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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.1. Introduction
 Signal processing is concerned with improving the quality of the
reading or signal at the output of a measurement system.
An example is on noise removal.
However, signal processing performs many other functions apart
from dealing with noise.
Procedures of signal filtering, signal amplification, signal
attenuation, signal linearization and bias removal are applied
according to the form of correction required in the raw signal.
Types of signal Processing :
1. Analogue signal processing
2. Digital signal processing
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.2. Data Aided Measurement
A transducer is a device that performs the initial
measurement and energy conversion of a process parameter
into analogous electrical or pneumatic information.
 Many times further transformation or signal enhancement
may be required to complete the measurement function. Such
processing is known as signal conditioning.
 As learnt earlier, many signal conditioning processes may be
linear, such as, amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction.
Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation,
filtering, clipping, etc.

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.2. Data Aided Measurement
 A typical electronic aided measurement system is as shown in
the Fig.3.1.

Fig.3.1 A typical electronic aided measurement system

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.2. Data Aided Measurement
 For passive transducers, the signal conditioning circuit
mainly includes excitation and amplification circuitry, while
for active transducers, only amplification circuitry is needed
and the excitation is not needed.
 Depending on the type of the excitation either A.C. or D.C.
source, we have A.C. signal conditioning system and D.C.
signal conditioning system
4.3. D.C. Signal Conditioning System
 The block diagram of D.C. signal conditioning system is shown
in the Fig.3.2.
 The resistance transducers are commonly used for the D.C.
systems such as potentiometers and resistance strain gauges..
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.3. D.C. Signal Conditioning System

Fig.3.2 Block diagram of D.C. signal conditioning system

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.3. A.C. Signal Conditioning System

Fig.3.2 Block diagram of A.C. signal conditioning system

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
4.5.1. Analogue Filtering
 Signal filtering consists of processing a signal to remove a certain
band of frequencies within it.
 Filter: a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired
frequencies and reject or attenuate others. Four types of filters
are:
1. Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stops high
frequencies
2. High-pass filter: passes high frequencies and rejects low
frequencies
3. Band-pass filter: passes frequencies within a frequency band and
blocks or attenuates frequencies outside the band
4. Band-reject filter: passes frequencies outside a frequency band
and blocks or attenuates frequencies within the band
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
4.5.1. Analogue Filtering

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
4.5.2. Amplification
 Signal amplification is carried out when the typical signal output level of a
measurement transducer is considered to be too low.
 Amplification by analogue means is carried out by an operational amplifier
(Fig.3.4).

Fig.3.4: Signal amplifier

R2
V 0   Vi
R 1

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
4.5.4. Instrumentation amplifier
 Instrumentation Amplifiers (in-amps) are very high gain
differential amplifiers which have high input impedance
and a single ended output.
 Instrumentation amplifiers are mainly used to amplify very
small differential signals from strain gauges, thermocouples
or current sensing devices in motor control systems.
 The advantage of the instrumentation amplifier compared
with a standard operational amplifier is that its differential
input impedance is much higher.
 Thus its common mode rejection capability is much better.
 CMRR (zero output when V1 = V2) well in excess of 100dB at
DC.

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing  2R2  R4 
4.5.4. Instrumentation amplifier V OUT  (V 2  V 1 ) 1    
 R1  R3 

Fig.3.5: Instrumentation amplifier

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.5. Analogue Signal Processing
Exercise: Read on the following analogue signal processing
techniques:
1. Signal Attenuation
2. Differential Amplifier
3. Signal addition
4. Signal integration
5. Signal differentiation
6. Signal linearization
7. Bias (zero drift) removal
8. Voltage follower
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.6 Digital Signal Processing
 Digital techniques achieve much greater levels of accuracy
in signal processing than equivalent analogue methods.
 The hardware aspect of a digital signal-processing element
consists of a digital computer and analogue interface boards.
4.6.1. Sampling

Fig.3.13: Sampler
 The switch closure time q is much smaller than the sampling time
T and can be neglected

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.6 Digital Signal Processing
4.6.1. Sampling
 A sample and hold circuit is normally an essential element at the
interface between an analogue sensor or transducer and an analogue-to-
digital converter.
 It holds the input signal at a constant level whilst the analogue-to-digital
conversion process is taking place.

Fig.3.14: Sampled signal Fig.3.15: Op-amp as a sample & hold circuit

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.6 Digital Signal Processing
4.6.2 Analogue to Digital (A/D) Conversion and Vice versa
 Working with a digital computer at either the input or the output, requires
that we must use digital signals.
 However, most of our present day measurement and control apparatus
produces signals which are of analogue nature.
 It is thus necessary to have both Analogue to Digital (A/D) Converters at
the input to the computer and Digital to Analogue (D/A) Converters at the
output of the computer.

