RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

UNIT VI – SKETCHING POLYNOMIAL CURVES

Introduction
We learned in Unit IV that the derivative of a function is also the slope of the graph of the function
𝑦 −𝑦
at any point. The elementary definition of slope – rise over run- or 𝑥2−𝑥1 in analytic geometry becomes
2 1
∆𝑦
the infinitesimal ratio lim in calculus. The derivative provides us a means to easily find the slope
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥
of a curve at a point where the coordinates are given. Using the derivative, we can get some important
points in the curve that will help us to quickly sketch the graph of the curve. Of course, a graphic
utility app will save us time and energy in graphing a curve, but the derivative will give us a handy,
technology-free, and reliable tool for roughly sketching a curve. In this unit we will use the derivative
to obtain the critical points of the curve and perform tests to identify the location of these points.

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you are expected to:
1. Identify the line of symmetry, the x and y intercepts, and the asymptotes of a curve.
2. Determine the behavior of the curve as x increases or decreases within an interval.
3. Identify the critical points of the curve by performing the first and second derivative tests.
4. Identify the points of inflection of the curve.
5. Sketch polynomial curves.

Test Your Skills 6.1

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1. What are the coordinates of the highest point of the parabola 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8?
Note: Answer must be in ordered pair. Example: (-4, 5)
2. What is the lowest point of the parabola 3𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 8?
Note: Answer must be in ordered pair. Example: (8, -3)
3. What is the equation of the line of symmetry of the parabola 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 37?
4. What is the equation of the line tangent to the highest point of the parabola 2𝑦 = −𝑥 2 +
4𝑥 + 8?
5. At what points will the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 63 crosses the x-axis? Separate you answers by a comma.
Example: (-4, 0), (5, 0)

Turn to the last page and check your answers. If you answered at least 3 questions correctly in only
one attempt, then you still have a fair understanding of the graph of parabolas. We will use that
understanding to explore higher-degree polynomial curves. On the other hand, if you answered less
than 3 questions correctly, you must review the graph of parabolas and other curves before jumping
to the next topic.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

6.1 Symmetry

A curve is symmetrical with respect to a line if for every point P on the curve there is a point Q also
on the curve such that the segment 𝑃𝑄̅̅̅̅ is perpendicularly bisected by the line. Think of the line of
symmetry as the line that separates half of the curve from its mirror image.
y

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Line of symmetry 𝑦 = − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8
2

P Q

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Fig. 6.1. The line of symmetry of the parabola 𝑦 = − 2 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 8

Test for Axis of Symmetry

1. If the equation of the curve is not altered when y is changed to –y, the curve is symmetrical
with respect to the x-axis.
2. If the equation of a curve is not altered when x is changed to –x, the curve is symmetrical with
respect to the y-axis.
3. If the equation of a curve is not altered when the signs of both x and y are changed, then the
curve is symmetrical with respect to the origin.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

Examples:
1. The curve 2x3y2 + xy4 – 5 = 0, is symmetrical with respect to the
x-axis since if we replace y with -y the equation is unchanged.
2𝑥 3 (−𝑦)2 + 𝑥(−𝑦)4 − 5 = 0 2x3y2 + xy4 – 5 = 0
2𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦 4 − 5 = 0

2. The curve y = x2(1 – x2) is symmetrical with respect to the y-

axis since if we replace x with -x the equation is unchanged.

𝑦 = (−𝑥)2 (1 − (−𝑥)2 )
y = x2(1 – x2)

3. The curve y = x3 is symmetrical with respect to the origin since

if we replace y with -y and x with -x the equation is unchanged. y = x2(1 – x2)

−𝑦 = (−𝑥)3
𝑦 = 𝑥3

Note that if we replace x with -x or y with -y separately, the

equation is altered.

4. The ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144 is symmetrical with respect to the

x-axis, y-axis, and the origin because if we replace x with -x or
y with -y either separately or simultaneously, the equation is
unchanged.

9x2 + 16y2 = 144

y = x3

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

6.2 Intercepts

The intercepts of a curve are the distances, with appropriate signs, from the origin to the points at
which the curve touches or intersects the coordinate axes.

