\
',-^\9 improuament (1997\ 1,793-214
-.?ouid
Ground improvement engineering the state of
the US practice: part l. Methods
G. A" MUNFAKH
Pars\ns Brinckerhoff Quade €t Douglas,lflc., L Penn Plaza, NYC 10119, USA
The US practice of ground improvement is divided into six
main categod"", {gEileation, 1o_!!s-91 idegon, Jqi$gfSe:
tr_eit4gent, t!e44i!-9te!d!4gg1 and blq'
!elt, chemical
.fechnicaT
stabili.zation. Densification, which applies
'----i"fy to- g.r.;il;ls, includes vibrocompactiory jly:
r4glc compaction, blasting and compaction grouting.
rsoliffi[i6n-Ji--basically achieved through Preloading
ar,d the use of vertical drains. SoiI reinforcement is
dir.ided into two groups:-th-ose involving compacted fill
such as mechanical)f-stabilized backfill systemg and those
applied in situ such as soil nailing: element walls, micro-
piles and stone columns. The chemical treatment methods
discussed are those applied at depth such as perneation
gxouting jet grouting, deep soil mixing and lime columns.
Thermal stabilization is covered through ground freezing
and its use in urban construction. Finally, biotechnical
stabilization, which is one of the latest developments in
the field, is'briefl.y presented. Discussed in the PaPer are
the applications, advantages, limitations, design and con-
struction aspects of each ground improvemi:nt method as
well as the durability and long-terrn perforurance of the
improved ground. The use of ground improvemqnt in
enwironmental engineering is briefly highlighted"
. Keywords: .dnchors & anchorages; chemical grout-
,1.'r.g; compaction groutinB; contaminated ground; deep
- ooii mixing; field testing & monitoring; treezing;
rsynihetic reinforcemen! heating; jet grouting
r"^rre; r.ricro piles; plant & equipmen! preloading
retaini.ng walls; slurry; soil nails; steel reinforce-
ments; testing stone columns; vibro compaction
lntroduction
Mankind has been battling with poor ground s.rnce the
marsh settlement. Most'often, the gfound imposes restric-
tions on the design and the geoteehnical eng.ineer has, apart
from abandoning the project, four options: (1) io replace the
poor ground with a more suitable material; (2) to bypass the
unsuitable ground laterally by relocating the facility, or
vertically by using piles or deep foundations; (3) to redesign
thE sfructure to meet the ground limitations; or (4) to alter
the natural condition of the poor ground to meet the project
requirements - often termed grouiid improvement. The
rising cost of real estate and the increasing awareness of the
construction impact on the environment have been major
conkibutors to the increasing use of ground improvement.
(GI 030) Paper received 1 April 1997; last revised 30 June i997;
accepted 3July 1997
ai
*1
-) [,] t L:-.';d
| .. I r;(
.!.r ie"\\1b
I-es pratiques amrlricaines d'am6lioration du sol se classent
en six cat6gories principales: densification, consolidation,
renforcement, traitement chimie, stabilisation thermique et
stabilisation biotechnique- La densification, qui s'applique
prineipalement aux sols granuleux, comPrend les m6th-
odes de vibrocompaction, de compaction dynamique,
d'abattage et d'injection de compaction. La consolidation
consiste en gros i effectuer une pr6charge at i utiliser des
canaux de drainage verticaux. Le renforcernent se comPose
de deux groupes de m6thodes: celles qui consistent en un
remblayage compact6 corrune les systEmes de rernblayage
stabilis6 de maniEre mdcanique et celles qui sont appli-
qu6es iz sifz comme le cloutage du sol, le rnur i 6l6ments,
les micropiles et les col-onnes de pierre. Les m6thodes de
kaitement chimique sont appliqu6es en profondeur
cornme l'injection impr6gnante, I'injection par !et, le
m6lange du sol en.profondeur et les colonnes du chaux. La
stabilisation thermique, effectur5e en gelant le sol, est
utilis6e dans la construction urbaine. Enfin, la stabilisation
biotechnique, qui repr6sente I'un des derniers d6veloppe-
ments dans ce dornaine, fera I'objet d'une corte pr6senta-
tion. Dans cet exposti, nous exarninons les applications, les
av&ntages, les limites, la conception et I'6laboration de
chaque m6thode d'am6lioration des sols ainsi que la
durabilit6 et la performance i long terme des sois am6li-
orr6s. Nous dr-icrivons rapidement l'utilisation des techni-
ques d'am6lioration dans le g6nie environnemental.
Ground improvement has five major functions: (1) to
increase bearing capacity, (2) to control deformations and
accelerate consolidation, (3) to provide lateral siability, (4) to
form seepage cut-off and environmental control, and (5) to
increase resistance to liquefaction. These funcfions can be
"".o*pfirhna
Uy *ofiffifl tfri soil's ch-aracter with or
without the addition of foreign material. Improving the soils
at the surface is usually easy to accomplish and relatively
inexpensive. When at depth, however, the taskbecomes more
difficult, usually requiring more rigorous analyses and the
use of specialized equipment and construction procedures.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss ground improve-
ment from the design engineer's point of view. The paper
presents the different methods of ground improvement;
outlines their functions, benefits and limitations; and sum-
marizes their design issues. Discussed also are the factors
that influence the selection of an appropriate ground im-
provement method. and the conLractual arrangements used
1365-787X ;t\ 7997 Thomos Telford Sentices Ltd
 suitabre
on sround improvemeni proiecrs ,:,",i1,-.,:-"- included
successful gro,nd improvement
applications are
I:l:::: flin they provide'
[".'ffH:lX*I#1k*""::tliJ]"JJJtmostrv
ro. u^J th" lngineering functions

the paPer.
C.t"goty l' Duntifitdion
metLg$
imProvemenl mgthocls
-
round imProvement
Ground Granular materials are normally
stabilizedly densi.fication'

rn generai, the ground improvement **noill-* ffi *a*:i,,{;;f}151ilU;:'1: 'i11:"1;il";:

aiJa# into six cate8ories: il*tu."i""lr surface compaction using
^...*pron"d,bv etc')' \Ay'hen at
. densificatio" -\ ai|t:.\$fl[;,t". .or,,r".,io"ut rollers lp"eumutic' sheepsfoot'
-, requiring special
. consolidation rr l-rsy
,Y.v ,t ^- w-,r depth, the densification is more diffiiult,
: ;:ffi:'.tffi1
r\ --
\ u' Leyy,
. , ., . *.,- tec'hniqres and equipment; among iirem are h're follov;ing'

. chemical stabilization LL'!'^^^ttt^-J'' S14^t I'r-''O-{r'r--

k^.c*t't gg;tvl\"a#*-
". thermal stabilization --
S-er\'\\r}df'sYibrocorrtpaction
biotechnical stabilization [t"f< *'"tt "t'L to densify the
fi?" ground while This method uses vibratory iechniques into the
some methods are suitabre for one :f. jlr,r-ii" -Tr'r.insertion of viu'atlng probes
*ii;-;;;; ;i:;'il: rrui""i *uffi uv tn"
others appty ,. , 'oir,
g.o.rr,o'ffi. i) initiar soii structure is broken down
methods, the type of
majority of the pound improvement

prooce
Ground improveme"t metiods in
US
Table !. Used for'
lmprovement method Btffi"-ni'ag ccr'Pc'ut
Sand, collaPsing silt Lu\\t!f6\d)
Chemical B, St, Sw, Cc' Pr
Admixture (cement) Plasdc claY, swelling claY
Chemicai B, Sq Se
Admixiure (lime) Coarse soils' rock
Chemical B, St, Se
Cement groudng Fine sand
Chemical U, Se, L, Sq En
Chemical grouting All soils
B,
Chemical / reiaforcem ent St, E, Ss, En
Jet SfoutinB Fine-grained soils
Chemical Se, En, St
Deep soil mixing Saturated claY
Chemical B, Sq En
Lime columns Saturated claY
Consoiidation B, St, En
Pr:eloading/drains Saturated claY
Consolidation B, St, L
Electro-osmosis Sand and gravel
Densification B, St, L, En
VibrocomPaction Granular soils' fills
Densification B,SqL
Dynamic comPaction Sarurated sand
Densification Sq Ex
Blasting Loose soil with voids
Densffication St
Compaction grouting Granular soil
B, Sl
Reinforcement
MechanicallY stabilized backfi ll Gmnular soil
Sl, Ex
Reinforcement U, Sl, En, B, St
Soil nailing Granular soil
'MicroPiles Reinforcement St, St, E, L
Clay, liquefiable soil
Reinforcement Sl, Ex
Stone columns Fertile granular soil
Reinforcement Sl, B, En, Cc
Biotechnical stabilization Loose, collaPsible silts
Thermal Ex, Se, En
Heating Underwater sand
Thermal
ft"*U,'- - , :: , """"' porc L, liquefacrion resisance; Pr, plasticity
reducdon'; se, seepage
if':
. "
collapsing control; En,.environmenEl
ti"ll,"l'_T;
B, h,:-; i: r.,r:ciq6 cc, ::::::,:",",tt \-..
control; Sl, slope stability; s,, J;;'"nt controli Sw' swelling reduction; U' underpinning I

SteP 1 Step 2

Fig. l. VibrocomPaction Process (Vibroflotation Company)

194
 and the soil particles are moved to new packing arrange-
100

ments using impact and vibration. L:l saturated cohesionless

materials, micro-liquefaction is induced in the Process-
' Densification of U1L in situ soil occurs rapidly' Gror:nd
imProvement depths of m (60 ft) are ioutineiy achieved
20
\
by vibrocompactio.,. Depths of 30 m (100 ft) or more have
been attained in some cases.

Equipment lprocedures
The most corunon pieces of equipment in vibrocompac- t
'E
tion are the vibroflot, Terra probe, vibrorod, vibrowing, 80
vibrating I-beam, flexiprobe and vibrocomposer' Depending Eo
o
on the tlpe of equiprnent employed, vibrating frequencies--of =6
15-50 Fil can be used; the vibration is applied vertically, o
o
horizontally or in both directions'
d
' Compaction can be accomplished with or without the use
of a witer jet or compressed air, and with or without the o_

addition of granular material. The water iet and comPressed

air are applied at the tip of the probe io facilitate its
penetration to greater depths and tluough hard zones'
,- IJpward-directed water iets along the sides of the probe
(-_ -:hate also been found heiPful-
1r
Suitable soils
Vibrocompaction is best suited for densification of clean,
cohesionless soils with the percentage of fines (passing No'
200 sieve) generally not exceeding 20. For preliminary 123
SPacing o{ centres of vibralion: m
planning, Fig. 2 can be used as a grride-
Fig. 3. Relative density ploced against probe spacing (Mitchell' l98l)
Design issues
The design of a vibrocompaction Programme involves
selection of probe pattern, spacing and depth' These para-
meters depend on the $pe of soil, the foundation geometry, proved ground is usually done at locations intermediate
the reguired densification and the equipment used' Triangu- tetween- probe points. Figure 5 illustrates CPT results
Iar, reitangular and square Patterns are used at spacings of performed- before and after vibrocompaction at the Kis-
L-2lr;- (3.3 to 6'6 ft). For preliminary design, Figs 3 and 4 can mayo Port in Somalia.
be used. The acfual spacing is normally based on initial fieid
trials.
Dynamic cornPaction
P erfor man c e ea aluation This is one of the most versatile and least expensive
Vibrocompaction is usually specified so that il:.e in situ ground improvement techniques. used to increase the allow-
/!)lsoil achieves a certain degree of densification that meets iLte learlng capacity of the soil. It involves the repeated
\-;iUre project's design requirernents. The required densifica- dropping of large weights by means of crawler cranes on a
tion-is usually specified in terms of relative density, and p."i"t".Li.t"a gda pattern. The repeated application of the
measured by field testing techniques applied before and irigh*.,"tgy imPacts causes densification of the soil mass to
after densification. Among the most cofiunon techniques aelUls ru"rlgittf from 10 to 25 fi. Figure 6 shows dynamic.
are standard penetration tests (SPT), cone Penelration-tests .o*pu"tion"utihe Port of Ningbo in the Peopie's Republic of
(CPT) and pressuremeter tests (PMT)' Evaluation of im- China.

r8O
.s',
o
3
!60
c
E
q
940
tr
o iange aciordin{ to Thorburn (1 975)
o
o
0-
20

0.2 0.1 0-0s 0'02 0'01 0'005

Particle size: mm

Fig.2. Soils suitable for vibrocompaction

1S5
 G. A. Munfakh

E
E
N 400
o
C
o
E
o
=o
-
q
o
l'

d
o
'ic

o3 zoo
o
E
_q

Spaclng of centres of vibralion: m

Fig.6. Dynamic compaction at Poft of Ningbo, China

4. Allowable bearing capacity plotted against probe spacing (Mitchell,
Fig.
r98l)

Equipment lprocedures
The weights used in dynamic compaction may consist of
concrete blocks, steel plates, or thick steel shells filled with
CPT cone resistance: tons/tt2 or kgr/cm2 concrete or sand, They normaily range from 6 to 35 t, but
d0 80 120 160 200 heavier weights up to 200 t have been used. They are usually

CPT-12
square or circular in plan and can be quite large i4r-,
dimensions (up to a few metres). Special, streamlined shapel*--;
have been used for dynamic compaction rmderwater. l
The drop heights usually range from 12 to 24 m (40 t-
80 ft), but heights up to 40 m (130 ft) have been used. Several
repetitions may be required and the drops are made at
points spaced several mekes apart in a grid pattern. A
typical treaknent will result in an average of 2 to 3 biows
c.
per square metre of treated area (Mitchell, 1981).
to The ground surface is usually levelled between repeti-
E-5 tions. Sometimes, the craters formed by compaction are
o CPT.4 _
[-6 filled with select granular material. To ensure uniformity
and high density in the near-surface zone. surface 'ironing'
is done by small weight drops over the entire surface of the
treated area.

