2. Carrier amplifiers, and
3. Chopper amplifiers
Exercise
1. Discuss the operation of each of the above amplifiers by using suitable diagrams
2. List the characteristics of an ideal amplifier (op amp)
3.5.4. Instrumentation amplifier
Instrumentation Amplifiers (in-amps) are very high gain differential amplifiers which have
high input impedance and a single ended output. Instrumentation amplifiers are mainly used
to amplify very small differential signals from strain gauges, thermocouples or current sensing
devices in motor control systems.
The advantage of the instrumentation amplifier compared with a standard operational
amplifier is that its differential input impedance is much higher. In consequence, its common
mode rejection capability is much better. The instrumentation amplifier also has a very good
common mode rejection ratio, CMRR (zero output when V1 = V2) well in excess of 100dB
at DC. A typical example of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier with high input
impedance (Zin) is given in Fig.3.5:
Fig.3.5: Instrumentation amplifier
The two non-inverting amplifiers form a differential input stage acting as buffer amplifiers
with a gain of 1 + 2R2/R1 for differential input signals and unity gain for common mode input
signals. Since amplifiers A1 and A2 are closed loop negative feedback amplifiers, we can
expect the voltage at Va to be equal to the input voltage V1. Likewise, the voltage at Vb to be
equal to the value at V2.
As the op-amps take no current at their input terminals (virtual earth), the same current must
flow through the three resistor network of R2, R1 and R2 connected across the op-amp
outputs. This means then that the voltage on the upper end of R1 will be equal to V1 and the
voltage at the lower end of R1 to be equal to V2.
This produces a voltage drop across resistor R1 which is equal to the voltage difference
between inputs V1 and V2, the differential input voltage, because the voltage at the summing
junction of each amplifier, Va and Vb is equal to the voltage applied to its positive inputs.
However, if a common-mode voltage is applied to the amplifiers inputs, the voltages on each
side of R1 will be equal, and no current will flow through this resistor. Since no current flows
through R1 (nor, therefore, through both R2 resistors, amplifiers A1 and A2 will operate as
unity-gain followers (buffers). Since the input voltage at the outputs of amplifiers A1 and A2
appears differentially across the three resistor network, the differential gain of the circuit can
be varied by just changing the value of R1.
The voltage output from the differential op-amp A3 acting as a subtractor, is simply the
difference between its two inputs ( V2 - V1 ) and which is amplified by the gain of A3 which
may be one, unity, (assuming that R3 = R4). Then we have a general expression for overall
 2 R  R 
voltage gain of the instrumentation amplifier circuit as: VOUT  (V2  V1 ) 1  2  4 
 R1  R3 
Exercise
1. Show that the general expression for overall voltage gain of an instrumentation amplifier
 2 R  R 
circuit is given by: VOUT  (V2  V1 ) 1  2  4 
 R1  R3 
3.5.5. Signal Attenuation
One method of attenuating signals by analogue means is to use a potentiometer connected in

a voltage dividing circuit (Fig.3.6). For the potentiometer slider positioned a distance of x
along the resistance element of total length L, the voltage level of the processed signal Vo is
x
related to the voltage level of the raw signal Vi by the expression: V0  Vi
L
Fig.3.6: Signal attenuator

The amplifier network of Fig.3.4 can also be used with R2 being smaller than R1.
3.5.6. Differential Amplifier
The amplifier configuration (Fig.3.7) that is used to amplify the small difference that may
exist between two voltage signals VA and VB. The output voltage Vo is given by:
R
V0  3 (VB  VA )
R1
With all the resistors in the circuit equal, the output becomes V0  VB  VA
which is the difference between the two inputs.
3.5.7. Signal addition
The most common mechanism for summing two or more input signals is the use of an
operational amplifier connected in signal-inversion mode, as shown in Fig. 3.8. For input
signal voltages V1, V2 and V3 the output voltage Vo is given by:
V0  (V1  V2  V3 )
Fig.3.7: Differencing amplifier Fig. 3.8: Summing amplifier
3.5.8. Signal integration
Connected in the configuration shown in Fig.3.9, an operational amplifier is able to integrate

1
RC 
the input signal Vi such that the output signal V0 is given by: V0   V1dt
3.5.9. Signal differentiation
Signal differentiation is achieved by interchanging the resistor and capacitor in the integrator
d
network of Fig.3.9. The output becomes: V0   RC V1
dt
Fig.3.9: Integrator
3.5.10. Signal linearization
Several types of transducer used in measuring instruments have an output that is a non-linear
function of the measured quantity input. In many cases, this non-linear signal can be converted
to a linear one by special operational amplifier configurations that have an equal and opposite
non-linear relationship between the amplifier input and output terminals. For example, light
intensity transducers typically have an exponential relationship between the output signal and
the input light intensity, i.e.: V0  KeQ
where Q is the light intensity, V0 is the voltage level of the output signal, and K and  are
constants. If a diode is placed in the feedback path between the input and output terminals of
the amplifier as shown in Fig.3.10, the relationship between the amplifier output voltage V0
and input voltage V1 is given by: V0  C log e (V1 )
If the output of the light transducer is conditioned by an amplifier of characteristic given by
equation above, the voltage level of the processed signal is given by: V0  C log e ( K )  CQ
Fig.3.10: Operational amplifier connected for signal linearization