Test for intercepts

1. The x-intercepts may be found from the equation of the curve by setting y equal to zero.
2. The y-intercepts may be found from the equation of the curve by setting x equal to zero.

Examples:
1. The curve 2x3y2 + xy4 – 5 = 0 has no intercepts. [why?]
2. For the curve y = x2(1 – x2), the y-intercept is 0 and the x-intercepts are -1, 0, & +1. [why?]
3. For the curve y = x3, the x and y-intercepts are both equal to 0. [why?]
4. For the ellipse 9x2 + 16y2 = 144, the x-intercepts are 4 and -4 and the y-intercepts are 3 and -
3. [why?]

6.3 Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes

An asymptote is a line that is approached by a curve but never touches it.

Tests for vertical and horizontal asymptotes

1. The vertical line x = a is said to be an asymptote of the curve if the distance from a point (x,
y) in the curve to the point (a, y) in the line approaches zero as the numerical value of y
becomes infinite.
2. The horizontal line y = b is an asymptote of a curve if the distance from a point (x, y) in the
curve to the point (x, b) in the line approaches zero as the numerical value of x becomes
infinite.

Example:
For the curve xy = 1, the vertical asymptote is the y-axis (or x = 0), and the horizontal asymptote is
the x-axis (or y = 0) since as 𝑥 → 0, 𝑦 → ±∞ and as 𝑦 → 0, 𝑥 → ±∞.

Fig. 6.2. The graph of xy = 1

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

Test Your Skills 6.2

1. Without graphing the curve, determine the axis of symmetry of 4𝑥𝑦 4 − 𝑥 3 = 𝑦 2 + 5.
(multi-choice)

2. Find the x-intercepts of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 25𝑥 2 + 28𝑥.

NOTE: separate your answers by commas from the smallest to the biggest value. Example:
-5, -3, 2, 10, etc.
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3. Find the vertical asymptote/s of the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2−75.
NOTE: Answer must be a line, e.g. x =11. If there are more than one asymptote, separate the
answers by commas.

𝑥2
4. Find the horizontal asymptote/s of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 −4.
NOTE: Answer must be a line, e.g. y = -5. If there are more than one asymptote, separate the
answers by commas.

5. Find the asymptote/s of the hyperbola 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 16.

NOTE: Answer must be a line, e.g. y = 8x. If there are more than one asymptote, separate the
answers by commas.

6.4 Increasing and Decreasing Value of y

Test for increasing and decreasing values of y

As x increases, the curve rises if the slope is positive and it falls if the slope is negative. That is, y
increases if y’ > 0 and y decreases if y’ < 0.

Examples:
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Consider the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 2 .

We get the equation of the slope by finding the first

derivative.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥

1. As x increases from -1 to 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0.

 y is increasing

2. As x increases from 0 to 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0.

 y is decreasing

3. As x increases from 1 to 2, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0.

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 y is increasing Fig. 6.3. Graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 2

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

NOTE: To determine the sign of 𝑓′(𝑥) within an interval, assign a few values of x at the extremes of the
interval. For example in (1) 𝑓 ′ (−.99) = 3(−.99)2 − 3(−.99) = 5.91 > 0, 𝑓 ′ (−.01) = 3(−.01)2 −
3(−.01) = 0.03 > 0, etc.

6.5 Critical Points: Maxima and Minima

Definition:
Let (x) be a function whose derivative is continuous over a certain interval of x. If, for a value of x
in this interval, the slope 𝑓′(𝑥) of the curve is zero, the corresponding point on the curve is called a
critical point and its abscissa a critical value of x. If the critical point is higher than the points of its
immediate neighborhood on either side, the point is called a maximum point (or maxima). If the
critical point is lower than the points of its immediate neighborhood on either side, the point is called
minimum point (or minima). Maxima and minima are collectively called extremes. If a maxima is
the highest point in the curve, it is called the absolute maximum. Otherwise it is a relative
maximum. If a minima is the lowest point in the curve it is called the absolute minimum. Otherwise
it is a relative minimum.

Examples:
1. In the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8, the point (3, -1) is the absolute minimum.