Suitable soils
Dynamic compaction was developed and successfully
used for densification of loose, saturated, cohesionless soils.
Liquefaction is induced in these soils, and the densification
* CPT in sand lill prior to compaction process is similar to that of vibrocompaction. Although used
_ post_compaction CpT, trial 2, also in fine cohesive soils, its success in these soils is
single GKN vibroflot uncertain and may require special attention to the genera-
----- Post'compaction CPT, trial 3,
twin GKN vibroflots tion and dissipation of excess pore water pressures. This can
be facilitated by the formation of drainage channels in the
Fig. 5. CPT testing of vibrocompacrion, Kismayo Pon (Castelli, 199 I ) fine-grained soil, by fissuring or by the use of vertical drains.

796
 On occasions, other ground improvement techniques such
as stone columns are used in conjunction with dlmamic
compacfion (Bayuk and Walker, 1994).
of loose natural
Although developed for densification
. soils, the majority of the dynamic compaction work in the
US has recently been performed at sites of sotrid waste, mine
spoils and questionable or uncontrolled old fills. Another
corrunon application in recent years has been for stabilia-
tion of coliapsible soils which are stiff and dry in their
natu-ral state, but lose strength and experience significant
settlement when they become wet (Rollins and Kim, 1994).
Design issues
The design of a dynamic compaction project involves
determination of tamper weights, grid pattems, drop heights
and depths of influence. Lukas (1995) proposed the follow-
ing formula for determining the depth of influence:
D: n(wH)05 (1)
where D is the maximum depth of influence in metres, W is
7^.the drop weight in metric tons, H is the drop height in
l*- -netres and n is an empirical coefficient that depends on the
:e of soil. It varies between 0'3 and 0.8 (Van Impe and
rladhav, 1995).
In addition to the impact energy, the depth of influence
dependent on other factors such as the soil stratification, the
degree of saturation and the method of load application. A
crane drop, for instance, is less efficient than a free drop.
The presence of soft cohesive layers or peat has a damping
influence on the dymamic forces penetrating the soil, and
tJlus the depth of influence is reduced.
The grid spacing is related to the impact energy by the
equation
E. :
La- NW=HP
sz
where Eu is the average applied energ'y over the treated
area, N is the number of drops, W is the drop weight, H is
the drop height, P is the number of passes and S is the grid
spacing. Lukas (1995) gives typical impact energy values per
a--,unit volume of treated soils. These values can be mulfiplied
(_.Uy the thickness of the treated soil to estimate the required
-oplied energy (E") at the surface. The estimated E" value is
. ien used with Equation (2) to determine either the number
of drops for a specified spacing or the minimum spacing for
a particular number of drops. The grid spacing usually used
is aboui 1.5 to 2-5 times the dimension of the tamper (Lukas,
19es).
The number of drops at a grid point is limited by the
depth of the inifial crater. That depth should be limited to
the height of the tamper plus 300 mm (1 ft). if the design
impact energy cannot be achieved by this limiting require-
ment, multiple passes are usually used.
' The amount of gror:nd improvement achieved is depen- .
dent on the type of soil, the groundwater condition and the
impact energy per unit area. Mitchell (1981) reports the
, foilowing maximum ground improvement values achieved
for clean sand, based on evaluation of actual case histories:
cone penetration resistance 180 kglcmz, standard penetra-
tion resistance IV :45 biows, pressuremeter Iimit pressure
_
3 MPa and pressuremeter modulus 25 MPa. Finer-grained
soils may. have maximum values less than half of these.
Within a homogeneous soil layer, the level of densification
decreases with depth from the maximum values near the
ground surface to the original in situ values at the maximum
depth of penetration.
P elfo r m anc e su aluat ion
The effectiveness of dymamic compaction is usually
assessed by a tesi prograrune that establishes the produc-
tion parameters and by a monitoring programme that checks
actual performance throughout the site. Among the perform-
ance indicators monitored are tamper penetraLion rate, crater
expansion, volume of ground heave, ground subsidence,
vibration monitoring and depth of improvement. An impor-
tant concem of this method of ground improvement which
should be monitored during construction is the impact of
heavy tamping on nearby facilities such as existing founda-
tions and utilities.
Blasting
Deep compaclion by detonation of buried explosives is a
rapid, Iow-cost method of ground improvement. The shock
wave Benerated by the blast breaks down the ini'tial
structure of the soii and creates a liquefaction condition for a
sufficient period to enabie the soil particles to rearrange
themseives irr a denser packing, The advantage of this
_
technique is that it allows treakn6nt of isolated deposits at
depth without having to deal with overlying denser soils.
Also, it has a relariveiy larger sphere of influence (5-7 m)
than that of other densification techniques, thus requiring
is
fewer densification points.
in the USA. Iis first
Biast densification is relatively new
application on a US highway project was in '1992-93 for
construction of an embankment and bridge foundations at
the Mount St Heien National Volcanic Monument in Wash-
ington State (Badger, 1996).
Equipment /procedures
A borehole is drilled, or a pipe is installed in the ground
(z)
by jetting, impact or vibration; a charge is piaced in the hole
at the required depth; the hole is backfilled; and the charge
is detonated. A number of charges are sometimes placed at
different elevations in the same hole.
-A hydro-biasting technique can also be used to densify
coilapsibie soils. Lr this iechnique, water is pumped into the
soil deposit through wells for a few days, then the saturated
soil is forced to collapse by detonation of small charges
inserted down tubes installed in a grid pattern.
The type and amount of explosives used are influenced
by a number of factors reiated to operation, storage and
safety (Van Impe, 1989). Typically, 15-25 g of explosives per
cubic metre of treated soil are used, The level of densifica-
tion achieved is infiuenced by the size and depth of the
charges, the reiative density of the soil, and the time and
sequencing of detonation. Field trials are usually used prior
to production blasting.
Suitable soils
Saturated clean sands are best suited for densification by
blasting. The premise of densification is that the excess pore
pressure must be dissipated rapidly so that the soil particles
can assurne a more iightly packed configuration. Therefore,
open-drained soils are the most suitable. In granular soils
with finer materials that delay their internal drainage,
vertical drains located equidistant from the blast holes may
be used to accelerate dissipation of the excess pore pressure.
Design issues
Significant ground settiement and dewatering of the soil
mass typically occur immediately after blasting, as well as
after a period of several weeks; the latter is called 'ageing',
and is a littie-known phenomenon. Van Impe and Madhav
197
G. A. Munfakh

Settlement pro{ile (no treatment)

(1995) gave the following formula for estirnating the upper-
bor:nd settlement of a soil deposit due to blast densification:
As:0'7 - _._..._.1/?
+ 0'6(W/R)1/3
H
where AS is the settlement in cm, H is the deposit *rickness
in m, W is the equivalent weight of TNI in kg and R is the
distance from the point of explosion.
In general, the level of densilication achieved is influenced Grout bulb

by the size of the charge, the depth of the charge, the relative
density of the soil, the charge distribution with depth and
the spacing and sequencing of detonation- The degree of
imptovement achieved is inversely related to ihe relative
densiry of the soil to be densified; ihe method becomes
essentially ineffective with a material of in situ relative
density of 60 or more. The achievable level of improvement
is usually determined during the field trials prior to actual
production.

P erformance eaaluation
Densification by the dynamic shear stresses generated by
biasting can be effective, if ti-re excess Pore Pressures Sener-
ated by detonation can dissipate rapidly. The initialiy high
values of these skessed induce liquefaction and increase the
possibility of readjustment of the grains' mass sfructure'
The performance evaiuation methods used include meas-
,."*".,t of pore Pressure by piezometers, of vertical and
horizontal ground movements by deep settlement indicators
arid inclinometers, and of relative density of the soil by
standard penetration or cone penetration tests' The measure-
ments are taken before and irnmediately after detonation, as
well as after the long-term'ageing' period.
Compaction grouting
ln this displacement method of grouting, a stiff groui
mixture is injected in the ground to densify loose soil
formations. The Brout generaliy does not enter the soil pores,
but remains in I |,L-mogeneous mass 'ttrat dispiaces and
compresses tire .';-irounding soii. Compaction grouting is
os"d to correct differentiat settlements or to provide under-
piruring and ground strengthening adiacent to oPen excava-
tions or tunnelling actiVities (Fig. 7). It can be consiciered
*o6ot ui&oiEffio-*ethod than a chemical stabilization.
The system is also used to fill voids created by sink hole
activities.
Materials
A very stiff 'zero-siumP' mortar grout is usuaily iniected
under relatively high Pressures' The grout composition is
usualiy as follows: silty sand (with 10-30% fines), cement
(sometimes with fly ash), additives (fluidifiers and accelera-
tors) and water. Coarse aggregates are sometimes used, but
they require larger pumps and grout lines'
*E quipment
'The f pr o cedur es
compaction grouting equiPment includes a mixing
plant, force-feed piston pumPs, hoses and grout pipes.
t omp a @ ie?sf -oi-6-uliiiirEEiE aIe d
under foundations or adjacent to excavations to densify the
ground and arrest potential ground and structural move-
ments. Single or staggered bulbs are created through vertical
or inclined grout PiPes.
The grout pipes have a minimum inside diameter of
50 mm (4 in) and are flush iointed to avoid leakage. They
should be pre-wetted to avoid excessive moisture loss from
Fig. 7. Compaction grouting applications
the initial grout front. Soils which are dry of optimum can
be pre-wetted to assist grout take.
Design issues
Tie design of a compaction grouting Programme involves
iocating the areas requiring compaction, defining the degree
of densification needed, estimating the required grout
volume and selecting grouting layout and programme' The
.compaction grouting
design is heavily dependent on experi-
'ence.
A test programme may be needed'
f quality assutance
- Sluripcontrol
Quality
tests are takin routinely at the pump and at ti
--')
end of the discharge line. Cylinders of the compaction gro\'*-/
are tested if strength is a iactor. CPT or SPT tests car. :
performed at the giouted zone if access is available'
Categony ll. Consolidation
The engineering characterishics (strength, density, com-
pressibilit|, etc.) oI a soft cohesive soil improve markedly as
ihe soil consolidates under a iustained static load' Unfortu-
nately, this improvement is accompanied by a volume
decrease which may result in unacceptable ground deforma-
tions. To safeguard against that, the soil is often forced to
consolidate under loads higher than the design loads so that
the required deformations take place prior to the installation
of the ;kucture or the permanent fill. This method of ground
improvement is referred to as Preconsolidation, preloading
or surcharging.
Freloading and ventica! drains
Preloading is often used to consolidate a weak compres-
sible soil. It ls one of the most conventional and least costly
methods of ground improvement. When the anticipated time
for compresiion of the soil under the applied preload is

198
 State of US practice: part 7

excessive, vertical (sand or prefabricated)

drarns are installed
io accel"rate consoiidation and strength gain in the soft
been used
.ot-,"tiu" soil. Preloading and veriical drains have
to irnprove the for.mdalion soils for buildings'
successfultv
runways. tanks, bridges arlci marine facilities' At
highways,
,ftE ]o"iant, Road Terminal of the Pori of New Orleans' the
*tl.iputua 18-year settlement of a large storage area built
over ;wamPy soiis was compleied in iess than one year
using preloaiing a.ta prefabricaieci lr'ick drains (CastelLi ei
a|.,1983).