This shows that the output signal now varies linearly with light intensity Q but with an offset
of C loge (K). This offset would normally be removed by further signal conditioning, as
described below.
3.5.11. Bias (zero drift) removal
Sometimes, either because of the nature of the measurement transducer itself, or as a result of
other signal conditioning operations, a bias (zero drift) exists in the output signal. This can be
expressed mathematically for a physical quantity x and measurement signal y as: y  Kx  C
where C represents a bias in the output signal that needs to be removed by signal processing.
The bias removal circuit shown in Fig.3.11 is a differential amplifier in which a
potentiometer is used to produce a variable voltage Vp equal to the bias on the input voltage
Vi. The differential amplification action thus removes the bias.
Fig.3.11: Bias removal circuit

R3
Referring to the circuit, for R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the output V0 is given by: V0  (Vp  Vi )
R1
where Vi is the unprocessed signal y equal to (Kx − C) and Vp is the output voltage from a
potentiometer supplied by a known reference voltage Vref that is set such that Vp = C. Now,
substituting these values for Vi and Vp into the above equation and referring the quantities
back into equation original equation gives: y  K x
'
R
where K ' is related to K by K '  3 K .
R1
It is clear that a straight line relationship now exists between the measurement signal y and
the measured quantity x. Thus, the unwanted bias has been removed.
3.5.12. Voltage follower
The voltage follower, also known as a pre-amplifier, is a unity gain amplifier circuit with a
short circuit in the feedback path, as shown in Fig.3.12, such that: V0  Vi
Fig.3.12: Voltage follower circuit

It has very high input impedance and its main application is to reduce the load on the measured
system. It also has very low output impedance that is very useful in some impedance-matching
applications.
3.6. Digital Signal Processing
Digital techniques achieve much greater levels of accuracy in signal processing than
equivalent analogue methods. Whilst digital signal processing elements in a measurement
system can exist as separate units, it is more usual to find them as an integral part of an
intelligent instrument. However, the construction and mode of operation of such processing
elements are the same irrespective of whether they are part of an intelligent instrument or not.
The hardware aspect of a digital signal-processing element consists of a digital computer and
analogue interface boards.
3.6.1. Sampling
A sampler is basically a switch that closes every T seconds as shown in Fig.3.13.
Fig.3.13: Sampler
When a continuous signal r(t) is sampled at regular intervals T, the resulting discrete signal is
as shown in Fig.3.14 (b) where q is the amount of time that the switch is closed.
The switch closure time q is much smaller than the sampling time T and can be neglected.
A sample and hold circuit is normally an essential element at the interface between an
analogue sensor or transducer and an analogue-to-digital converter. It holds the input signal
at a constant level whilst the analogue-to-digital conversion process is taking place. This
prevents the conversion errors that would probably result if variations in the measured signal
were allowed to pass through to the converter.
Fig.3.14: Sampled signal