Fig. 3.16-a Analog to digital converter Fig. 3.16-b Digital to analog converter
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.6 Digital Signal Processing
4.6.2 Analogue to Digital (A/D) Conversion and Vice versa
 A digital to analog converter (Fig. 3.16-b) inputs a binary
number and outputs an analog voltage or current signal.
𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
2
where 𝑛 is the number of bits. It is also the weight of L.S.B.
The span is the difference between the maximum and
minimum analog values while the offset is the minimum
analog value. It is noted that:
𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡.

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
4.6 Digital Signal Processing
4.6.2 Analogue to Digital (A/D) Conversion and Vice versa
Example: In a system, the analog range is -3 to +5V and there are 8bits in the
digital system. Specify the span, offset and step size. Also find the bit weights
for each of the digital bits and the analogue value corresponding to 10010001.

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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
BRIDGE CIRCUITS
 Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion
element in measurement systems and produce an output in the
form of a voltage level that changes as the measured physical
quantity changes.
 They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance,
inductance and capacitance values and enable the detection of
very small changes in these quantities about a nominal value.
 A good example is the displacement-measuring strain gauge,
which has a varying resistance.
 A bridge circuit is a null method of measurement.
 It operates on the method of comparison i.e. a known (standard)
value is adjusted until it is equal to an unknown value.
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4. SIGNAL PROCESSING
BRIDGE CIRCUITS

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WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• Suitable for measurement of medium resistance values i.e. 1Ω to
10MΩ.
At balance, there is no potential difference
across the galvanometer between D and B
(no current flows across the galvanometer).

• At balance no current flows through the galvanometer which implies

I1 =I3 and I2 =I4. This means:

R1 R R2
 2 R1 R 4  R 2 R3 R X  R 4  R3
R3 R4 R1

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• Considering a bridge circuit under unbalance condition.

• Apply circuit analysis to find current through the galvanometer.
Thevenin voltage (VTH)

VCD  VAC  VAD  I1 R1  I 2 R2

Vs Vs
Where I1  and I2 
R1  R3 R2  R4
 R1 R2 
Therefore VTH  VCD  Vs   
R
 1  R3 R2  R4 
Thevenin resistance (RTH)

RTH  R1 // R3  R2 // R4

Complete circuit

Where Ig = galvanometer current

Rg = galvanometer resistance

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Example:

• The figure below shows a bridge circuit with values of the circuit
elements. The battery voltage is 5V and the internal resistance is
negligible. The galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10mm/µA
and an internal resistance of 100Ω. Calculate the deflection of the
galvanometer caused by the 5Ω unbalance in arm BC.

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Solution:
• Thevenin voltage:

 100 1000 
VTH  VAD  VAC  5V   
 100  200 1000  2005 
• Thevenin resistance(RTH)
 2.77 mV

RTH  100 / /200  1000 / /2005  734

• Galvanometer deflection

VTH 2.77 mV
Ig    3.32  A
RTH  RG 734  100
d  3.32  A  10 mm /  A  33.2mm
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AC BRIDGES
• Here instead of a DC source, AC is employed and the galvanometer is replaced by a
vibration galvanometer.
All four arms are considered as
impedances (frequency dependent
components).
The detector is an a.c. responding
device.

• Balance is the same as dc but we have impedances instead of R.

• At balance EBA=EBC or I1Z1 = I2Z2

V V
I1  & I2 
Z1  Z 3 Z2  Z4

Z1Z 4 (1   4 )  Z 2 Z3 ( 2  3 )

1   4   2  3

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Example
The impedance of a basic a.c. bridge are given as follows

• (inductive ) (inductive )
Z1  10080 Z 3  40030
(pure resistance) Determine Z4.
Z 2  250
 Solution:

 Condition for bridge balance requires that is Z1Z4 =Z2Z3

Z Z 25 0 * 400
Z 4  2 3
  1, 0 0 0 
Z 1 10 0

  4    2    3    1  0  30  80   50 

Z 4  1, 000  50
 Hence the unknown impedance can be written in polar form as:

 Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element possibly a series combination of a resistor and a
capacitor.

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COMPARISON BRIDGES
• They measure an unknown inductance or capacitance by comparing with a known
inductance or capacitance.
Capacitance.
At balance Z1ZX =Z2Z3 where Z1=R1,
1
Z2=R2 and Z 3  R3 
jc3

 1   1 
R1  RX    R2  R3  
 j c X   j c3 

• Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields

R2 R3
R1 RX  R2 R3 RX 
R1
R2
R1C X  R2 C3 C X  C3
R1

• To satisfy both balance conditions the bridge must contain two variable elements in
the configuration.
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Inductance

 At balance Z1ZX =Z2Z3 where Z1=R1, Z2=R2 and Z 3  R3  j L3

R1  RX  j LX   R2  R3  j L3 
• Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields

or and
R2 R3
R1 RX  R2 R3 RX 
or R1
R2
R1 LX  R2 L3 LX  L3
R1
• To satisfy both balance conditions the bridge must contain two variable elements in the configuration

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MAXWELL BRIDGE
• The positive phase angle of an inductive impedance may be
compensated by the negative phase angle of a capacitive impedance
put in the opposite arm.
• The unknown inductance then becomes known in terms of this
capacitance.