EquiPment lProcedures
'Preioading
is usuaiiy accomplished by placing surcharge
6lls to elevltions higher than those corresponding to the
design loads. The surcharge fill is often placed in stages to
safe[-uard against stability failure, with each lift placed only
after- the soil hus gained sufficient strength uncier the
previous lift to sustain the additiot-ral load
Conkolled filiing of tanks or lined poncis, and creahon of
vacuum by pumping groundrvater from beneath an imper-
vious membrane placed over the ground have aiso been
{ ,sed for preloading. Consolidation b1' eiccLro-csmosis is the
tme in manlr asPects as consolidahon under externally
applied stresses, except that the driving force for drainage is
induced intemaliy by an eiectric field Con'sciidation b1'
vacuuln, water-tabie lorvering and elecko-osmosis offer the
advantages that there are no stabiiitl problems, and iarge
volrrmes of surcharge filis are not required' On the other
hand, they are more complex in execution than ihe other
methods.
Prefabricated wick drains are often used with a preload-
ing programme. The drain strip is n'rade up of a plasiic of
Fig. 8. Wick drains installation, Jourdan Road Terminal' Port New
ariinage core, about 100 rnm (4 in) rvide, on most occasions Orleans
wrapped in a non-woven geotextile filter r'1aterial' It is
placed in the ground through a mandrel in one continuous
push. An anchor plate is placed at the tip of the drain to . the increase in the shear strength under the suPerimPosed
hold it in the ground rvhile the mandrel is r'vithdrawn' load at each stage of surcharge Placement.
The prefabricated wick drains are easy to Lnstall and fairly
inexpensive. An installation rate of 90 s for a 20 m (65 ft) The ciassical one-dimensional consolidation theory is used
drain was achiei,ed at the )ourdan Road Terminal of the Port in the anaiysis. To determine the time required for preload-
of New Orlea:rs (Fig. S). The raie of insiaiiation, however, ing, &e hme-settiement curves under both the design ioad
u.rd th" preload are plotted concurrently. The estimated total
,1--'maY be a(fected. by any obstructions or miscelianeous fill
settlement on the time-settlement curye of the design load
'.- -.Lnri may be preient below the ground surface' These
taterials, on the other hand, are quite often close to the is then proiected to the preload curve to predict the time of
surface and can be removed prior to drain installation' A preloading'which would result in the same amount of
maior advantage of wick drains over sand drains is their settlement.
flexibility and ability to sustain large soil deformations If the time required for preloading is excessive, or if the
which may otherwise shear and clog the sand drains, rate of strength gain is too slow to permit fill placement
rendering them inef fective. according to schedule, vertical drains are usually used to
After instailation of ihe drains, a 600 mm (2 ft) tHck accelerati consolidation- In this case, both radial and vertical
permeable sand blanket is piaced over the drains area' A drainage consolidation are considered in establishing the
drainage ditch is provided to carry ihe rn"ater collected in the time-settlement curve of the preload' Figure 9 illustrates
drainage blanket off site. time-settlement curves used in the design of a preloading
and wick drains programme for construction of retaining
walls at Bridge 8-538 of the I4&1 Berkley lnterchange in
Suitabte soils
The soils best suited foP improvement by preioading are
Virginia. As shown in this figure, a maximum preloading
saturated soft clays, compressible silts, organic silty clays
p"rioa of 7 months (200 days) would be required to achieve
. the estimated long-term settlement under the design load'
and peats. The vertical drains are of greatest effectiveness in
inorganic clays and silts ihat exhibit little secondary con-
with the addition of a 1'5 m (5 ft) surcharge only'
The theory of consolidation by radial and vertical drah-
solidation. (Barron, 1948)' Hansbo (1979) outlines
age is weli
"ttublithud
piocedures for the design of prefabricated wick drains' and
Design issues
gives horizontal to vertical consolidation (Cr,/C") rahios for
The design of a preloading Programme involves estabiish-
iifferent soiis. It should be noted that the drain spacing is a
i.g far more significant Parameter in the design ihan is the drain
o the time-settlement curve under the design load diameter. A t'S * ft) .".,t."-to-centre spacing in a trian-
[5
t the fime-settlement curve under the preload gular array is frequently used in wick drain design An
199
C. A. Munfakh

500
100 200 300 400 soo
Time: days

Fig.9. Time-sertlement curves for a preloading programme, Berkley

lnterchange Fig. 10. MSB wallto protecr against rock hlls at Sterling Mountain tunnel
portal, North Carolina

equivalent spacing for 30 mm (12 in) sand drails would be

about 2.4 m (8 ft) cenhe-to-centre. Jacking barge leg

P erformance eualuation
A geotechnical instrumentation prograrnme is usually
implemented to monitor the ground deformations and the
build-up and dissipation of pore water pressures with tim€.
These measurementr can be used to schedule the stageci
placement and removal of the preload. Among the instru-
ments used are piezometers, settlement plates, inclinometers
and deep settlement indicators.

Category lll. Reinforcernent

ln situ reinforcement of a poor soil is accomplished by
inclusion of rein{orcing elements in the soil to improve iis
engi4eering characteristics. The soil and its reinforcing
elements act in combination to increase the shear skength of
Reinforced earth pad
the soil mass, to reduce its settlement under the load and to
improve its resistan<: ia licuefaction. The reinforcing e1e- Fig. I L Underwater foundarion pad of mechanically stabilized backfill,
ments can be either s-il:,,,irdin the lrz sifu soii or plaJed in Quonset Point, Rhode lsland (ENR, l9B4) r ':

the soil mass as it is constructed. The most commonly useci ri ,; \

methods of soil reinlorcement are as follows.
Mechanically stabilized backfi l!
tn this method of ground reinforcement, the reinforcing
-
elements are placed between iayers of compacted soil.
Different materials (metals, polyrners, geotextiies, etc.) and
shapes (strips, grids, sheets, rods, fibres, etc.) are used for
reinforcement. The reinforcing elements are usually attached
to wall facings that retain the compacted soil at the face and
protect the reinforcing elements from weathering effects.
The types of wall facings used include precast concrete
panels, cast-in-place concrete, metallic plates or baskets,
geoslmthetic grids or sheets, timber, modular blocks and
rubber [nes.
The mechanically stabilized backfill (MSB) is mainly used
for conshuction of walls and embankments, particularly in
areas of tight right-of-way. The system is also used under
shallow foundations to increase bearing capacity and reduce
settlement. The most significant advantage of the mechani-
cally stabilized bacKill is the ability to construct it u,ith
vertical faces. Its main limitation is the right-of-way required
behind the facing (a width-to-height r;tio of about 0.7 is
usually required). Figures 10 and lL show two special MSB
uses: one for protection against rock falls at the I-40 Sterling
200
Mountain Tururei poriai in North Carolina, anri ihe other
construction of a foundation pad at Quonset Point, Rhode
Island, which is the first construction of a mechanically
stabilized earth under the ocean. Table 2 lists the main MSB
systems used in the United States.
Equipment lprocedures
Simple construction equipment is used in MSB construc-
tion. The basic construction procedure involves placement of
alternating layers of reinforcing elements and compacted
bacKill. Lr certain systems, the reinforcing elements are tied
to the wall facing. In others, the reinforcement is wrapped
around the backfill layer at the face to form the wall facing,
which is then covered with shotcrete.
Reinforce men t mechnnism
A properly designed reinforced soil structure holds itself
together as a coherent body. The inclusion of the reinforcing
elements within the soil tends to restrain the soil deforma-
tions, which, in tum, increases the strength of the soil and
the stability of the composite materials
The stress transfer between the soil and the reinforcement
takes place through one or a combination of the following
interactions (Fig. i2):
 US practice: part 1

Toble 2. Mechonicolly stobilized bocknll sfstems used in the USA' buiid-up of excessive hydrostatic pressure behind the facing.
ln the interests of economy, however, on-site materiais of
lesser quality have been used with certain systems.
Reinforced eamh Steel strips Concrete panels
VSL recained eamh Steel grid Concrete panels
Plastic strips T-shaped concrete Design issucs
WebsoI reinforced
soil system panels The mechanically stabilized bacKill system is analysed for
Welded wire wall Welded wire mesh Wrapped'around both external and intemal stabiiity. For'externai stabiliry, the
wire mesh soil and the reinforcement are considered as one coherent
Reinforced soil Welded wire grid Concrete panels body. The reinforced-soil block is then analysed against
embankment sliding, overturning, bearing capacity failure and circular
Eureka reinforced soil Welded wire mesh Cast-in-place concrete shear failure using conventional stabiiity analysis methods
Hilfiker stabilized Welded wire mesh Large, smooth
for gravity-type structures. For internal stability, the maxi-
embankment concrete panels
mum tension developed in the reinforcement is calculated
Tensar geogrid system Geosynthetic grid Wrapped grid,
shotcrete, blocks
and compared to the tensional strength of the reinforcement,
Genesis HDPE geogrid Concrete modular and the bond between soil and reinforcement (Pull-out
blocks resistance).
Matrix geogrid wall Geogrid mats Wire mesh and The tension in the reinforcement is calculated assuming
geotexdle horizontal equilibrium of the correSponding soii iayer. The
USFS geotextile wall Geocextile sheet Wrapped sheets, iateral earth pressure in the reinforced soil layer is calculated
shotcrete by multiplying the vertical earth pressure by a coefficient K,
CTI wall Geosynthetic grid Timber ranging from at-rest to active depending on the degree of
-..-l"lodular block Geotexdle shees Stacked concrete
reskaint imposed on the soil by the reinforcing elements. ln
( geotextile wall blocks
systems that ailow substantial yield of the soil, such as
hanically stabilized Steel bar mats Precast concrete units
cmbankment l geotextile walls, active earth pressures may be appropriate.
Georgia stabilized Steel bar mats Concrete panels kr fully restrained systems, at-rest earth pressures usually
embankment develop at the top, but they drop to lower values as the
Miragrid system Geosynthetie grid Precast concrete units reinforcement and the soil yield. In the Reinforced Earth
Geocell wall Geosynthetic grid Cellular confinement system, for instance, K. ranges from Ko at the surface to Ko
system at a depth of 6 m (20 ft) below the surface. ln systems using
Pyramid modular Steel strips, Concrete blocks metal bar mats, K. ranges from 2.5 Ku at the surface to 1'1
block system geostriPs K" at a depth of 6 m (20 ft) below the surface (Table 3). The
Maccaferri terramesh Steel wire Rock-filled
vertical and horizontal slresses from extemai loadings
system mesh sheets wire baskets
(surcharge and point loads) are added to the earth pressures
Anchored eamh wall Steel rods Concrete panels
Tyre faced wall Geotextile sheets Stacked
in estimating the maximum tensile stresses in the reinforce-
ment.
' This mble is by no means complete. Many of the above wall designations The tensional strength (allowable tension capacity) of the
are registered trademarks.
reinforcement is equal to the allowable tensile stress of the
material forming the reinforcement, multiplied by its cross-
section. The bond between soil and reinforcement has two
components: a frictional component calculated along the
soil-reinforcement interface in the resisting zone, and a
passive resistance component calculated along the raised
{,-'
\*.. portions of the reinforcing strip, the transverse sections of
the reinforcement in a grid system or the anchor head at the
end of the reinforcing element in a multi-anchor system.
The resisting zone in the mechanically stabilized backfill
system is determined by the maximum tensile forces line
(the locus of the points of maximum tension in the reinforce-
ments). With inextensible reinforcements/ the maximum
tensile forces line can be modelled by a bilinear failure
surface which is vertical in the upper half of the reinforced-
soil zone (Fig. 13(a)). With extensible reinforcements, that
line coincides with the Coulomb or Rankine active failure
plane (Fig. 13(b)).
Fig. 12. Soil-reinforcement interaction The design and construction of mechanicaliy stabilized
bacKill systems are discussed in detail in Mitchell and Villet
(1987), British Standards institution (1.991), Wu (1994) and
r friction along the soil-reinforcement interface Elias and Christopher (1.996).
. passive soii resistance along the kansverse members of
the reinforcement, if any. Durability and long-term perforfiafice
The service life of an MSB system depends to a great
Suitable soils extent on the durability of the reinforcement and, to a lesser
Since the soil-reinforcement interaction depends to a extent, on that of the facing elements. The durability of
great extent on the friction along the soil-reinforcement metallic reinforcements is usually measured by their resis-
interface, soils with high Frictional characteristics, such as tance to corrosion. That of geosynthetics is assessed b1i the
angular sands and gravels, are preferred for use as backfill resistance to hydrolysis, oxidation and ultraviolet light
materiais. These soils are also well drained, preventing the exPosure.

201
 t
o o.3H tan 6
co U - UL
rrr-rrr
t-o.3tanB
U
C
G
o
.?
c o
E
I
o
o-

a
o
.;
u

o
I

s
o (a)

c
'o Y Zone of maximum
or potential {ailure
o
o
@

@
& q{
e I

u
"t
d

o o
,c aaa
!l to
@
o
f c (b)
'E
u =6C
d,
Fig. 13. Poncential hilure surhce in MSB systems (points of maximum
.E ? tension in the reinforcement): (a) inextensible reinforcemenq (b) extensible
.L o reinforcement
o E
c
E o
tr
z
0 rJ
E
o
Soil nailing
o
aa
Used primarily for support of excavations and reinfor-'
.g
o :o ment of slopes, the concept of soil nailing is to place closely
spaced reinforcing elements in situ to increase *re shear
strength of the soil arrd to resirain its displacements during
!
o and after excavafion.
tr d.
The construction process involves tlrree repetitive stages:
(1) excavation of a iirnited depth. (2) installation of nails and
a @ drainage and (3) placing a facing' The reinforcing elements
o
€a tr
E (soil nails) are in the form of metal bars, tubes or rods. The
0
t E facing can either be built on site (shotcrete or cast-in-place
.N o
€E g
p concrete) or consist of prefabricated steel or concrete panels.
o
c
u The main advantages of soil nailing are that it allows top-
5 o
o n down excavation, and can be used in areas of limited space
q
a and low headroom. It is also price competitive with other
o methods of excavation support. The main limitations of the
E q
o
system are its intoierance to iong-term creeP, which may be
'- excessive in some soils, and the corrosion potential of the
.e metallic inclusions in aggressive environments.
E s
o ts