The operational amplifier circuit shown in Fig.3.15 provides this sample and hold function.
The input signal is applied to the circuit for a very short time duration with switch S1 closed
and S2 open, after which S1 is opened and the signal level is then held until, when the next
sample is required, the circuit is reset by closing S2.
Fig.3.15: Operational amplifier as a sample and hold circuit
3.6.2. Analogue to Digital (A/D) Conversion
The importance of digital instruments is increasing, mainly because of the increasing use of
digital computers in both data reduction and automatic control systems. Since digital computer
works only with digital signals, any information supplied to it must be in digital form. The
computer’s output is also in digital form. Thus working with a digital computer at either the
input or the output, we must use digital signals.
However, most of our present day measurement and control apparatus produces signals which
are of analogue nature, it is thus necessary to have both Analogue to Digital (A/D) Converters
at the input to the computer and Digital to Analogue (D/A) Converters at the output of the
computer.An analog-to-digital converter is a device that converts a continuous quantity to a
discrete time digital representation. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog
converter. Typically, an A/D is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage or
current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. However,
some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can also be
considered ADCs. The digital output may use different coding schemes. Typically, the digital
output will be a binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
An analog to digital converter (Fig. 3.16-a) inputs an analog electrical signal such as voltage
or current and outputs a binary number. In block diagram form, it can be represented as below:
Fig. 3.16-a Analog to digital converter Fig. 3.16-b Digital to analog converter
Important factors in the design of an analogue-to-digital converter are the speed of conversion
and the number of digital bits used to represent the analogue signal level. The minimum
number of bits used in analogue to-digital converters is eight. The use of eight bits means that
the analogue signal can be represented to a resolution of 1 part in 256 if the input signal is
carefully scaled to make full use of the converter range.
However, it is more common to use either 10 bit or 12 bit analogue-to-digital converters,
which give resolutions respectively of 1 part in 1024 and 1 part in 4096. Several types of
analogue-to-digital converter exist. These differ in the technique used to effect signal
conversion, in operational speed, and in cost.
A digital to analog converter (Fig. 3.16-b) on the other hand, inputs a binary number and
outputs an analog voltage or current signal. In block diagram form, it looks like
this:
Digital-to-analogue conversion is much simpler to achieve than analogue-to-digital
conversion and the cost of building the necessary hardware circuit is considerably less. It is
required wherever a digitally processed signal has to be presented to an analogue control
actuator or an analogue signal display device.
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
2𝑛
where 𝑛 is the number of bits. It is also the weight of L.S.B.
The span is the difference between the maximum and minimum analog values while the offset
is the minimum analog value. It is noted that:
𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡.
Example
1. In a system, the analog range is -3 to +5V and there are 8bits in the digital system.
Specify the span, offset and step size. Also find the bit weights for each of the digital
bits and the analogue value corresponding to 10010001.
3.6.3. Digital filtering
Digital signal processing can perform all of the filtering functions mentioned earlier in respect
of analogue filters, i.e. low pass, high pass, band pass and band stop. However, the detailed
design of digital filters requires a level of theoretical knowledge, including the use of z-
transform theory, which is outside the scope of this course.
3.6.4. Autocorrelation
Autocorrelation is a special digital signal processing technique that has the ability to extract a
measurement signal when it is completely swamped by noise, i.e. when the noise amplitude
is larger than the signal amplitude. Unfortunately, phase information in the measurement
signal is lost during the autocorrelation process, but the amplitude and frequency can be
extracted accurately.
3.6.5. Bridge Circuits
Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion element in measurement
systems and produce an output in the form of a voltage level that changes as the measured
physical quantity changes. They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance,
inductance and capacitance values (Fig.3.17), and enable the detection of very small changes
in these quantities about a nominal value. They are of immense importance in measurement
system technology because so many transducers measuring physical quantities have an output
that is expressed as a change in resistance, inductance or capacitance. A good example is the
displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a varying resistance.
Fig.3.17.Classification of bridge circuits Fig. 3.18: Null Bridge

3.6.5.1.Null type (DC) bridges
A null-type bridge with D.C. excitation, commonly known as a Wheatstone bridge, has the
form shown in Fig.3.18. The four arms of the bridge consist of the unknown resistance Ru,
two equal value resistors R2 and R3 and a variable resistor Rv (usually a decade resistance box).
A D.C. voltage V is applied across the points AC and the resistance Ri is varied until the
voltage measured across points BD is zero. This null point is usually measured with a high
R
sensitivity galvanometer. Ru  3 Rv
R2
Thus, if R2 = R3, then Ru = Rv. As Rv is an accurately known value because it is derived from
a variable decade resistance box, this means that Ru is also accurately known.
The Wheatstone bridge balance condition is analyzed as follows:

The Wheatstone bridge is one of the most used signal conditioning circuit and is suitable for
measuring moderate resistance values 1Ω 𝑡𝑜 10𝑀Ω.It can be used to convert a resistance
change to a corresponding voltage change as in the following example:
3.6.5.2.Deflection type DC bridge
A deflection-type bridge with D.C. excitation is shown in Fig.3.19. This differs from the
Wheatstone bridge mainly in that the variable resistance Rv is replaced by a fixed resistance
R1 of the same value as the nominal value of the unknown resistance Ru. As the resistance Ru
changes, so the output voltage V0 varies and this relationship between V0 and Ru must be
Ru R1
calculated. V0  (  )Vi
Ru  R3 R1  R2
Fig.3.19: Deflection Type Bridge
3.6.5.3. AC bridges
AC bridges are used for not only measurement of resistances but also for measurement of
capacitance and inductance.
The balance condition of an AC bridge is analyzed as follows:
The measurement of capacitance or inductance with the aid of AC Bridge is obtained by using
Comparison Bridge as presented next.
Comparison Bridge: Capacitance:
Comparison Bridge: Inductance:
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge and Maxwell’s Capacitance Bridge

