unit 5 .

“ materials & cycles on earth ”

Atoms
⤿ ‘Atom’ = cannot be split, from greek word
🟉 Now in big atoms they can be split (nuclear reactions)
⤿ All atoms of a particular element is the same
⤿ Diff elements diff atoms
⤿ Single
🟉 Neutral, p+ = e-
🟉 Positive, p+ > e-
🟉 Negative, p+ < e-
⤿ Most of it is empty space
⤿ When calculating mass, ignore electron

Sub-atomic particles

particle symbol Relative charge Relative mass location

proton p+ +1 1 nucleus

neutron n0 0 1 nucleus

electron e− -1 1/1836 around/outside

Electrostatic attraction
- Attraction between + & - charges
- Holds individual atoms tgt

Moving
- Electron if enough energy
- Bc little mass
- If run, atom -> +
- If add, atom -> -

Atomic Model
1. John Dalton 1804
a. The atom is a solid ball

2. J.J. Thompson 1903

a. Plum Pudding Model / Chocolate Chip Cookie Model
b. Atom is +
c. Discovered electrons
 3. Ernest Rutherford 1908-1911
a. Gold Foil experiment
b. Discovered protons 1909, nucleus 1911
c. Observations & meaning
i. Most alpha went through the foil undeflected
1. Atom is mostly empty space
a. Volume occupied by nucleus is small
2. There is empty space so alpha can pass through
3. If it was a solid ball, all alpha would be deflected
ii. Some alpha deflected by small angle
1. Nucleus is positively charged - alpha (+) hit nucleus (+)
2. Nucleus bigger than alpha
iii. Occasionally a few alpha deflected from foil
1. Nucleus carries most of atom mass not electron

4. James Chadwick 1932

a. Discovered neutron
i. Helps to reduce repulsion between protons
ii. stabilise nucleus

Purity
● Pure element = made of only 1 type of atom
○ Gold = x/24 x 100%
○ Silver = x/1000 x 100%
● Main product has to be separated from leftover reactants
● Impurities in medicine could stop medicine & be harmful

Diamond
- Made of carbon atom arranged particularly
- Pure -> colourless & translucent
- Yellow -> nitrogen
- Blue -> boron
- Green -> nitrogen, nickel, hydrogen
- Rarest

Sea salt
- Obtained by heat from sun evaporating the sea water in flat & shallow beds
- 3.5% of seawater = salt
- 68% sodium chloride, 11.4% sodium sulfate, 3.1% calcium chloride, 2.1% other
Salt = compounds made from acids
★ Acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen gas
○ Hydrochloric acid + zinc = zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
○ Hydrochloric acid + magnesium = magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
○ Sulfuric acid + zinc = zinc sulfate + hydrogen gass
○ Sulfuric acid + magnesium = magnesium sulfate + hydrogen gas
★ Acid + metal oxide -> salt + hydrogen gas
○ Hydrochloric acid + sodium oxide -> sodium chloride + water
○ Sulfuric acid + iron oxide -> iron sulfide + water
★ Acid + metal hydroxide -> salt + water
○ Hydrochloric acid + potassium hydroxide -> potassium chloride + water
○ Sulfuric acid + barium hydroxide -> barium sulfate + water
★ Acid + metal carbonate -> salt + water + CO2
○ Sulfuric acid + calcium carbonate -> calcium sulfate + water + CO2

Weather & Climate

- Weather - atmospheric condition of a particular region over a short period of time
- meteorology
- Climate - average weather of an area over a long period of time
- Climatology
- Polar - very cold & dry all yr
- Russia, antarctica, iceland
- mountains/tundra/taiga - very cold all yr
- Russia, canada, alaska
- Temperate - cold winters & mild summers
- russia , greenland, canada
- Mediterranean - mild winters & hot dry summers
- Morocco, france, italy
- Arid - hot & dry all yr
- Egypt, somalia. australia
- Tropical - hot & wet all yr
- Malaysia, thailand, philippines

Ice ages
- Ice age - there is permanent ice somewhere on earth
- 5 significant ice ages
- Coldest began 850mil yrs ago
- Warm periods - no permanent ice on earth’s surface
- Glacial - interval of time within an ice age that's marked by colder temps & glacier
advances, has permanent ice that spreads further south from north pole and further
north from south pole
- Interglacial - periods of warmer climate between glacial periods, has permanent ice at
north pole, south pole, mountains, glaciers
How do we know earth was cold in the past?
- Boulders left behind by glaciers
- Fossils of animals & plants adapted to live in very cold places
- Pollen from peat bog using auger
- The plants didnt decay due to no O2 & acidic
- Extract pollen and find out what plants it came from and their habitat
- The deeper the peat, the older it is

Atmosphere
● Early atmosphere
○ 95% carbon dioxide, 4% water vapour, 1% nitrogen, ammonia, methane
○ Very hot, like venus today, 467°
○ Formed from gases & water vapour from volcanoes
● Atmosphere today
○ 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04% CO2, inert gases 0.97%, water vapour 1%

Atmospheric change
- 3500mil yrs ago, organisms developed in oceans
- Carbon first started to be locked up
- They photosynthesise, using CO2 & producing O2
- Levels of O2 rose
- Enough oxygen to combine with iron in rocks to form iron oxide
- Analysing pockets of air trapped inside ice cores from deep polar ice
100’s of yrs ago
- 200mil yrs ago, the carbon was used up to make chemicals a part of organisms
- C is locked up in the organisms
- When they die & rot, the carbon is recycled back into the environment
- Some dont rot, turn into fossil fuels
- Fossil fuels - plants/animals that didnt rot when die
- Eg coal & oil
- C is locked up until burned
- Sedimentary rocks
- Eg limestone
- Made from many layers of shell (calcium carbonate) from dead organisms
at the bottom of the ocean pressing down on e/o
- Carbon is locked up in these rocks
- 200 yrs ago, carbon dioxide rise
- Humans burn fossil fuels
- Deforestation
- Limestone used to make cement
- Cattle produce CO2 in their intestines
- Greenhouse effect - CO2 & other gases act as a blanket around earth, trapping
heat, making earth warmer, global warming
Reducing global warming
Renewable resources
- Renewable resources - doesnt deplete / can be replenished within a human’s life time
- Wind, tidal, solar
- Non-renewable resources - cannot be replaced after used
- Coal, petroleum, natural gas

Renewable energy
- Wind
- Wind turbine
- Bad: only produced when wind blows
- Tidal
- Water rise and fall twice everyday
- Water in estuaries are trapped and released as tide goes out
- Bad: only generated at certain times each day & may interfere w habitats
- Sun
- Photovoltaic cells absorb solar energy & changes it into electrical energy

Bioplastics
- Bioplastics - plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources
- Decayable organisms
- eg. shit, paddy husks, compost, grass, vegetable fat, corn starch, straw,
sawdust
- Produces methane when decomposed
- Global warming gas
- Uses nanotech to get the fibres
- Nanotech - make things small & can be easily absorbed
- Problems
- Overdose -> long term effects
- Affect aquatic system
- When broken down, it still exists, just smaller -> still
harmful
- Reduces plastic waste that contaminates environment
- Conventional plastics // fossil fuel plastics - from petroleum or natural gas
- Cannot be broken down