€
E
tr SE
!oi Equipment f procedures
o:
5 oAS
\J
The top-down excavation and support Process is accom-
-; , c , o o; E plished in 1-3 m (3-10 ft) deep incremental steps using
€
&9I3;
-

t- E small, conventional earthwork equipment for excavation. To

202
 ')
State of IJS Practice: Part

Project CLOUTERRE'
on the French National Research
*T,l,l?J'
"J::,Ti;l,i : H: ;;;;;"; ";d distributed bY FHwA (1ee3)'
: [i
in,,
p ro iec r
:-*l;,sa
: mass is dependent on the
The stabitity of u t'Jii"altoil
.a :,
and grouting' jet as their 1""g1' spacing and
::;r";:iil* ;[:|;"":-u|-l'i"i"g' drixing
'srouting or firing O"*t'rttgt temp"orarv facing
(wire capacity of the nails ^t'*"iL
it ilirrutio.t. fnctinut'on
"oi
ti't" *utt facing also affects the
"'i's' 'Le
piJt"a.':""i:',":'ll,,Jt;}r"r"iil ;;il,v :iI *;
iresh and shotc'et";
lift, and
;i"|; ilffi'#,'. i i;:'#}ff
tr::ff'jl"#ll'.ili'J*t if; :".:1"
"*".*utio" 1 i""j^,:""ili,tTilt*" ffi"., in a higher sarerv ractor Barig
"r.u,rting
and / oi the
ap piop.a te v erticar parameters that affect
;fi:f HJ ;ui
;l"i..T# "
"'is installed O::tU the perma- et at. (1992) discuss rn ietalittre
horizontal drainage ;ti;'"
-iii'-t'*utut o( performance of soil nailing the
the construction itages system involves analysing
nent facing' Fiprre ti The desiSn ot u 'o"^^uf;ing
the nail' the soil between
stability with respect to fuitt'"'"'of
soil nailing' The intemal stability of a
the nails, and their l"t"""tio'''
il;il; subiect of extensive stud-
t13?':it?fr willr-ircl soil-nailing structure 'h"over the Past h"/o decades'
is mostlv suitable ror soils {i:9"1 ies, tests, discussions
l"O'*t
sands' It is difficult to use rn ^"i
methods;il;'ri, *j1' emerged and
resistance, such as unsaturated
creep can affect d"19q:
Four main l'":
ft: ?u": method (original
clavev soils where '"*tlicl" ""d extensively used in # ;;;ih'
the advantages' of the system
o*u of
rs
and modified), th" C;;"
ti"tft"a' the French multicriteria
;.f';;;;,.tt' ;il:"ry;: method' In the first three
trre ,uitity to update
-:-"i t:ff.**S;$i method and the t*"t""'it"f assumed and the are
surfaces
iil,?:f,':,*l;;'""i"i-E*s--"r'-:'"c"1::*:1.1 .. methods, potential failure
analyses are modified to account
conventionai slope stabiliry
excavarlon
for the forces in
-i.r"'"lt" tio"*g these surfaces' The
difficult and considers kine-
kinematical upptouJ't *"re
C"T-ifJ jffi,,, interaction invorves two
tundamental me-
and (2) matically admissible
of failure in a iimit
doPi;"it^111des
ftittl;" "ft1n" 'oit-ttuil'interface $uran et al'' 7990)'
-nanisms: (1) tigid nails' The soil ""r#;;;;i p'"it method is the one mostlv used in
"""iutiJrt"*"work the
lateral soil otu"t"'" "i"?"i'"""rY tY friction is much and luran (1991)
United States at th"";;;;t
to'g"""t"e. i:
-i"at'? time'
-tr-t'' Elias.
deformation '"q'it"l original Davis
smaller than that to mobilize the passive earth proposed design ti-t^iit
modi{y the
may generate bending the ultimate-pull-out resistance
";il-;t;"tt *hith
pressure. fr'i' *ouiii'utiott'
only .ii a shear zone has
method, taklng rnto account
;ultiple nail'lengths' inclined
and shear in the The behaviour of soil
in the soil-nail ;;; uuot'" the cuts' etc' These charts
developed in the n"'i"O-J
*ass'' facings, ,lop"
of mechanicallv "*buJ*u:ni' soil nailing design' Figure 15
nailing has often #;;;;;J, {*.,t" and differences Dresent a simple Pt;;;;;for
stabilized Uucitfiff' il" ba'sic the modified Davis desiSn.charts'
slmilarities
tt""" been documented in a rePort [;;;;;i" "t to soii design has been
between the two
'y'i"*t Recently, u ia:t*i
""*'u"pp-t-*h eleven-step design procedure'
proposed by ruwii The role of the facing' is
which takes i"t
utto'"i-it'" 'tt'"t"tuf
detailed in BYme et al' (1996)'
Excavate
unsuPPorted cul Durabitity and long-t erm Performan ce
Parhcu-
t-2 m (3-S ft) high Durability is an important issue.with service
:-ol-1"'^''
life of more
iarlv for Permanent :';;*t"t with a
are built using steel
than 30 years' Since "t"tt t""t*res
Step 2. Drill hole lor nail iltit ;i;'"* iuti"gt' the durability of these structures
materials'
Step 1. Excavate small cul of
is impacted by the ";;;; characteristics with ,these
by providing
is dealt
Corrosion of *'" 't"5iliil;;t a sleeve aroun{--the
safiif-ggl-thitto*gg*t"t * g- ot
"trns
1ail. Corrosion-prtt#;;fu"s of clment are used in ihe

and
Steo 4. Place drainage striPs
Step 3. lnstall and grout nail ln][ri snot"rete layer and install
bearing Plates/nuts
1'75
itrr
tz
1.50
?- //) |
2
///
I *i==--
6 -t.l-_{_

0.1 0.2 03 0'4 0'5 0'6 07

Steo 6. Place final lacing

s=ffi F.Do

Steo 5. Repeat Process to (on Permanent walls)

final grade
Fig. l5' Modified Davis design chart
and Chassie' 1994)
Fig. 14. Construcdon stages
of soil nailing (Walkinshaw
203
 shotcrete facing. Normal corrosion protection measures
are according to the design and to accommodate
applied to the cast-in-place concrele or,'the prefabricated varying
panel facings. Special attention should be given to the gt.Tg conditions. Typical spacings range between 2 and
area 3 m (7-10 f0. Tne concrete paneli are
around the nail head, which has a high "concentration designed for the
of comtination of earth pressure and anchor load, as
stress and is most vulaerable to corrosioi. well as
the handling stresses in the precast units. In sizing
both the
panels and the reinforcements, one should take
Nail testing into account
that the anchors should be proof tesled to a level
Nail testing is an integral part of any soil nailing higher
than that of the design load (125_133%).
application. Four tests ur" ,ruuliy perfoirned: an
ultimate n19 ealth pressures used in the design are similar
capacity test, a verification test, a proof test and a to those
creep test. used in the design of soil anchors. For iemporary
Testing procedures and criteria, however, have not conditions,
been ihe iaieral nr11ye diagrams recommended by
Telaelri and.e!r*r
standardized yet and may vary from one agency to
another. Peck (1967) for bracld excavations are usually
used. The short-term pressure envelope for granular
soils is
Element wall equrvalent to 65h of the active earth presiure at the wall
base, but dishibuted uniformly along the
This method of in situ ground reinforcement uses wall height. The
pre_ resultant force is equal to 1.3 times"the theorefical
stressed rods installed in the ground in a manaer active
similar to force.
For permanent walls, a more conservative long_term
that of the construction of ground anchors. The element
wall pressure envelope is used. This envelope, which
relies on the anchor reinforcements for Iateral is based on
stabilily and the average of the at-rest and active earth pressures,
the function of the concrete panels or ,elements, is is
mainly to apProximately L^6 times the theorefical active
provide face stability. As with soil naiiing, the reinforce_ pressure
"that (Abramson and Hansmire, 19gg).
ments and the soil form a coherent body acts as the
retaining wall. To accomplish this, the an.hors are placed
Durability and long-term perfarmance
closer than in a typicai anchored wall, and tfr" *rff,s
sEuctural elements (soldier piles, lagging, "f wales) are*ortnot _.S:Ttl:" :f F: ground- anchors is the major facior
atfecting the durability of the element wall. Single or double
necessary. Figure 16 is.an illustration oian
element walr proteetion rn€a6urc9 are provided, dependrng
::"tq.:"! al. the Rogers_
pass tururel project
whlch passes factors as level of aggressivity, cons"qrre.,."
on such
through Mount McDonaid in the Canadlan Rockieo. of failo.o o.,.1
cust. In most element walls'built to date, the
reinforcing
elements consist of Dywidag steel bars wiih
Equipmentf procedures double corro_
sron protection.
Corutruction of the element wall is accomplished step
by
step- from the grourrd surface to a number
of successive
working levels. At each level, the construction Micropiles \ "
sequence
involves excavating, shotcreting the soil face,
placing the A.luy approach to piling has been developed recenrly.,
precast concrete panels, installing the anchors
and tenlsion_ considering the piles as ground reinforcemeni
ing them. space between tf,e panels is covered with for staUtiry
_The pd sgtt]em9nt control, rather than a means of carrying total
either steel-mesh-rein_forced shotcreie or cast_in_place
crete.. The temporary shotcrete layer is
con_ foundation Ioads to lower ground. This approach
50 mm 1) in; Urict gerierally
and is applied as soon as possible after each lift uses small diameter piles (less than 10 in in Jiameter)
of installed vertically, or in a reticulated fashion.
excavation- Conventional soil anchor instaliation
rigs are which is used
used in eiement wall conskucfion.
ror support of excavations and slopes.

.,]ru ^.* advan-tage of micropiles is the abilify to insrail

tnem on extremely steep slopes, and in areas
Suitable soils
headroom such as inside tunnels or under
of low : ._:
Figure 17 ilIustrates some .rnicropile soil reinfLc;;;; *
As with soil anchors, the element wall is best suited bridge decks.:*.)
for
gr:..+1. soils yrith high angles o[ interna] frichon. lt
is least applicatio,ns,
surted tor soils with high creep potentiai.

Design issues Equipment lprocedules

The element wali is designed for both internal Micropiles are instalied mainly by two methods _
and
drilling
external stability. Usually, the horizontal spacing or displacement. fet grouring and post groutl
of the IY f.:qr,
rng methods have recently been used to p.oduce "high_
anchors is held constant while the vertical spacingls
varied capacity piles. Other, less used techniques
include the
Cast-in-plate
concrete joint
Parapet wall

Top wall

Precast panel
Aliva drain
Shotcrete Porous backfill
Concrete looting
Structural bacKitl
\* Reinforced concrete Tieback

Drain pipe
Front view
Cross-sectlonT:
Eig. 16, Element wall at Rogers pass

204 uQ-'
 State of US practice: part 7

L is the length, K is an empirical coefficient related to pile-

soil interaction and I is an empirical coefficient related to the
piie diameter. .K ranges from 0'5 for soft soils to 2'0 for very
stiff soils, sands and gravels. I ranges from 1'0 for a 100 mm
diameter pile to 0'8 for a 250 mm diameter pile (Lizzi, 1980)'

Fig. 17. Micropile applicacions (not to scale)
Micrapile testing
Since the micropile design depends to a Sreat extent on
intuition and experience, pile testing is almost essential to
verify the adequacy of the design and the installation
procedure. Both compression and tension tests are normally
used. Figure 18 illustrates the results of compression and
tension testing of micropiles at the Coney Island Main
Repair Fqcifity in Brooklyn, New York' The micropiles were
inslalled in a very congested space without intermption of
the shop operation (Soliman and Munfakh, 1988)-
(Lizi' 1983)

Stone colurnns
micropiie with expanded base and the fly-ash-micropile Atthough constructed using the same equipment and
svste;. In ali of these procedures, the equiPment used is procedure as vibrocompaction, stone columns frrnction as
reinforcement rather than densification' They are appiied to
/-itati"ety small, lightweight and mobile, and capable of
\ -reration in remote areas and under low headroom' soft cohesive soils in order to (1) increase bearing capacity,
(2) reduce settlement and accelerate consolidation, (3) im-
Reinforcem e n I mech an is m prove slope stability and (4) control liquefaction. About 10-
When used as in situ reinforcement, the micropiles are 35% of the soil is replaced with stone (or sand) in the form
spaced closer than in conventional pile foundations, and the of columns.
loads are supported by a complex soil-pile structure Typical column diameters are between 0'75 and 1'0 m
analogous to reinforced concrete, where the ground repre- (2.5-3.5 ft) and the column spacings are between 2 and 3 m
sents the concrete and the micropiles correspond to the steel (7-10 f0. Munfakh (1984) describes some novel applications
reinforcement. ln order for the piies and the soil to act as a of stone columns, including one application using a combi-
unit, it is necessary to assume that the stresses are distrib- nation of stone columns and mechanically stabilized backfill
uted to both the soil and the piles, rather than the piles alone as an integtal part of a wharf structure at the ]ourdan Road
as is usually considered in conventional pile foi:ndation Terminal of the Port of New Orleans (Fig. 19).
design. To achieve this, a 'knot effect' is assumed, by which
the stress acting on the pile is partially transfeued to nearby Equipmrnt lprocedures
piles, owing to the interaction between the piles and the Stone columns are usually installed by vibro-replacement
ground generated by the high bond between them (Lizzi, (wet method) or vibro-displacement (dry method). Figure 20
1978; Plumelle, 1'984). illustrates an environmentally-sensitive bottom-feed method
of installation. Other methods (rammed columns, vibrocom-
, Suitable soils poser, dynamic replacement, etc.) have also brien used but to
,ry11 Since the micropile deveiops its capacity mainly by a lesser extent. The latest addition to the field is concreted
i stone columns. The equipment/procedures used in the
f,* "i"tio.,, is mostly suitable for soils with high frictional
it
such as ang'ular sands and gravels' construction of stone columns.are described by Munfakh ef
"aracteristics aL (7987).
Design issues
ryVhen used in a reticulated fastrion to reinforce slopes and
support excavations, the basic approach would be to
calculate the contribution offered by the piies to the
resistance of the natural soil. This approach, however, is
considered conseryative as it does not take into account the
knot effect between the soii and the piles. Once that effect is
assured, the soil-piles system behaves as a coherent body .\'-.- \\ \. //_
and is analysed as a rigid structure. \ '-..- -.1-)x-
'----J \ \.
\-\.\ -. ,-1OD
The design of an individual micropile involves determin- \\
ing both the intemal (structurat) and extemal (gror-lnd- tta
related) load-carrying capacities' The internal capacity is ---
. calculated according to conventional structural design Proce- 15 ton tension - -- \
pile ----- \,
durei. For external capacity, tlvo aPProaches are used: one \
treats the micropile as a displacement pile (Lizzi, 1980), and 8AS: 15 ton compression with - -- -l
the other treats it as a grouted soil anchor (Xanthakos ef aI',
1,ss4). 7Dl10D: 15 ton compression pile with pile cap
kr Lizzi's approach, the required pile length is calculated 1 in = 25'4 mm
using the formula 1 ton = 0.9 metric ton