Examples
1. The impedances of an AC bridge having an excitation voltage of 1kHz are as follows:
Arm AB with impedance 𝑍1 = 100𝛺 < 600 (inductive impedance)
Arm AD with impedance 𝑍2 = 300𝛺 < 00 (purely resistive)
Arm BC with impedance 𝑍3 = 50𝛺 < 300 (inductive impedance)
And arm DC with impedance 𝑍4 = 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Determine the R, L or C components of the unknown impedance considering it as a series
circuit.
2. Determine the inductive impedance connected in the balanced Maxwell’s bridge

circuit shown in the Fig. below. Also, determine the Q-factor of the coil if the frequency
of the excitation voltage is 1000Hz.
Solution
Using the appropriate equations, we get:
Exercise:
1. With the aid of equations and suitable diagrams explain the operation, advantages,
disadvantages and application of the following bridge circuit types:
a) Hay Bridge
b) Kelvin Double Bridge
c) Schering Bridge
d) Wien Bridge
2. A Maxwell’s capacitance bridge shown in Fig.3.20 is used to measure the unknown
inductive impedance, the various values are:𝐶1 = 0.15𝜇𝐹 and𝑅1 = 1500𝛺, 𝑅2 =
800𝛺, 𝑅3 = 1200𝛺.
a) Determine the unknown impedance values 𝐿𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑥 .
b) Determine the Q-factor of the coil if excitation frequency is 2 kHz.
Fig.3.20 Maxwell’s capacitance bridge Fig.3.21 Hay’s bridge

3. An AC bridge was connected in Hay’s bridge configuration as shown in Fig.3.21. The
various electrical components connected in the arms were as follows:
Arm AB- a capacitor of with impedance 0.5𝜇𝐹 in series with resistance of 800Ω.
Arm BC –a resistance of 2000Ω
Arm AD- a resistance of 1000Ω.and
And arm DC-a choke coil of 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑥 and resistance 𝑅𝑥
Determine the inductive impedance of the choke coil if bridge balance was achieved at the
supply frequency of 500Hz.
4 REMOTE SENSING
4.1 Data Transmission and Telemetry
The distance between the primary transducer to the display device in instrumentation systems
may be too large. This necessitates sure means of data transfer technique.
Data transmission and telemetry refers to the process by which information regarding a
quantity under measurement using a transducer and signal conditioning devices is transferred
to a remote location, perhaps to be processed, recorded, stored or displayed.
Telemetry is important because it enables to collect data from several measurement points at
inconvenient locations or inaccessible areas, transmit that data to a convenient location and
present the several individual measurements in a usable form.
4.1.1 Methods of Data Transmission
The transmission of a measured variable to a remote point is an important function of modern
day instrumentation systems because of the size, need, and complexity of modern industrial
plants. The methods used for data transmission depends upon the variables and distance over
which it has to be transmitted. The most commonly used methods of data transfer/transmission
are
1. Pneumatic transmission
Pneumatic transmission consists of transmitting analogue signals as a varying pneumatic
pressure level that is usually in the range of 3-15 p.s.i. Pneumatic transmission has the
advantage of being intrinsically safe, and provides similar levels of noise immunity to current
loop transmission. However, one disadvantage of using air as the transmission medium is that
transmission speed is much less than electrical or optical transmission. A further potential
source of error would arise if there were a pressure gradient along the transmission tube. This
would introduce a measurement error because air pressure changes with temperature.
2. Electrical transmission
The simplest method of electrical transmission is to transmit the measurement signal as a
varying analogue voltage. However, this can cause the measurement signal to become
corrupted by noise. If noise causes a problem, the signal can either be transmitted in the form
of a varying current, or else it can be superimposed on an a.c. carrier system.
3. Fibre-optic transmission
Light has a number of advantages over electricity as a medium for transmitting information.
It is intrinsically safe, and noise corruption of signals by neighbouring electromagnetic fields
is almost eliminated.
The most common form of optical transmission consists of transmitting light along a fiber-
optic cable, although wireless transmission also exists.
4. Optical wireless telemetry
Wireless telemetry allows signal transmission to take place without laying down a physical
link in the form of electrical or fibre-optic cable. This can be achieved using either radio or
light waves to carry the transmitted signal across a plain air path between a transmitter and a
receiver.
Optical wireless transmission consists of light source (usually infra-red) transmitting encoded
data information across an open, unprotected air path to a light detector. Three distinct modes
of optical telemetry are possible, known as point-to-point, directed and diffuse:
5. Radio telemetry
In radio telemetry, data are usually transmitted in a frequency modulated (FM) format. Radio
telemetry is normally used over transmission distances up to 400 miles, though this can be
extended by special techniques to provide communication through space over millions of
miles. However, radio telemetry is also commonly used over quite short distances to transmit
signals where physical electrical or fiber-optic links are difficult to install or maintain. This
occurs particularly when the source of the signals is mobile. The great advantage that radio
telemetry has over optical wireless transmission through an air medium is that radio waves
are attenuated much less by obstacles between the energy transmitter and receiver. Hence, as
noted above, radio telemetry usually performs better than optical wireless telemetry and is
therefore used much more commonly.
6. Digital transmission protocols
Digital transmission has very significant advantages compared with analogue transmission
because the possibility of signal corruption during transmission is greatly reduced.
Many different protocols exist for digital signal transmission. The protocol that is normally
used for the transmission of data from a measurement sensor or circuit is asynchronous serial
transmission, with other forms of transmission being reserved for use in instrumentation and
computer networks.
Asynchronous transmission involves converting an analogue voltage signal into a binary
equivalent, using an analogue-to-digital converter. This is then transmitted as a sequence of
voltage pulses of equal width that represent binary ’1’ and ’0’ digits. Commonly, a voltage
level of 6 V is used to represent binary ’1’ and zero volts represents binary ’0’. Thus, the
transmitted signal takes the form of a sequence of 6 V pulses separated by zero volt pulses.
This is often known by the name of pulse code modulation.
Such transmission in digital format provides very high immunity to noise because noise is
typically much smaller than the amplitude of a pulse representing binary 1.
At the receiving end of a transmitted signal, any pulse level between 0 and 3 volts can be
interpreted as a binary ’0’ and anything greater than 3 V can be interpreted as a binary ’1’.
4.1.2 General Telemetry System