(3, -1)

2. In the graph of the function 𝑦 = −(𝑥 + 1)2 , the point (-1, 0) is the absolute maximum.

(-1, 0)

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

𝑥3
3. In the graph of the function 𝑦 = − 3𝑥, the point (-2, 4) is the relative maximum and the
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point (2, -4) is the relative minimum.

(-2, 4)

(2, -4)

Tests for critical points

Test 1. The First Derivative Test (FDT):
Suppose that x = a is a root of the equation obtained by equating to zero the slope y’ of the curve y =
(x). Then from the signs of y’ immediately to the left and right of x = a, we ascertain the nature of
the critical point (a, (a)) as follows:

Sign of y’ Nature of critical point (a, (a))

x<a x>a
+ - maximum point
- + minimum point
+ + neither maximum nor minimum (horizontal tangent)
- - neither maximum nor minimum (horizontal tangent)

Test 2. The Second Derivative Test (SDT):

Suppose that x = a is a root of the equation obtained by equating to zero the slope y’ of the curve y =
(x). Then the critical point (a, (a)) is a maximum or minimum according as the sign of the second
derivative y’’ is – or + for x = a. If y’’ is negative the slope (or y’) is decreasing and the curve is
concave downward; hence the critical point is maximum. If y’’ is positive the slope (or y’) is
increasing and the curve is concave upward; hence the critical point is minimum. If y’’ = 0 for x = a,
the test fail, but may be establish by test 1 (FDT).

NOTE: The Second Derivative Test is also called the Concavity Test.

Examples:
1. Locate and classify the critical points of the curve y = x3 – 3x + 1.
Solution:

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

y = x3 – 3x + 1 y
y’ = 3x2 – 3 = 3(x -1)(x + 1)

setting y’ = 0 (-1, 3)
3(x – 1)(x + 1) = 0 y = x3 – 3x + 1

x = 1  y = -1
x
x = -1  y = 3
(1, -1)
critical points: (1, -1), (-1, 3)
By SDT,
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥
at (1, -1), y’’ = 6; hence (1, -1) is minimum.
at (-1, 3), y’’ = -6; hence (-1, 3) is maximum.
REMARK: From the graph, we see that (-1, 3) is a relative maximum while (1, -1) is
a relative minimum.
2. Locate and classify the critical points of 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)3.
Solution:
𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)3
y’ = x(3)(x – 1)2 + (x – 1)3(1) = (x – 1)2(4x – 1) = 0

when (x – 1)2 = 0,
x=1
𝑦 = (1)(1 − 1)3 = 0

When (4𝑥 − 1) = 0,
1
𝑥=4
1 1 3 1 3 3 33 27
𝑦 = (4) (4 − 1) = (4) (− 4) = − 44 = − 256

critical points: (1/4, -27/256), (1, 0)

𝑦′′ = 4(x – 1)2 + 2(x – 1)(4x – 1)= 6(x – 1)(2x – 1)
By SDT,
When x = ¼, y’’ = 9/4 (positive); hence (1/4, -27/256) is minimum.
When x = 1, y’’ = 0. SDT fails.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Sketching Polynomial Curves

By FDT,
For x < 1, y’ is positive. For x > 1, y’ is also positive. Therefore, (1, 0) is neither
maximum nor a minimum, rather it is a horizontal tangent.

𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)3

(1, 0)
x

(1/4, -27/256)

REMARK: From the graph, we see that (1/4,-27/256) is a relative minimum while
(1, 0) is a horizontal tangent.
Test Your Skills 6.3
Locate the critical points of the following functions and identify whether the point is minimum or
maximum using the Critical Point Tests.
Submit your answer as follows:
(-2, 5)/minimum, (3, 7)/maximum, (1, 0)/neither
If there are no critical points, type NONE.
1. y = 4x + x2
2. y = 9 + 16x - 4x2
3. y = 2 + 12x – x3
4. y = x3 – 3x2 – 9x + 20
5. y = 6x2 – x3

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6.6 Points of Inflection

Definition:
A point of inflection is a point at which the curve changes from concave upward to concave
downward, or vice versa.
REMARK: The point of inflection can occur where 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 or 𝑓′′ does not exist.