Po: tDLKI (3)

Fig. 18. Micropile test results at Coney lsland Main Repair Facility (Soliman
where P6 is the ultimate pile capacity. D is the pile diameter, and Munfakh, I988)

205
G. A. Munfakh

o. : +3
t)
(4)

where o. is the column capacity, C, is the undrained shear

strength of the soll, N* is the bearing capacity factor for
sione columns and FS is the factor of safety. Barksdale and
Bachus (1983) propose a range of N* between 1.8 and 22. A
safety factor of 3 is usually used in the design.
Pseudo-elastic and elasto-plastic theories are used to
calculate the settlement of the stone-column-reinforced soil
usins the rtnit cell
' ConceDt
- '- ---r (a r-r:rrl ce!! reoresenlq
--- --r - --' r-he ,rea
Lributary to one column). The most commonly used settle-
ment prediction methods are the equilibrium method and
the settlement ratio curves. In the equilibrium method, the
stress acting on the soil is estimated as a function of the
apnlied load, the stress ratio and the area replacement ratio
(area of stone divided by total area within the unit cell).
Fig. 19. Stone columns atJourdan Road Terminal
Conventional one-dimensional consolidation theory is then
used to estimate settlement (Barksdale and Goughnour,
Equipment an position, Forming the stone column 1984). Figure 21 is a compilation of settlement ratio curves
feed pipe lilled, valve open by oscillation
Sinking ths vibrator with
used in the design. These curves relate the settlement
compresssd air (valva clos€d) improvement ratio (settlement of soil without stone colupl+1
and'pull down' assistance to that n,ith stone columns) to the area ratio (area of unii -)
divided by area of stone).
For siope stability analysis, a composite shear strength of
the reinforced soil is used along the sliding surface. The
W composite strength parameters are related to the strength
_#t
H4{{I
parameters of the natirre soil, the friction angle of the
column, the stress ratio and the area replacement ratio.
ffi
i'::xrr T
E
Priebe (1976) gives graphs that can be used in the determina-
6 tion of the composite shear strength parameters.
Weak matorial I
N
Performqnce waluation
The performance of stone columns can be evaluated by
visual observation (ground heave, water percolation, etc.),
instrumentation monitoring (piezometers, inclinometers, set-
Fig. 20. Boaom-feed installation of stone columns (ebe and Bartels, 1983) tiement indicators, earth pressure cells, etc.) and field testing
(CPT, direct shear, plate bearing, etc.). Full-scale model tests
Reinfor c em ent me chanism have been performed in the past (Munfakh et al., 1983).
The infroduction of stone columns transforms the growrd
into a composite mass of granular cylin' r r, ',..'ith intervening
native soil, providing a lower compr.: r ,: I ' and a higher Categony lV. Chemical treatment ,,,_
shear strength than those of the native soil alone.
The stone columns are stiffer than the soil they replace. Cement, lime, fly-ash, asphalt, silicate and others a." il'}
p^^^,,^^
UELAUJE +L^ ^^1.,--:^
UaE LUIUrUr ^^L^-:^-l^^^
15 LUllEDlUlUESD, )L^
rL5 ^tIL^^^
StUllIEDS
l^-^-l^
UEpCttU5
to stabilize weak soils. They generally bind the soil parr'- .s
upon the lateral support given by the soil around it. If that
support is inadequate, the column fails by bulging. The
(1) Greenwood (forA" = 1 ,21
column may also fail as a pile because of insufficient skin (1a)c.=4N/cmz
friction and end bearing. (ro; c,=zwcm'
Because the rigidity of the coiumn is substantially higher (2) Weighted modulus method
than that of the surrounding soil, a larger portion of the (2a) ElEu= 1s
(2b) E/4 =s
applied load is transferred to the stone, thus improving the {3) Baumanry'Bauer
load-carrying capacity of the lreated ground and reducing Sandy silt,
g
4 = 1.5, 4 = 0.6,
EtE,=
its settlement. o_ (4) Priebe0=02.S'
E" (5) Balaam
Design issues E
o (sa) EJE = 10 flexible
tr (sa) E/E" = 10 rigid
The following parameters are taken inio account when b4
analysing a stone column-soil strucfure: (1) column dia-
-o (Sa) E/E":5rigid
a
meter, (2) spacing, (3) friction angle of the stone column, (4)
shear strength of the native soil, (5) stress ratio between
column and soil, and (6) strain compaiibility between stone
and surrounding soil. A detailed analysis of these para-
meters is included in Munfakh et al. (1987). On the basis of
the results of several sfudies on the subject, a stress ratio of
1

3 is recommended for stone column design.

NA"
The bearing capacity of a foundation resting on stone
columns is equal to the capacity of a single column multi- Fig.2l. Sealement ratio curyes used in stone column design (Greenwood
plied by the number of colurms: and Kirsch, 1984)

206

and lower compressl-
+^sether, resuiting in higher strength
l:::;'; time st"auilizuEor,, utt ion exchange reduces the
its workability' The ion
II# putt.ity and improves by a chemical..reaction that
l-"Jr"!" i, tien followed
surface stabilization' the
'iri.*ut!t the shear strength'-In
*re soil and an appropriate
lr-,"r"i.a, are mixed with
I*o,*, of water, and then compacted using conventional
depth' the
.o*p".tior, equipment and procedures' When at
J-r"ti.rft a.e appiitd by injection' or by deep mixing
treatrnent-methods will be
i",tt.at. Otiy U,t" ae"p chemical
following'
discrrrsed in tiris paper. They include the
Permeation grouting
(silicates'
In ihis method, cement, lime or chemical grouts
etc.) fi1I the voids in the soil, resulting essentially
in
ir,.i"ur"a strength and cohesion and reduced permeability'
Utf, .ro chang:e in volume or structure of the original
sround. Neat cement, clay/bentonite/cement' sodium silj-
[ate, calcium ch]oride and others are used in permeation
-*srouting.
-
Organic compounds or resins are also used for
"apnli"cations.
ir\' r.cial Microfine cement grout is the iatest
lition io p".*"ution grouting' Grout additives may be
used to enhance penetrability and strength and to control
setting time.
Perineation grouting is mainly used in construction o{
tunnels and dams, in s-trengthening of natural slopes' and
in
special applications such as treatment of swelling clays' The
prop"tties the treated ground, particularly its void space'
i url tnu "f
major influence on the selection of appropriate
grouting materials and procedures'
Equipment lProcedures
'Permeation grouting is performed by driJling holes in-the
ground and inj-ection of .ttt.ry grouts' The drilling procedure
iarive drilling, extemal flush, rotary duplex, percussion'
double head,- etc') is heavily dependent on t\e type of
ground. Grout iniection is performea through the'end of the
fasir,g o. tluough specialized equipment- such as a valve
"system
tube ortr fiU, a Manchette' Details of drilling and
are discussed in Xanthakos et al' (1994)'
--injection
( tion Project in New York CitY.
\''quitable ground
'C"*"rit grouting is usually used in fissured roSks and
.ourru-gr"ili"d soili (less than 15% fines)' Chemical grouts
(silicatei, etc.) can be used with finer soils'
Design issues
aesign of a permeation grouting Prograrnme involves
ftie
seiecting ** tlp" of grout, grout mix properties'
iniection
configuration'
Parameters and grouting
The type of grout used and the make-up of the grout mix
are dependeni on the properties of the grqund' When
grouting rock masses, botlt t}te overall permeability of the
,'o.k mis" and that of the fusures in the rock affect perform-
- ance (cement grouts usually Penetrate fissures of width at
least three timis the largesi particle size in the grout mix)'
For granular soils, the principal parameter affecting Perrnea-
tion is the size of the intergranular voids, usually repre-
sented by the soil's coefficient of permeability'
The iniection Parameters (volume, Pressure and rate of
injection) are alio dependent on the soil porosity' lt. is
important to note thai the Pressure and rate of iniection
should be kept below limiting values to avoid hydrofracture
of the ground or disturbance to adiacent structures or
utilities. The injection Parameters are greatly dependent on
ice: part 1
experience and are usually adjusted in the field on the basis
of initial grouting Performance.
The grouting configuration (layout, spacing, inclination
and depth of grout holes) is dependent on the stratigraphy
and propertiei of the ground, the grout characteristics, the
injection parameters and the desired efficienry' In general,
ttre groui permeates through the ground under pressure,
dispi'acing iater and air from the voids at a rate dictated by
tf,e grouna permeability- In homogeneous, - isotroPic, uni-
(ornisoils, a spherical flow of grout takes place' Normally,
however, the ground is non-uniform and the penekation
depth is affected by stratigraphy. Detailed discussions on
groutlng Pattems and grout penetration are included in
Xanthakos et aI. (1994) and AFTES (1991)'
P erformance eualuation
fhe drilling and grouting parameters should be carefully
monitored during any test Prograrnme and production
works. The monitoring should include grout volume and
composition, injection Pressure and time, piezometric varia-
tions, ground heave, and grout interconnections' Both in silu
and hloratory testing are performed to verify the strength,
permeabiliry and other engineering characteristics of the
grouted ground. Special types of monitoring, such as colour-
Lg the grout or aPPlying chemical indicators to the ground,
.ui b" to trace the location of the grout within the
ground."tttptoyed
Jet grouting
This technique uses high-pressure fluids, appiied through
a nozzfe at the base of a drill pipe, to erode the soil particles
and mix them with cement Srout as the drill bit is rotated
and withdrawn, forming hard, impervious columns' Excess
soil cuttings are carried to the surface in the form of a waste
slurry. The grouted columns can be formed vertically,
horizontally or at an angle. A row of overlapping columns
forms a wali. Jet grouting has been successfully applied to
nurnerous proiects in Japan and Europe and recently in the
USA for underpinning, tururelling and groundwater cut-off'
Figure 22 shows jet grouting applied fsr constructiol of an
excavation suPPort system at the 63rd Street Tunnel Connec-
The main advantage of jet grouting is that it works in all
types of soii since the initial soil shucture is broken down
and replaced with a composite mass of soil and grout,
sometimes called 'soilcrete'. Also, the iet grouting operation
can be directed from a rernote point and can be terminated
at any elevation, thus providing keafinent in isolated zones'
The main limitations of the system are that the construction
process may result in heave or excess lateral gtound move-
ments, and the ultra-high pressure used may fracfure
surrounding ground or force the grout into adjacent vaults,
sumps or blJements. In soils containing peat or high-level
otgurric material, the humic acid in the soil may delay or
prevent the hardening of the soil-grout rnix.
Equipmmt
'There lprocedures
are basically three systems of jet groutingl the
single-fluid system, the double-fluid system and the triple-
fluid system. In the first system, the fluid is the grout and
the jet simultaneously erodes and binds the soil particles' In
the double-fluid system, a second fluid is used in addition to
the grout to enhance the cutting abilify of the system' The
.".ottd fluid can be either compressed air or water' In the
triple-fluid system, both air and water are used' The central
coie of the diilling rod and monitor conveys the grout while
 G. A. Munfakh
Fig.77. )et grouting at 63rd Street Tunnel Connection proiect
the middle annulus carries the water and the outer annulus
carries the air (Fig. 23). The column diameter increases in
size from the single- to the triple-fluid systen,_ OnIv the
single-fluid system, however. is used in hoirzc:rtal jet
grouting.
The jet-grouting piant includes a pump, a mixer,
compressed air source and a water source. The mixer is fed
by a silo u,hich allows mixing of more than 50 t of cement in
8 h. By using a fully automated operation, the drilling and
injection stages are carried out automatically according to
preset parameters. This avoids errors caused by the operator.
Fig. 23. Triple-fluid monitor
208
Design issues
The design of a jet-grouted column involves the deiermi-
nation of the column diameter, slrength and permeability
that wouid satisfy the project's requirements. These factors
are, in tum, inl']uenced by a number of interdependent
variables reiated to in situ conditions, materials used and
operating parameters. Although ihe Soil type is less impor_
tant in jet grouting than it is in permeation grouting, the
characteristicsof the ir sifr material are still importint as
they affect the strength and permeability of the jet-grouted
coiumn. Miki and Nakanishi (19M) published empiricaily
derived data relaling the jet-grouted column diameter to the
SPT value of the grouted soil.
Both the strength and the permeabitity of the grouted
mass are influenced by the cement content in the grout mix.
Plo-ts reiating strength to cement content are preiented by
Caliavresi (1992). These plots can be used rn the design of
the grout mix.
The diameter of the constructed coiumn is a function of a
number of operaling parameters such as injeciion pressure,
grout flow, and rod wiihdrawal and rotation rates. For a
given soil fype, the slower the withdrawal and rotation rates-" .,
the larger the column diameier that can be achieveci. Tt
operating parameters are usually determined through initiar .
field trials at the beginning of construchion.
Whcn uscd for construction of a cul-uff wall, multiple
rows of overiapped columns are usually desigred on the
basis of the assumed permeability of the
iet-grouted column.
A minimum overlapping of 0.3 m (1 ft) is used.
Quality contral f quality assurance
To ensure the success of a jet-grouting operation, it is
critical to exercise strict controi and monitoring during
construction. Such monitoring will aiso help in verifying the
criteria and supplying data to modi$,, if necesiary,
{esrgn
the jet-grouting parameters.
Grout samples taken from each batch of grout rnix are
tested for bentonite and cement content. The waste slurry
which reaches the surface is evaluated to estimate the
composition of the grouted soil. Core samples of completed
columns are tested for strength and permeability. Field
packer permeability tests are performed in holes drilledr-.
a through completed columns. Inclined borings are aisc,_ )
drilled to esh-r-n,ate t-tr-e as-built diarneters of the columr,
Other quality assurance techniques include excavation ano.
visual examination of the completed columns, static or
dlmamic penetration tests, and sonic testing.
F]eckonic monitoring of the jet-grouting operation can be
performed by a recenily developed system called pApERIET
(DePaoli et al., 1.997). This sysiem allows electronic measure_
ment of the various jet-grouting parameters on a continuous
basis, and is capable of making operational decisions.
Deep soil mixing
This technique consists of mixing in-piace soils w,ith
cement grout or other reagent slurries using multipie_axis
augers and mixing paddies to construct overlapping stabi_
lized-soil columns. By arranging the columns in various
configurations, the system can be used for strengthening of
soft soils or for groundwater or liquefaction control.
_ Although the deep soil mixing (DSM) rechnology and the
jet grouting technoiogy have the same applications, there are
two basic differences between the two: (1) no high pressure
is used in deep soii mixing, and (2) the DSM columns are
buiit to defined dimensions. The DSM method has minimal
environmental concems and health hazards since the soil is