The generalized telemetry system is as shown below
The primary detector and the end device have the same position and functional roles as in a
generalized measurement system. The intermediate stage devices which are peculiar to a
telemetry system are
1. Telemeter transmitter
2. Telemeter channel
3. Telemeter receiver
Fig.4.1: General Telemetering System

The telemeter transmitter converts the output of a primary sensing element into an electrical
signal and transmits it over the telemetry channel. This signal is in electrical form and is
received by the receiver placed at a remote location. This signal is converted into a so usable
form by the receiver and is indicated or recorded by the end device. The end device is
graduated in terms of the measurand. The device may also be a control element which may
be used to control the input quantity through a feedback loop to produce desired output.
4.1.3. SCADA System
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system for remote monitoring and
control that operates with coded signals over communication channels (using typically one
communication channel per remote station).
A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:
 Remote terminal units (RTUs) connect to sensors in the process and convert sensor
signals to digital data. They have telemetry hardware capable of sending digital data
to the supervisory system, as well as receiving digital commands from the supervisory
system. RTUs often have embedded control capabilities such as ladder logic in order
to accomplish Boolean logic operations.
 Programmable logic controller (PLCs) connect to sensors in the process and convert
sensor signals to digital data. PLCs have more sophisticated embedded control
capabilities (typically one or more IEC 61131-3 programming languages) than RTUs.
PLCs do not have telemetry hardware, although this functionality is typically installed
alongside them. PLCs are sometimes used in place of RTUs as field devices because
they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable.
 A telemetry system is typically used to connect PLCs and RTUs with control centers,
data warehouses, and the enterprise. Examples of wired telemetry media used in
SCADA systems include leased telephone lines and WAN circuits. Examples of
wireless telemetry media used in SCADA systems include satellite (VSAT), licensed
and unlicensed radio, cellular and microwave.
 A data acquisition server is a software service which uses industrial protocols to
connect software services, via telemetry, with field devices such as RTUs and PLCs.
It allows clients to access data from these field devices using standard protocols.
 A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents
processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator monitors
and interacts with the process. The HMI is a client that requests data from a data
acquisition server or in most installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for
the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports, performs alarming,
sends notifications, etc.
 A historian is a software service which accumulates time-stamped data, Boolean
events, and Boolean alarms in a database which can be queried or used to populate
graphic trends in the HMI. The historian is a client that requests data from a data
acquisition server.
 A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process and
sending commands (control) to the SCADA system.
 Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the remote
terminal units.
 Various processes and analytical instrumentation.
Exercise
1. Distinguish a SCADA system from a conventional Industrial Control System (ICS).
2. Draw a well labeled block diagram of a SCADA system and explain its key elements.
3. State and explain the various generational architectures of SCADA systems technique.
5. Noise in Instrumentation and Measurement Systems

Errors are often created in measurement systems when electrical signals from measurement
sensors and transducers are corrupted by induced noise. This induced noise arises both within
the measurement circuit itself and also during the transmission of measurement signals to
remote points. The aim when designing measurement systems is always to reduce such
induced noise voltage levels as far as possible. However, it is usually not possible to eliminate
all such noise, and signal processing has to be applied to deal with any noise that remains.
Noise voltages can exist either in serial mode or common mode forms. Serial mode noise
voltages act in series with the output voltage from a measurement sensor or transducer, which
can cause very significant errors in the output measurement signal. The extent to which series
mode noise corrupts measurement signals is measured by a quantity known as the signal-to-
noise ratio. This is defined as:
𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝑉𝑠/𝑉𝑛)
where Vs is the mean voltage level of the signal and Vn is the mean voltage level of the noise.
In the case of a.c. noise voltages, the root-mean squared value is used as the mean.
Common mode noise voltages are less serious, because they cause the potential of both sides
of a signal circuit to be raised by the same level, and thus the level of the output measurement
signal is unchanged.
5.1 Sources of noise