At balance ZX =Z2Z3Y1 where Z2=R2,

1
Z3=R3 and Y1   j C1
R1
 1 
Z X   RX  j LX   R2 R3   j C1 
 R1 
• Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields
R1RX  R2 R3 or R  R R andX
2
LX  R2 R3C1
3

R 1
• This can be used to calculate the quality factor of the coil:
 LX  R2 R3C1 R1
Q   C1 R1
RX R2 R3
• If a constant frequency ω is used:
6/10/2021 28 Q  R1
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Example.
• Determine the inductive impedance connected in the balanced
Maxwell’s bridge circuit shown in the Fig. below. Also, determine the
Q-factor of the coil if the frequency of the excitation voltage is
1000Hz.
Solution
Using the appropriate equations, we get:

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Example.
The arms of an a.c. Maxwell bridge are arranged as shown below.
If balance is obtained under these conditions
i. Find the value of the resistance and the inductance of the branch
CD.
ii. Calculate the Q factor for the unknown impedance at a supply
frequency of 50 Hz.

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Solution:
(i.)

 L3 2  50  0.12 
(ii) Q
R3

240

20

 Thus, the Maxwell bridge can be used to measure the Q

value of a coil directly using this relationship.

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Example
The impedances of an AC bridge having an excitation voltage of 1kHz are as follows:
Arm AB with impedance 𝑍 = 100𝛺 < 60 (inductive impedance)
Arm AD with impedance 𝑍 = 300𝛺 < 0 (purely resistive)
Arm BC with impedance 𝑍 = 50𝛺 < 30 (inductive impedance)
And arm DC with impedance 𝑍 = 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Determine the R, L or C components of the unknown impedance considering it as
a series circuit.

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Example Cont’

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• Exercise:

1. With the aid of equations and suitable diagrams explain the operation,
advantages, disadvantages and application of the following bridge circuit types:
i) Hay Bridge
ii) Kelvin Double Bridge
iii) Schering Bridge
iv) Wien Bridge
2. A Maxwell’s capacitance bridge shown in Fig.3.4 is used to measure the
unknown inductive impedance, the various values are:C = 0.15μF andR =
1500Ω,R = 800Ω,R = 1200Ω.
a) Determine the unknown impedance values L and R .
b) Determine the Q-factor of the coil if excitation frequency is 2 kHz.

Fig.3.4 Maxwell’s capacitance bridge

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• Exercise Cont’:
3. An AC bridge was connected in Hay’s bridge configuration as shown in Fig.3.5.
The various electrical components connected in the arms were as follows:
Arm AB- a capacitor of with impedance 0.5𝜇𝐹 in series with resistance of 800Ω.
Arm BC –a resistance of 2000Ω
Arm AD- a resistance of 1000Ω.and
And arm DC-a choke coil of 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 and resistance 𝑅

Determine the inductive impedance of the

choke coil if bridge balance was achieved
at the supply frequency of 500Hz.

Fig.3.5 Hay’s bridge

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5 REMOTE SENSING
5.1 Data Transmission and Telemetry
 Data transmission and telemetry refers to the process by which
information regarding a quantity under measurement using a transducer
and signal conditioning devices is transferred to a remote location,
perhaps to be processed, recorded, stored or displayed.
5.1.1 Methods of Data Transmission
1. Pneumatic transmission: analogue signals are transmitted as a varying
pneumatic pressure level that is usually in the range of 3-15 p.s.i.
2. Electrical transmission: the measurement signal as a varying analogue
voltage.
3. Fibre-optic transmission
4. Optical wireless telemetry
5. Radio telemetry
6. Digital transmission protocols
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5 REMOTE SENSING
5.1 Data Transmission and Telemetry
4.1.2 General Telemetry System

Fig.4.1: General Telemetering System

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5 REMOTE SENSING
4.1.3. SCADA System
 Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system for
remote monitoring and control that operates with coded signals over
communication channels (using typically one communication channel per
remote station).
 Elements:
1. Remote terminal units (RTUs) connect to sensors in the process and
convert sensor signals to digital data.
2. Programmable logic controller (PLCs) connect to sensors in the process
and convert sensor signals to digital data.
3. A telemetry system is typically used to connect PLCs and RTUs with
control centers, data warehouses, and the enterprise.
4. A data acquisition server is a software service which uses industrial
protocols to connect software services, via telemetry, with field devices
such as RTUs and PLCs.
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5 REMOTE SENSING
4.1.3. SCADA System
 Elements:
5. A human–machine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which
presents processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human
operator monitors and interacts with the process.
6. A historian is a software service which accumulates time-stamped data,
Boolean events, and Boolean alarms in a database which can be queried or
used to populate graphic trends in the HMI.
7. A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the
process and sending commands (control) to the SCADA system.
8. Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the
remote terminal units.
9. Various processes and analytical instrumentation.

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