heated in sifu and at depth (a relatively -small volume of
*,aste is generated). The rnain limitation of the system is its
inabilify to Penekate or bypass obstructions, such as
, bouldeis, rubble or buried utilities. Another limitation is the
inability to adjust the column diameter with depth in
resPonse to changing subsurface conditions'
Equipment lprocedures
'Hollow-stem
multiple augers equipped with mixing pad-
dles penekate the gtound to the required depth' During
penetration and withdrawal, cement grout is pumped
ihrough the auger stem. The auger flights and mixing
paddles mix the soil and the grout in place to fgrm
iontinuous, overiapping soil-cement columns. If needed,
steel reinforcement is inserted in the colurnn to provide
bending resistance (Fig. 2a)'
A typical DSM consLruction system consists of a mixing
plant ind a drillinglmixing unit. A separate pump supplies
the grout from the mixing plant to each of the injecting
urrgeis. A computer is used for controi of mixing and grout
flow,
/--'" 4 series of multi-shaft eiements, each of which consists of
\- " -ee or more overlapped coiumns, is constructed in a series
-^ in a stepped sequence. ln extremely dense soils, holes are
predrilled to loosen up the ground along the DSM alignment
using a powerfui single-shaft auger. AI1 obstructions in the
soil are removed, if possible, and replaced with good-quality
filI prior to DSM instaliation.
Design issues
The DSM design is influenced to a certain extent by the
plarmed function of the system- lAlhen building a cut-off
wail, for instance, the soil-cement is considered a Porous
material from a microscopic viewpoint, and the wall is
designed to provide a required impermeability. A DSM wall
used for excavation supPort usually has reinforcing mem-
bers designed to resist bending moments and shear stress
along the longitudinal direction of the wall, and the soil-
cement between the reinforcement is designed to resist and
redistribute the horizontal sbress to neighbouring reinforcing
members. When used for liquefaction control, the DSM is
r.-=performed in a block or lattice Pattern to resist the stress
(;j"* embankment or surcharge loadings when loose co-
' sionless soils liquefy during seismic ground shaking
1. rg. 25).
The strength, permeability and modulus of elasticity of
the soil-cement are the primary engineering properties of
concem for the DSM design. These properties are affected
by the soil rype, the composition of the mixing agent
(cement and additives), the degree of mixing and compac-
'tion, the curing environment and the age.
Taki and Yang (1991) present correlations between the 28-
day unconfined compressive strength and the cement con-
tent for both granuiar and cohesive soils. The 28-day
strength is approximately harice the 7-day strength for both
Reinforcing member
Fig. 24. Steel reinforcement in DSM columns
US practice: part 1
Fig. 25. DSM for liquefaction control flaki and Yang, I 99 I )
soil types. For all pracLical purposes, one-third of the
unconlined compressive strength of the soil-cement can be
considered as its shear strength.
For a well mixed soil-cement, the coefficient of per-
meability ranges from 10-s to 10-7 cm/s. ln general, the
permeability decreases with increasing cement ratio in the
mix. These permeabilities, however, are those of the soil-
.cement mix and do not necessarily represent the in situ
permeabiliry of the DSM wall. That permeability would be
dependent on the tightness of the wall, the overlapping of
the columns and the potential presence of 'window' caused
by boulders or other anomalies. The actual wall permeability
can best be determined by performtng in situ permeabiliry
tests.
Quality controlf quality assurance (QC/QA)
The success of a DSM application depends to a great
extent on the QC/QA procedures implemented- Basically,
two materials are tested: the cement grout and the soil-
cement product.
Unconfined comprebsive strength and permeability tests
are normally performed. Three tlpes of samples are tested:
(1 ) laboratory-mixeci soil-cement-water specimens, (2) field
wet samples extracted from the DSM column at different
depths immediateiy after instaliation and (3) core samples
obtained after the column has hardened.
Field monitoring of the installation process is an integral
part of the QC/QA programme. The operation parameters
monitored in the field include the driliing time for each
panel and the grout injection rate. The iniection rate is
adjusted constantly to accommodate varying driiiing speeds
in different soii strata so that the design voiume of grout per
unit volume of soil is maintained.
Lime columns
This method is a variaLion of deep soil mixing, in which
unslaked quicklime is used in lieu of, or mixed with, the
cement. Used extensively in Scandinavia and the Far East,
and introduced recently in the US, this ground improvement
method is mostly suitable for stabiiization of deep, soft,
sensitive clay deposits. A pozzolanic reaction takes place
between the lime and the ciay minerals resulting in substan-
tial increase in the strength and reduction in the plasticity of
the native material. The heat generated by hydration also
reduces the water content of the clayey soils, resultin5i in
accelerated consolidation and strength gain- Lime columns
can be used for load support, stabilization of natural and cut
slopes, and as an excavation support system.
209
 G. A. Munfalch
Equipment lprocedures
The original lime columns were constructed by mixing the
soil at depth with quicklirne using a tool shapeci Iike a
fiant
dough mixer (Fig. 26). The mixing tool penetrates the grJund
to the required depth, then is slowly withdrawn as the lime is
forced into the soil by compresied air via holes iocated
immediately above the blades of the mixing tool. As the tool is
withdrawn, the inclined blades compact the soil_lime mix_
ture,_resulting in columns of 0.5-0.6 m (1.65_2 ft) in diameter,
whi$ is approximately the diameter of the mixing tool. Ir:r
another method of installation, unslaked lime is pliced and
c-ompacted in pre-.driiled holes. Lime columns of 1 m (3.3 ft)
in
diameter have been installed in Japan using this technique.
A uniform mixing of the soil and the itabilizing agent is
essential. This is done by sp"rchronizing the rate of fleaing
to that of rotation of the mixing tool_ A iecorder registers th!
1*oyrt of lime injected per metre of coiumn. The operator
checks this recorder constantly and adjusts the rates and
quantifies accordingly. Compressed air is used to transport
the lime from the metering unit to the mixing tool, and then
into the soil.
Suitable soiis
Lime columns are used to stabfize cohesive soils. For
inorganic soils with iow to medium piasticity, the iime
cor.rt:lt used-is_usually 6-8% of the dry ui.lt weight of the
stabilized soil. Lr highly plastic soils, more iime is added.
Gypsum is sometimes mixed with unslaked lirne to stabilize
soils with high water content. In low_reactive clays,
:rganlc
fly ash or kiln dust may be added to er*rance the soil_lime
pozzolariic reaction. Lime-cement mixes of equai propor_
tions are used when higher skength is required.
Design issues
- Ynslaled quicklime stabilizes soils through one or more
of the following mechanisms:
Unslaked lime
Rotary table
Maximum 15 m
Injection of
Soft clay
Completed
column
Fig.26, Soil-lime mixing tool (Broms, 1993)
2'to
(a) water content reduction due to the heat generated by
slaking and hydration of the quicklime
(b) lateral consolidation of surounding soii due to expan-
sion of the column as slaking takes place
(c) acceleration of consolidatiJn due to the increase in
perrneability generated by the flocculated nature of the
.
lime-treated soil
(d)
increase in shength and density due to the pozzolanic
reaction between the lime and the silica and itu*ir,u ir.,
the clay mineral, which binds the soil particles together
(e) pore pressure reduction in the surrounding soil*due to
the net flow of water from the soil voids towards the
Iime column due to the slaking reaction in the column
which, in tum, increases the shear strength of the
surrounding soil.
The shear strength of the soil increases several_fold with
the addition of lime. The ultimate strength of the column,
however, is influenced by the ,nuu. ,#".,gth of the sur_
rounding soil. Failure of the surrounding soii would reduce
the confining piessure, which, in turn," reduces the shear _-
strength of the lime column. The long_term strength ')
of the
coiumn can also be reduced owin! to creep (ZO-35"r.
reduction).
The permeability of the column is usually hugher than
. that
of the native soil. ehanges in the coefficient olpermeabiirty
of one to two decimal exponents are possible with the
addition of lime. This permeability, however, is still on
the
lower side (generally, k:19-o to i0*7 cm/s).
Durability and long-term perfonnance
.Although the strength of the lime_treated soil increases
with time until a certain age, the longterm behaviour of the
lime column structure is influenced Ly weathering, particu_
larly if the structure is continuously exposed to weithering
elements such as water, wind or temperature. Test results
on
the subject show that the lime-keated soiis absorb
less water
with time than do untreated soils - they also dry faster.
lo:rtrary to cement stabilization, tne frost f,Jr,r" *-ti*"_
stabilized soils is more than that in untreated soils, particu_
larly if the soils are frozen within one month after ctmpac_
tion. The resistance against frost-thaw effects, ho*.rer.il.,
incl-e-1ses- rapidly with curing time as the strength of tt"*J
siabilized soil is increased. Giinerally, .fte depth Ind
spee
of frost penetration are reduced wiitr the ujdido., of lime
b.ecause the larger void ratio, generated by flocculation,
allows less heat conduction throufh the soil.
Quality assurance f quality control
Quality assurance of lime column construction is usually
accomplished in two main stages: during construction
ani
after completion. During instafiadon, the"depth of penetra_
tion.and quantities of admixtures and water
iwhen slurry is
used) are recorded for every column. The quality 'the
of
completed column can be tested in situ by static
cone
penetration or standard penetration tests. A modified
pene_
was developed in Sweden for the specific prr.por"
":,*:r:.
of testing lime columns. About 3% of the .o*pl"t"d
columns
l.urt" projects, the bearing capaciry of rhe
i:," ju*ud 3their creep
timits are usuaily itreclea in situ by
:?l:T:
plate loadf"d
or screw plate tests.
Category Y. Thermal stabilization
Both heating and freezing can be used for ground
im_
provement. Heating fine-grain soii to high temperatures
can
 High-prossure Low-Pressure
produce significant ProPerfy improvements' including a refrigetant gas refrigerant gas Brine
in
i".i"ut" in swetling and'compressibility and an increase
and
pumP

,t "rrgth' Because frlozen wet ioil is much stronger less

Cooling
Deryiousthanwhenthesoilisunfrozen,artificiajground water
' T.er^g can be used for temPorary ground skengthening'
ground-
parti.riu.iy for excavation iupport' Permanent
applications are also used in permafrost areas'
Leezing B,r
fo aite, it"bilirutio., by heating has not been used in the lr-. I
a:t
United States, and has hid Iimited applications woridwide' FI
Ground. freezing, on the other hand' has been receiving 15.l
r.
wider acceptanle as a temPorary measure for excavation
l
ts,'l

suPPort in urban areas, particulariy adjacent to contami-

tE..l

4r.!
.,uiua sites. Following are brief detaiis on both methods' N2 lo
atmosph€re

Ground heating
Lr this method, a bumer is placed in a plug at the top of a
sealed borehole. Compressed air and fuel are iniected under
pressure, and the temPerarure and comb.ustion products are
controlled. Several boreholes are usually connected to a
o-central apparatus and fired simultaneously' Ao altemative
(. nethod ,.rse, electric heaters rather than combustion' The ICc' ]
:ctric heaters can be either piaced at the top of ihe
borehole or inserted in ihe borehole' Eight to ten days are
usually needed to treat a soil column with a diameter of
1'5-2'5 m (5-8 ft) to a depth of B-10 m (26-33 ft)'

Design issues Fig.27. Ground freezing medrods (Donohoe' 1993): (a) circulatory brine
Hfat flow analyses can be done irl the same general way cooling; (b) expendable refrigerant

as seePage and consolidation analyses' As heat Penetrates

the soil, inarked changes in the soil properties take place'
The most significant gu is the elimination of coilapsible
"iiut occurs at temperatures of 350 to
properties ii loutt, which
+oo;C lUlt.hell, 1981). Other changes, summarized by
Litvinov (1960) from different sites, include a 100% increase
in the friction angle, an order of magnitude increase in the
cghesion intercePt and a fivefold reduchon in the soil's
compressibiiitY.