5.1.1 Inductive coupling
The primary mechanism by which external devices such as mains cables and equipment,
fluorescent lighting and circuits operating at audio or radio frequencies generate noise is
through inductive coupling. If signal carrying cables are close to such external cables or
equipment, a significant mutual inductance M can exist between them, as shown in Fig.5.1,
and this can generate a series mode noise voltage of several millivolts given by Vn = MI,
where I is the rate of change of current in the mains circuit.
Fig.5.1: Noise induced by inductive coupling

5.1.2 Capacitive coupling
Capacitive coupling, also known as electrostatic coupling, can also occur between the signal
wires in a measurement circuit and a nearby mains-carrying conductor. The magnitude of the
capacitance between each signal wire and the mains conductor is represented by the quantities
C1 and C2 in Fig.5.2. In addition to these capacitances, a capacitance can also exist between
the signal wires and earth, represented by C3 and C4 in the figure.
Fig. 5.2: Noise induced by capacitive coupling

The series mode noise voltage Vn is zero if the coupling capacitances are perfectly balanced,
i.e. if C1 = C2 and C3 = C4. However, exact balance is unlikely in practice, since the signal
wires are not perfectly straight, causing the distances and thus the capacitances to the mains
cable and to earth to vary. Thus, some series mode noise voltage induced by capacitive
coupling usually exists.
5.1.3 Noise due to multiple earths
As far as possible, measurement signal circuits are isolated from earth. However, leakage
paths often exist between measurement circuit signal wires and earth at both the source
(sensor) end of the circuit and also the load (measuring instrument) end. This does not cause
a problem as long as the earth potential at both ends is the same. However, it is common to
find that other machinery and equipment carrying large currents is connected to the same earth
plane. This can cause the potential to vary between different points on the earth plane. This
situation, which is known as multiple earths, can cause a series mode noise voltage in the
measurement circuit.
5.1.4 Noise in form of voltage transients
When motors and other electrical equipment (both A.C. and D.C.) are switched on and off,
large changes of power consumption suddenly occur in the electricity supply system. This can
cause voltage transients (’spikes’) in measurement circuits connected to the same power
supply. Such noise voltages are of large magnitude but short time duration. Corona discharge
can also cause voltage transients on the mains power supply. This occurs when the air in the
vicinity of high voltage D.C. circuits becomes ionized and discharges to earth at random times.
5.1.5 Thermoelectric potentials
Whenever metals of two different types are connected together, a thermoelectric potential
(sometimes called a thermal e.m.f.) is generated according to the temperature of the joint. This
is known as the thermoelectric effect and is the physical principle on which temperature-
measuring thermocouples operate. Such thermoelectric potentials are only a few millivolts in
magnitude and so the effect is only significant when typical voltage output signals of a
measurement system are of a similar low magnitude.
5.1.6 Short noise
Shot noise occurs in transistors, integrated circuits and other semiconductor devices. It
consists of random fluctuations in the rate of transfer of carriers across junctions within such
devices.
5.1.7 Electrochemical potentials
These are potentials that arise within measurement systems due to electrochemical action.
Poorly soldered joints are a common source.
5.2 Techniques for reducing measurement noise

Prevention is always better than cure, and much can be done to reduce the level of
measurement noise by taking appropriate steps when designing the measurement system.
5.2.1 Location and design of wires
Both the mutual inductance and capacitance between signal wires and other cables are
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the wires and the cable. Thus,
noise due to inductive and capacitive coupling can be minimized by ensuring that signal wires
are positioned as far away as possible from such noise sources. A minimum separation of 0.3
m is essential, and a separation of at least 1 m is preferable.
Noise due to inductive coupling is also substantially reduced if each pair of signal wires is
twisted together along its length. This design is known as a twisted pair.
5.2.2 Earthing
Noise due to multiple earths can be avoided by good earthing practices. In particular, this
means keeping earths for signal wires and earths for high-current equipment entirely separate.
Recommended practice is to install four completely isolated earth circuits as follows:
• Power earth: provides a path for fault currents due to power faults.
• Logic earth: provides a common line for all logic circuit potentials.
• Analogue earth (ground): provides a common reference for all analogue signals.
• Safety earth: connected to all metal parts of equipment to protect personnel should power
lines come into contact with metal enclosures.
5.2.3 Shielding
Shielding consists of enclosing the signal wires in an earthed, metal shield that is itself isolated
electrically from the signal wires. The shield should be earthed at only one point, preferably
the signal source end. A shield consisting of braided metal eliminates 85% of noise due to
capacitive coupling whilst a lapped metal foil shield eliminates noise almost entirely. The
wires inside such a shield are normally formed as a twisted pair so that protection is also
provided against induced noise due to nearby electromagnetic fields. Metal conduit is also
sometimes used to provide shielding from capacitive-coupled noise, but the necessary
supports for the conduit provide multiple earth points and lead to the problem of earth loops.
1. Microprocessor application in instrumentation