Consider the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 . The points of inflection are A(0, 0) and B(2, -16). Observe
that to the left of A the curve is concave upward while to the right of A the curve is concave downward.
You can verify this by applying the Second Derivative Test (SDT). Using any value close enough to
0, we find that for x < 0, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 (concave upward), and for x > 0, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 (concave downward).
You can do the same to point B.

Fig. 6.4. Points of inflection of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3

Test for the point of inflection

1. The point (a, (a)) is a point of inflection if y’’ = 0 for x = a.
2. The point (a, (a)) is a point of inflection if y’’ changes sign, i.e. from + to – or vice versa, as
x increases through a.

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Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 6
Find the point of inflection of y = x3 – 3x2 + 6.
Solution:
y = x3 – 3x2 + 6
y’ = 3x2 – 6x + 0
y’’ = 6x – 6
setting y’’ = 0 (1, 4)
6x -6 = 0
x = 1 y = 4
For x < 1, y’’ is negative. For x > 1, 𝑦′′ is positive. Hence,
𝑦′′changes sign through x = 1. Therefore (1, 4) is a point of
inflection.

6.7 Steps in Sketching Polynomial Curves

1. Determine the line of symmetry (if there is any).
2. Find the x and y intercepts of the curve.
3. Determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
4. Determine the behavior of y for large values of x.
5. Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
6. Locate the points where y’’ = 0 (points of inflection, in most cases), and draw the tangent at
each of those points.
7. If necessary, plot a few additional points.

Example:
𝑥3 𝑥2
Sketch the curve 𝑦 = 3 − 2 − 2𝑥 + 2.
Solution:
(1) Symmetry
No line of symmetry.
(2) Intercepts
When x = 0, y = 2. When y = 0, the x – intercepts are irrational.
(3) Asymptotes
No vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
(4) Behavior of y
When x is large and positive, y is large and positive.
When x is large and negative, y is large and negative.
(5) Critical Points
y’ = x2 – x – 2 = (x – 2)(x + 1)
setting y’ = 0,
(x - 2)(x +1) = 0
x = 2  y = -4/3
x = -1  y = 19/6
critical points: (-1, 19/6) and (2, -4/3)
By SDT,
y’’ = 2x -1
When x = -1, y’’ = -3. Therefore, (-1, 19/6) is maximum.
When x = 2, y’’ = 3. Therefore, (2, - 4/3) is minimum.
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(6) Points of inflection.

y’’ = 2x – 1 = 0
2x = 1
x = ½  y = 11/12
1 11
When x < ½, y’’ is negative. When x > ½ y’’ is positive. Therefore, y’’ changes sign and (2 , 12)
is a point of inflection.

𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑦= − − 2𝑥 + 2
3 2
Maximum point
(-1, 19/6)

Point of
inflection

(1/2, 11/12)

minimum point
(2, -4/3)

𝑥3 𝑥2
Fig. 6.5. The sketch of the polynomial curve 𝑦 = − − 2𝑥 + 2
3 2

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Assignment 6.1
Determine the symmetry, the x and y-intercepts, the asymptote (if there is any), the maximum and
minimum points, and the point of inflection (if there is any) of the following curve. Draw a sketch
of the curve at the end of your solution labeling all the important points and lines. Follow the seven
steps in sketching polynomial curves. Twenty-five points each.
1. y = x3 – 3x2
2. y = x3 + 3x2 + 3x
3. y = x4 – 2x3
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4. y = 4− 𝑥 2

Answers to Tests Your Skills

Test Your Skills 6.1
1. (-2, 10)
2. (4, -8)
3. x = -5
4. y = 6
5. (-9, 0), (7, 0)

Test Your Skills 6.2

1. y-axis
2. -4, 0, 1, 7
3. x = -5, x = 5
4. y = 1
5. y = -2x, y = 2x

Test Your Skills 6.3

1. (-2, -4)/minimum
2. (2, 25)/maximum
3. (-2, -14)/minimum, (2, 18)/maximum
4. (3, -7)/minimum, (-1, 25)/maximum
5. (0, 0)/minimum, (4, 32)/maximum

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