Ground freezing
:' Ground freezing has two main functions: (1) to prevent Ego
qroundwater t"epig" into excavations and (2) to increase 0

e shear strengih of tnu soil and improve its slructural ;80

o
capacity. E70
a .t*U". of ground freezing systems are available' They a
follow two basic types (Fig. 27): (7) an oPen system where 60

the refrigerant (liquid nitrogen or carbon dioxide) is lost to 50

the atmo"sph".. ufL, it has absorbed energy and vaporized'
and (2) a closed-circuit hydraulic system using a conven- 40

tionai mechanical plant and a circulating coolant' The first 30

system is used *iittty under emergency conditions' while
the second is used more frequently for excavation support' 2A

Freeze pipe spacings of 1-2 m (3-6 ft) are typical'

Suitable soils -10 -12 -14

A unique feature of ground freezing is its appiicability to Temperature:'C
a wide ringe of soils from silty and clayey sands (SM and 3226201482'4
SC material) to iointed and fractured rock' The system can TemPerature:'F
provide an effective water barrier in zones of pervious
materials which are isolated by layers of cohesive or ce- F(. 28. Unconfined compressive strength of frozen ground
mented materials.

Design issues
Mirked increases in the soil's strength occur upon freez-
ing. Fig. 28 shows unconfined compressive strengths of
frozen ground in relation to temPerature' The ice acts as a
binding agent that gives sirength to the frozen ground' The
.o*p.Jrril,r" streng"ths of both the ice itself and the soil
containing ice increase as the temperature is lowered further
beiow the freezing Point.
211
 G. A. Munfakh

Like other earth-retaining structures, a frozen earth wail

relies upon the material,s c.ompressive strength for stability.
When stressed for a long time, however, ttrJ frozen gro;d
may experience deformations and loss of initiat siength.
Clayey soils, for instance, encountered on a shaft f.eerlng
project, exhibited a radial inward creep of the order o]
38 mm (1. 5 in) per month under the ioad. Granular
soils at
similar depths showed negligible deformations (Donohoe,
1993). One reason for the creep is that the water adsorbed on
the clay mineral's surface, which does not freeze at 0"C.
freezes^graciualiy as the temperature is lowered subsiantially
below 0t.
Partially safurated soils are weaker when frozen than
similar but fully saturated soils. Water (or slurry) is some_
times added to improve the frozen properties of certain
soils
above the water-table.
Moving groundwater presents a potentiai major problem
-
f3r f.9_"r,a freezing. When the groundwater velocity is less Fig. 29. Biorechnical sabilization by brush layering (Gray and Sotir, l9fS1
than 6O0*y-(2ft) per day, thJground freezing process
is
not affected. In faster-moving groundwaters, such as those
affected by tidal or river fluctuations, the freezing process that developed in mechanicaliy stabilized backfill.
rs
affected, but can be dealt with in the design. When the a The roots (fibres) which grow along the length
water of :-lr,
veloity reaches 2 m (6 ft) per day, gro,r.,l freezing becomes buried stems have the effect of the artificiai cohes! .l
essentially ineffective. deveioped in fibre-reinforced soils.
Geometry " The woody vegetation acts as a hydraulic drain that
When lsed intercepts the groundwater flow and conveys it out nf the
a hydraulic barrier, the freeze pipes are
soi1, thus resembling the action of wick drains.
rtsually aligned-as-
along the desired cut-off piane. if itructural
support is required, the frozen earth wall is usual.ly laid
in a Design issues
circular or elliptical configuration for maximum mobiiization
of the compressive strength of the frozen soil. Interlocking The design of a biotechnical stabilization system involves
.
frozen cells are sometimes used for the construction of determining: (i) the tensile capacity of the brush reinforce_
underground skuctures with a rectangular configuration. ment, (2) the pull-out resistance along the soil_reinforcement
interface and (3) the stability againstllope failure of the root
(fibre) reinforced soil.
The tensiie capacity of the brush reinforcement and its
Category Vl. Biotechnical pull-out resistance are ca-lculated following the procedures
stabilization developed for mechanically stabilized Uactftt. ff,e allowable
unii tensile resistance for a brush Iayer can be calculated
Biotechnical stabilization is a new form of soil
reinforce_ from the tensile strength of the brush stems, their average
ment that uses live biological objects (vegetation)
as reinforc- diameter and the number of stems placed per unit width
ing elements. It is used for stabijlzationif cut or fill ':.:tir and Gray. 1989).
slope s
or consbuction of earth-retaining strucLures on parkland
and The slope stabitity analysis is performed following ce.:-.^
in environmentally sensitive areas. Live, cut stems and ventional procedures, with the influence of vegetation"tak;J
branches provide immediate reinforcement.. and then
se_ into account as an added artifieial cohesion due to r
condary reinforcement occurs as a resuit oi rooting
which makix reinforcement, a reduced pore water pressure due to
develops along the iength of the buried stems.
In addition to evapotranspiration and a tensiie reinforcement force in the
its function, the woody vegetation acts as a
-reinJorcing large roots that cross the failure surface.
hydraulic drain which improves tLe stuiitity of the rein_
forced-soil system.
Biotechnieal stabilization is economical and less
Durabiliff and long-term performance
environ_
durabilify and life of biotechnical reinforcement
mentally disruptive than other forms of ground improve_ -be The
enhanced by
can
3en| The system utilizes native indigenoirs materials and
has fewer.access requirements. The fina"l product
blends weii selectjng vegetation suitable for the ground and climate
}11 $.,Td.r:_"p..",
providing an uesthetic advantage. The ."planting the vegetation correctly
brotechrdcal stabilization techniques currently
used include . maintaining the plants regularly
brush layering, contour wattling, reed-trench iayering, c protecting the plants from severe weathering
brush effects and
staking and otheri. Of these, brush hylring is disease
Ti$g,.live
the most. commonly used (Fig. 29). Detailed descriptionJ a combining the vegetation with structural
of elements (wire
these systems are included in Gray and Leiser (19g2). mesh, geogrids, gabions, etc.).

Soil-vegetation interaction
In the brush layering system of biotechnical reinforce_ Ground improvement in
ment, the soil and the rregetation interact in three
follows.
ways as environmental ensineerino
o Friction is developed along the interface
between the soil applications, ground improvement techniques are
and the live stems and brushes, in a manner similar also used
to to deal with environmental challengu, ,.r.i as groundwater
212
 and containment of solid
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,1i""
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*1 .T:.J :'':"i';,,::::';
i'd:H' t;::;'*1I^iEs?"""d l" state'
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::il:L.'#'il T ;il;;;
ie 1" and -!:11:i:ln impaci
^ 1"venvironmentai *::'l oo*IiT';:';.'[;d')
in
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geotec:hnical engineering processes'
University of
nnt)

those related to cost, sciredule deuelopments

i",,te,.fo. CoIiti.',ing Education, Atlan-
Wisconsin, uit*u,,tu";
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il'Jir.*o
rrrE lirvsrs improvement
^^-.r-- techniques t:::J:.:T
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:::"T,"T'#::;il;;;t,-'h"micuri"o*"?o:1*::,1
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*:"-C^",
;;;tf,= ;;" and biotechnical stabilizatiti l"th :1i: ton, DC.
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of highway
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:"^*t:::: :J:
tIP::.1:
1t^
slopes and excoaotions'
Ui'gn*ry Administration' Washington'.
DC'
:H.#i'"IJi"l'o*ui"ution i:1 iutg""footi"g' -Engng Nezus Rccorrl'
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ilopl protection ottd
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A11
Gnev D. H. and
sutonnical stabiliz'ation ol
sot'*"n-gl-iissl
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Parsons Brinckerhoff O"ua" & Douglas'
No' 1474 TRB'
steepenedrtrp,, rt"i'pottt'io" n#utth
Record
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"
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213
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Discussion contributions on this PaPer shouid reach the
secretary by 2L APril 1998
..:'-},
i. .,1
'',!..!/
if ound lriProz:emmt {tS9D }, zlW.

Ground innprovement_engin?ening t["le state of

the uS practice: Part, 2. Applications
G. A. MUNFAKH
parsons srinckuhof Quade €t Douglas,lnc.,'l- Penn Plaza, NyC 10719' USA

dis- Nous illustrons l'application des m6thodes d'amdlloration

Application of the ground improvement-methods du sol examin6es dans la premii:re partie au moyen de
through 12 case studies
..itl".a in part f. is dlmonstrated and douze 6tudes de cas mettant en oeuvre une varl6t6 de
ir,.rotoir,g a variety of techniques, Srounf conditions
facilities' A combination of techniques et de natures du sol et montrant les diveraes
applicatiins of the complete{
in some cases' The applications des installations mises en place. Dans certaina
gro..rrd improvement methods is used
cas, un ensemble de m6thodes d'am6lioratlon des aols est
i-=nt., ani construction issues of the methods used are utilis6. Nous examinons ici les aepects de conceptlon et de
from their
L ,,iigt t"d, rogether with the benefits derived the selection conskuction des m6thode-s utilis6es ainai que les avantagee
;i ..I,irr,. d fpecial emphasis is placed-on or a d6riv6s de leur application. Nous insistona sur l'impor-
oi ur, appropriite grotrrtd improvement - method'
tance de bien choisir la mrithode d'arn6lioration des Bole
combinuiion of metnoas, for each case application'
ou l'ensemble de m6thodes en fonction de chaque cas.
Keywords: Chemical grouting; clay; contaminated
-eo *o*itoring; foundadons;
;rJ;^t field testing
E"""t"ir."ii" reinfoicemenq iet grouting .hnd
retaining
i"-.1;;;ii;;; landfill; lime; pieloading;
;;ii;; sandl shallow soil mixlng soil nails; stone
columns; vibro comPaction

thorough evaluation of many factors, and with extensive

lntroduction reliance on intuition and experience. The factors that affect
is the fastest-develoPi"g l"l+..:i the selection of a ground improvement meth<ld include
Ground improvement
engineering. Because many benefits . ground conditions
geotechnicai :f T:
of the diversified ground
ierived from the appllcution . groundwater level
improt e*".,t techniques available on the market' the fi9ld-.oj r construction considerations, including site acccasibility
grouna improvemeni is receiving wide acceptance in
US
and constraints, and scheduie
I*'rstruction Practice. r environmental concems
U ft design and construction aspects o{ the ground im- . durability and maintenance requirements
" practised-1.ry Yq are discussed in c conkactual issues
I 'ement iechniques 1997)' In this part' the factors
iart 1 of this seriei (Munfakh, r politics and rradition
lff.cUr,g the seiection of a particular. ground improvement o cost.
from
method] or a combination of methods, are discussed
The ground conditions have a maior impact on the
the point of view of the practising- design engineer'
-A
effectiveness of the ground improvement technique at.lopted.
.,r*L". of case studies are presented to demonstrate the
of the The densification and reinJorcement techniques, for inskrnce,
selection Process and to trlghlight the advantages
rely heavily on the intemal friction between the soil particles,
ground imProvement methods used'
or'the fricfron along the soil-rein{orcement intcrfacr:. 'l'5ese
methods are, therefore, suitable for use with trictirnal
materials such as sands and gravels. Somt reinfor(.'cment
Ground imProvement selection methods, however, such as stone columns, are luitabft for
use with fine cohesive soils, and so are the consolidation
The selection of a grorlnd improvement method is a
methods such as preloading and vertical drains.
function usually provided by the design engineer' Owing
to
of the avaiiable techniques on the market' Strain compatibility is another factor affecting thr d$ign.
,f,. f-fif".ution When the ground is reinforced with exte,nsibk tk:mrttls
the many benefits associated with each method and
the
improve- such as geotextiles, the shain required to ntrtbili* thr: {ull
rapidly ieveloping narure of the field of ground
strength of.the reinforcing elemenls is much larger \han that
ment,'selecting ttre metnoa most appropriate for a specific
done by needed to mobilize the full strmgth of thc vrii. Il*.r,,{,,yy,
proiect is not Jn easy task. Thig selection can best be
large internal deformations usuallv occur and lht: vtl tis-,',4n
parhmeters are measured at large strains
(rcrrrlual :trqv,th).
bbviously, these systems are less compatiLrtr: wfit' .,rtls ri
(GI 031) Paper received 1 April 1997; Iast revised 30 June 1997;
relatively low residual strength'
accepted 3 lulY 1997
---t-