Microprocessor based systems are suitable for dedicated and complicated measurement
systems available in modern day industries and hospitals. These microprocessors perform
complicated signal processing operations e.g. signal conditioning. They can handle thousands
of signal conditioning and manipulation operations within a very short time. They are very
small, compact, require little power and are precise. The microprocessor cannot take most of
the signal input from transducers directly. Conversion of transducer output signal from
analogue to digital in most cases is a must. This is done by an analogue digital converter. If
more than one input quantity (measurand) is to be measured and processed, multiplexers are
used. If an ac voltage is used, sample and hold circuits are used to keep the desired
instantaneous voltage constant during conversion.
The digital output obtained is fed to the microprocessor through an interfacing device.
In a microprocessor based instrumentation system the designer has to select suitable
input/output devices to interface to the microprocessor. If a particular device is not compatible
additional electronic circuits have to be designed through which the device may be interfaced
to the cpu. Example of a simple microprocessor based system for an industry or a hospital is
as shown in Fig.6.1. For industrial setup, the first to be measured maybe: position,
temperature, pressure, displacement, speed, force, current, voltage , etc For hospital setup, the
first to measured maybe ; heart beat, blood pressure, room-temperature, body temperature,
blood pH value, breathing rate, etc. All these quantities will be converted to an analogue
electrical signal by the transducer. After the conversion, they will be converted to digital
signals then signal conditioned before being fed to the computer through the interfacing card.
The computer through a specific installed program will perform the required data analysis,
storage and output functions. NB the microprocessor or microcomputer may be a
programmable logic controller (PLC).
Fig.6.1: Microprocessor based Instrumentation system

Exercise
1. List and explain the Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer-Based
Instrumentation Systems
2. Data Storage, Recording and Display Devices
In measurement systems, the last stage is often the data presentation stage. This consists of
display devices and recorders. The display and recording devices are also called the output
devices. The significance of these devices is that they make the result of measurement
meaningful through display of instant observation or stage for observation at a later stage.
The choice between the display devices and recorders is influenced by the expected use of the
output and the information content of the output.
2.1.Display Devices
In electrical measurements, indicating or display instruments are used extensively in

measurement of current, voltage, resistance and power. These instruments can be broadly
classified as 1. Analog and 2. Digital.
The analog instruments display the quantity to be measured in terms of the deflection of a
pointer i.e. an analog displacement or an angle corresponding to the electrical quantity.
On the other hand, the digital instrument indicates the value of the measurand in form of a
decimal number. They work on the principle of quantization.
7.1.1. Advantages of digital instruments over Analog
1. The digital instruments indicate the readings directly in decimal numbers and therefore
errors on account of human factors like parallax and approximation are eliminated.
2. The digital readings maybe carried to any number of significant figures by merely
positioning the decimal point.
3. Since the output of digital instruments is in digital form, it may be directly fed into memory
devices like tape recorders, digital printers, floppy disks, hard disks and computers for storage
and future analysis
4. The power requirement for digital display instruments are considerably smaller with the
advancement of microprocessor based digital instruments technology. Several factors have to
be considered when choosing either analog or digital display systems. These are
(a) accuracy
(b) environmental compatibility
(c) resolution
(d) power requirements
(e) cost and portability
(f) range
7.1.2. Types of Digital display Units

There are several types of digital display units which are classified as
• Planar - i.e. the entire read out characters are in the same place
• Non-planar - where the characters are displayed in different planes
The planar displays include:
1. Seven segment display which is used for numeric display. It consists of seven segments
a,b,c,d,e,f,g. A segmental display forms the digit to be displayed by illuminating proper
segment from the group. By illuminating the proper combination of these seven segments,
number 0-9 can be displayed. Example to display one only segment b and c are illuminated
and to display four segments b,c,f and g are illuminated.
Fig.7.1: Seven segment display Fig.7.2: 14 segment display
2. Segmental display: This is used for displaying alphanumeric characters. It works on the
same principle as the seven segmental display. e.g to display c the segment 1, 6, 5 and 4 are
illuminated.
3. Dot matrix utilizing 27 dots where the dots maybe square or round with 0.4mm size or
diameter. LEDs and LCDs are used for illuminating the dots thus displays only numeric
characters
4. 5*7 Dot Matrix Used for displaying alphanumeric characters
Fig.7.3.Dot matrix utilizing 27 dots (left) 5*7 Dot Matrix (right)
The non planar displays include

1. Rear projection displays
2. Nixie tube displays
3. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
This is a p-n junction device which emits light when a current passes through it in the forward
direction. Charge carriers recombination takes place at the p-n junction as electrons cross from
n-side and recombine with holes at the p-side. When this happens, the charge carriers give up
energy in form of heat and light. If the semiconducting material is translucent the light is
emitted and the junction is a source of light. Materials used for manufacture of LEDs are
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) and Gallium Arsenide.
4. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) Used in similar application as LEDs. These applications
are display of numeric and alphanumeric characters in dot matrix and segmental displays.
LCDs are of two types:
1. Dynamic scattering type
2. Field effect type
The construction of a dynamic scattering LCD cell is as shown below
The liquid crystal material maybe one of the several organic compounds which exhibit optical
properties of the crystal though they remain in liquid form. Liquid crystal is layered between
glass sheets with transparent electrode deposited on the inside faces. When an electric
potential is applied across the cell charge carriers flowing through the liquid disrupt the
nuclear alignment and produces turbulence. This causes the light to be scattered in all
directions, and the cell appears to be bright. The phenomena is called dynamic scattering. NB
when the liquid is not disturbed, the crystal is transparent.
7.2 Recorders
Are required to keep a permanent record on the state of a phenomena being investigated. A
recorder therefore records electrical and non electrical quantities as a function of time.
The record may be written or printed and later on can be examined and analyzed to obtain a
better understanding and control of a process. Recording requirement is one of the most
important considerations in an instrument system. There are two types of recording methods:
1. Analog recording methods: which are analog recorders. Examples are:

• Graphic recorders which are devices which display and store a pen and ink record of
the history of some physical event. Examples are strip chart recorders also known as x-
time recorders and x-y recorders.
• Oscillographic recorders: they record information in oscillographs e.g. ultra violet
recorders and duddel oscillographic recorders.
• Magnetic tape recorders; they are used to record data which can be retrieved or
reproduced in electrical form. Can be used to record dc to several MHz frequency range
signals. The basic components of a magnet tape are; recording head, magnetic tape,
reproducing head, tape transparent mechanism and conditioning devices.
2. Digital recording methods: Uses digital normal recorders. Examples include:

• Computer hard disk
• Flash disk, ROM, RAM etc
They can store thousands of bits of information in a very small space.
-----------------------------------------------------------
END OF COURSE
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Instrumentation Lecture Notes by J.C.

Electrical Measurements, Analogue Electronics III

• To provide an in-depth understanding of the different types of sensors and transducers

At the end of this course, the students should be able to:

1. Describe different instrument systems and their characteristics

1.Chapter One: Generalised Performance and Principles of instrumentation systems

2.Chapter Two: Instrument Characteristics, Meteorology, Standards and Error

3.Chapter Three: Transducers

4.Chapter Four: Remote sensing techniques

5.Chapter Five: Signal conditioning e.g. chopper amplifier and pre-processing

7.Chapter Seven: Digital Instrumentation and Data Storage System

Practical work/Laboratory Exercises

Text Books & Reference Materials

1. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, A. K. Sawhney,

CHAPTER ONE: GENERALISED PERFORMANCE AND PRINCIPLES OF

1.1 Definition of Measurement and Instrumentation

Instrumentation/ Instrumentation System

1.2 Significance of Measurements

1.3 Function of Instrumentation and Measurement Systems

i. Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information concerning the

Example: The deflection of a pointer of speedometer, pressure gauge.

1.4 Basic Requirements of a Measurement System / Instrument

1.5 Applications of Measurement Systems

• Fiber optic flow……………………………………Telecommunications

 Different applications of the instruments and measurement systems are:

i). Monitoring a Process/Operation

ii). Control a Process/Operation

Fig. 1.1 Process control system

iii). Experimental Engineering Analysis

1. Obtaining solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.

1.6. Elements of Generalized Measurement System/Functional Elements

1.6.1 Primary sensing element

1.6.2 Variable conversion element

Sensing Variable Variable

Data storage Data

Fig. 1.2 Block diagram of functional elements of a measurement system / instrument

1.6.3 Variable manipulation element

1.6.4 Signal conditioning element

1.6.5 Data transmission element

1.6.6 Data presentation element

1.7. Classification of Measuring Instruments

1.7.1. Mechanical, Electric and Electronic Instruments

1.7.2. Absolute/primary and Secondary Instruments

1.7.3 Manual and Automatic Instruments

1.7.4 Self Operated (Passive) and Power Operated (Active) Instruments

1.7.5 Self Contained and Remote Indicating Instruments

1.7.6 Contact Type and Non-Contact Type Instruments

1.7.7 Analog and Digital Instruments

1.7.8. Smart and non-smart instruments

1.8. Instrument Selection Criteria

CHAPTER TWO: INSTRUMENT CHARACTERISTICS, STANDARDS, ERROR

2.2. Static Calibration

Fig. 2.1. Instrument calibration chain.

2.3 Important Terms

2.3.1. Scale range and scale span

2.3.2. True value

2.3.3. Scale Readability