Chemical stabi_lization applies to

a variety of soils. \ Ihile times, certain methods of construcLion
permeation grouting is not suitable are not.u.orro...d,
for fine_grained clayey because they ca:rnot be done by local
soils. lime stabilization. is_ suitable
* .fry"y soils that lhply
oecause.they require certaia iabour skilis
contractors
have enough silica and alumina "nly
.o*i*"rrr, to induce the 's
unavailabie locali
pozzoianic reaction. In jet grouting,
not important since the in sr.ru
,h" .p;.inc soil type is lort Ifprolably
,Process. the most important factor in tf,u ,utu.ti
ail other factors are satisfied, cost becomes
sbu7tur" of Ur" soi.l is broken goveming parameter. \Alhen analysing the t
down by the improvement process. cost, however, t
I4lhen biotechnical
s ta bil iza rion i sr"rse j,
long-term behaviour_ of the system jirA
feruie soits'a-r"e-;;i"r*d ,f," required mar
The groundwater level ,ff".b tenance cost should be considered.
;;; L-Jirq.r".. tn the I4/hen different schem
densification method, micro_liquefaction are close to each other in cost. alternatiru
is induced in satu- g.orrrd impro,"
rated soils below the-groundwater table. ment methods may be specified.
Groundwater is
ne.e.aeafor ground-fru"ri"g o, blot".il*.rf
fs,o stabilizaCcn ?l^^ -^r- ,.
I rrE setecEton
io be effective. On the other hana, Process
u high g;._dwater level
1?_1"""
a damagrng effect on certaii m"ethods
of ground r:tp in the selecrion process is to derermine
. T:,F of the considered rl
rmprovement, such as soil nailing. reasrbilrfy grould improvement method
Construcfion considerations Jrr"h Once the feasible altemadvJs are identified,
u, schedule, materials they can f
availability, site accessibility, equipment rated with respect to some or a]l of
ui] luUo,_,.
-ii" consid_ the factors discusse
erations. are important faitors' above. A qualitative rafing between
selection. In one and four can t
preloading and wick drains work, "ff".r_g
ana ti a lesser degree in given to each alternativu, *ith th" highest number represen
Iime stabilization, time i, of pr.urrrorr,,
iiio.rurr.". When *9, best rating. The qualitatirr"".rtir.,g, are sometime
the site is inaccessible to heavy f:.
ur. w5isntlq faoors reflecring [re importance
mountainous terrain, a method"q,rip*".,t
;.rch as in rough
tfrut .urr'be implemented
f:,:Yf:g
rneselechon factors. All ratings u.. u"r"*bl"d
<

with a minimum of er in a seiectio

matrix. The altemative(s) with the highest
ment, is prererred. #.il:"H:;tffi::"ffiffi;ffi:"; selected for final desigrr.
score- is,-_:
-, )
usuall.)r not cosi_effecrive
in areas wirh shon8
i;ltll.T...:::
raoour uruon requirements. When low headroom
allow the use of conventional equipment, does not
methods that can Case applications
be implemented from remole areas
such as the various
grouting techniques are preferred. Bfef descriptions of representative grorrn6{ improvcmen
ft" i*p*t nf construc_
tilr yn Tu.by taciliriei i, i;;;;,ii-ru.to.
""
selection. The use of the econo"ri"li in the ]fPti5atignl in projeds designed by ?arsons Brinckerhof
,""tflod of d;.namic y"uo." .6r Douglas, Inc. (pB) are given below. In thesr
compaction, for instance, is precluded
quite olien because of oescrrphons, a key emphasis is pLced on seleclirrg thr
its,e.ot"".U3t impact on existing appropriate grotrnd improvement method.
structuris u.J ,Ufi,i"r.
avaiiabitiry is an #porta"ifd;
..-Yrr=ll
\4Ihen fitl
the seiecrion.
materiat is abundant, Densification projects
,.;l;;;,"g l, u uu.y .ort_
method of ground i*p;o";;;;:
:{T,i"."
amount of surcharse
ff the .equired designing the terminal buiidrng expansion
material is not availaile . .Irr for Albany
hauling distance, Jn altemative preloading within a short Airport in New york, spread footinis *".u
vacuum consolidation
scheme such as support of the column loads at tne" Uuitaing"orrriA"red for
used. If u tigir*"igi,t material and loading
1an.be
is economically availabre, bridges. Silly sands were present throughout
lts use as a weight_credit measure the site, but
of reducing settlement should be ind Z"r,-.u,r,"a mainry
Environmental concerns are key
conslderJd. fl:t^":y:g !!]posltion -compact
Dy tne stream action of a meandering
creek in the immediate
factors in the selection viciniii, cf tiie proposed expansion. Lrwing
Process. In contaminated sites, th" m"thod, that to the variabilitv
involve of the ioundation soils, unacceptable aiffu"r""aui1;,;ffi:{
of large quantiries of *ut"r, ,.,.h"ul",ribro-replace_
I:.fu.g"
ment, stone columns and wick drains, were anticipated. Since deep ftundarions
are avoided. On the would ;; ;;L#
other hand, methods that p\reserre
if.,. *":i-r*ent
geotexlile reinforcement and biotecf."i"rf -rt"iiflzation such as ff:,:i, f:Tl improvement
o":.,18- capacity
was setected
and reduce settlement
to improv ,e

are
of the foundation
weicome in environmentally sensiti"u soils (Munfakh, 1984).
land. Methods that ailow construction
u;;u;-r;"h as park_ Surface compaction by heavy vibratory
of embankments with rollers, dynamic
vertical faces (mechanicaiiy srabilized prelo.ading with borrow fill and vibrocompac-
at or near wetland.
b;.Glt';.e preferred llTYlllli:
*:i:, amon8 the. ground improvement methods
:11
Ereu.
consid_
The. durabilify of the materials
used in ground improve_ . vtorocompaction was selected on the basis of
a strong governing factor, particularly considerations of ground conditions, construction
l"na 3.is exposed
ground where the nons, srte constraints and cost-
condi_
to heavy weathering elements. The
use of Vibrocompaction was performed using
metal reinforcements, for instance,
fI ,r"u. undqr
two to six probes
currents or in highly corosive ""Ua"a
soils. When "r.uy
geosymthetics
are 1acl.r
required.relative
footing, aepTaing o., itr'rir" (Fig. 1).
The
require protecrion from the "uff".*, density of g0yo was monitored Ui perform_
Iff1,^ll:y
cnemrrals and_ exposure to ultraviolet of heat, tng cone penetration tests before and after
light. The effects of compaction.
wet-dry and freeze_thalcyeles ,r" revealed the p..r".ce oi-r- rort compres_
pu.i."furly important _1*::^::^:*ings
srole layer of cohesive material 1.5_3.0 m (5_10
in chemical stabilization. Extreme
*..itfr". .."aidons did not respond to vibrocompaction. fo ft) thick that
as dry heat or ice may nu,o" au*ugi"g'.;r"qu"ncessuch aeaf with this
biotechnical stabilization. on material, it was decided to support the
loads on stone
Contractual requirements play columns (soil reinforcement) rather than
- a rore in the selecrion the soil, particularly since ttre ,urr,"
attempt to densify
usea in the
i::i:i1li National
contractor.
;.,slT
^=;n: politics, traderil",:TlP,,* ;*,Tii;
p,rocess. Vibro-replacement stone "qrip*eniis
columns rvere economic_
ally installed under the footings. Actual settlements
birriers and,poiitical influ- footings instalied over the sbnJcolumn,
of the
ences sometirnes affect the selection,
as cloes tidition. Some_
*"r" .,.gfigiUlu.
Another successful densification project *"" ut Kismayo
216
 IJS practice: Part 2

q
q E
tooting footing
footing

I
I

eon*-J-
mtil +-'t--4
E0'75 m
ro

o! I i I O

$-ffi
-i
E\

O 162 comPactions (15 1 9utP)

- tOa comPactions (20 ft deeP)
at Albany Airport terminal
Fig. !. Vibrocompaction probes under footings

Densifi cation - consolidation proiects

reconstruction of the
Port in Somalia. As pari of a rnajor of an existing A combination of densification and
consolidation methods
port, a bulkhead was constructed outboard
for construction of a fuel tank farm and
backrLil plac.ed underwate:'
was specified
ili".t..r*I *narf. rvith granular Chek Lap Kok L:rtemational
"'t""1 shcet-pile Jeadman provided distribution system at ttre new on an
behind it. A continuott' A;mort in Honq Kong, which is being constructed
was
F-*, t". the bulkhead (Fig 2) The sand backfill l;ffi;, il;;'ilti 3i ""a"'*uter placement ofremoved
backrill'
cleep vibrocompaction'
t [".t.i from the surface irsing h";;"'i bot'o* deposits were
i leep compaction was specified to enhance
of the bacKill
the resistance
";-.";
"*"gnto bacKilling,
orior thl anticipated ionsolidation of the
of the deadman, minimize future settlement
rigid il;;;";"J;-Jl"ti*-'und an{ siltv clav-.that form t}re
,"Jf.."iJ" a stable foundation ior a maintenance-free foundation materials, along with compression of the fill
it' kLep the differential
--il"
concrete Pavement over
and' procedures used in the itself, requir"a gro,,oJ-tt;Ttment to and creep
,pu.ings, equipment ;;,,1"*".i" witlin tolerable limits' Settlement
basis of field irials' A
vibrocompaction were selectetl on the were predictions *"." *"d" using numerical finite difference
;;;;;td", vibrowing and rwo fpes of .vibroflots :;; as welt u, .ott"tti"onal elastic deformation
and
without the
tested, and compaction"*us investigaied-with or one-dimensional consolidation theory'
were
,r" *r,". jet and addiiional backfill' The best results were evaluated'
oi
rigidly connected to- Several ground i*pio""*"ttt altematives
accomplished using tlvo vibroflots including preloading u"a ay"u*ic compaction' A critical
rvater iets during iompacrion methods was the
*"in".'(Fig. 3), ani applyilg factor in assessing th" grouniimprovement
densities o[ more than E07' were
[i"ti"r,i, ?ssij. n"ru'i; t:t!, tl: conskuction schedule,"which targeted
7997 for the operation
measured following comPachon' ln :: addition scheme combin-
on the oasls or of the new airport' A ground im"provement
being
ground improvement method was selected *g botn methods *u'"'"to*^"na"a' with preloading
avaiiabilitv' construction re- the foundation soils and
Ei.""a .o.,ditio,t', material most suitable for consolidation of
["i**""", durability and poiitical considerations

Edge of existing Diatform

6- Pile caP
15'2 m /
I- Elevation F4'2 m (+13 8lt)
Slope 1% V- Concrele Pavement / (7 MHWS

\7 MHWS
=
1 llll ilrt
l* Existing surface
/ I Sheet Pile bulkhead
E*itting 7'
rock /
I J+- *J,,^)rirter raver
\
[..-il \
dike
-
'uno'"'

r- Elevalion -9 5m (-31 5 tt)

\__---
l.'
-L--z
I
L Excavation and backtill
of soft silt and clay
in vicinitY of berlhs 2 and
3

Fig. 2. Bulkhead ac KismaYo Pon

277
G. A. Munfakh
Fig. 3. Compaction by twin vibroflots
dynamic compaction preferred for densification of the back-
fill. Both schemes were designed, but only preioading was
implemented. By making structurai adjustments, the settle-
ment problem could be dealt with by preloading alone. The
selection of the ground improvement methods was based on
the following factors: ground conditions, construcfion re-
quirements, schedule, politics, tradition and cost.
Expanding the north enci of the Norfolk Intemationai
Terminal in Virginia required the addition of a 300 m
(1200 ft) x 34 m (i11 ft) marginal wharf structure to provide
new berths for container ships, with the land behind the
structure developed to support the berths. The subsurface
conditions at the site consist, from th.e top dowr., of fiil, soft
silry ciay and loose to dense silty sand.
34 m wharf
Face of
- wharf
/' t_l..:.. _..
Fig. 4. Wharf Structure at Norfolk lnternational Terminal
218
Figure 4 illustrates a cross-section of the pile-supporied
wharf structure. The soft silty clays behind the struch:re
affect the stability of the sheet-pi1e bulkhead and result in
large settlements that would negatively impact the operation
of the facility. To deaL with *ris problem, gror:nd improve-
ment was necessary.
The ground improvement alternatives considered were (1)
excavation and replacement, (2) stone columns and (3)
preloading. Stone columns were more expensive than the
other lwo alternatives, and thus were not included in the
desigrr. Owing to many restrictions placed on construction, a
corrrbination of the oiher two aitematives was required. A
preloading prograrune, using 3 m (10 ft) surcharge and wick
drains insralled at 1.5 m (5 ft) centre-totentre in a triangular
array, was implemented. To provide stability during the
preioading period, it was necessary to replace a section of
dre sofi clay on both sides of the sheet-pile bulkhead with a
sand key. The underwater-placed sand was required to be
densified by, vibrocornpaction to achieve the 75"/" relative
density called for by the stabilify analysis. Thus a combina-
tion of three ground improvement methods was used for the
project. ;r\
The ground improvement altematives selected for thi, ]
proiect were based on ground condition-s, schedule, cor
struction requirements, material availability, environmentar
requirements and cost.
Consolidation - reinforcement proi€cts
Owing to a very fight right-of-way, the approach embank-
ments at Bridge B-638 on he l-26411464 interchange in
Berkley, Virginia could not be built using normal side
siopes. A mechanicaily stabilized backfill (MSB) wall was
thus seiected to provide vertical edges at the bridge
abufments and approaches. The MSB structure was less
expansive than a conventional cast-in-place wall and had the
added advantage of being able to tolerate the large deforma-
tions expected because of the compressible nature of the soil.
The subsurface profile consists of 7 m (23 ft) of loose sand
nnderlain by 8'B m (29 ft) of soft silty clay, followed by deep
deposits of den:e land and stiff clay. The MSB wall was
selected on th* i:iir':. of ground condition, site conshaints,
schedule, consrrui.ron requirements and cost. i.|:)
The post-construction settlement of the soft silty clay lay5-v
and its impact on the bridge abutment piles were of concer
To mitigate that impact, a preloading programme involving
placement of a surcharge and installation of wick drains was
implemented at the site (Fig. 5). The vertical drains were
used so that the long-term settlement of the compressible
soiis under the operating conditions would be completed in
the 'ume period available before the bridge was opened to
traffic. The surcharge height was 1.5 m (5 ft) and the wick
-Wick drains (1.5 m c/c)
Preload
Sott clay
Loos6 sand
(PZ-35) lvledium dense sand
 expensive and required
surcharge retaining strucYes were more
'-ropotreintorced
ToD of
of bridge deck andint='t*i."j..:"^:*J:
'l:;.in'o*"" fffJ."il: ;j ffift 'r,"- (Fiq' n.;T:h yf Ty*
removal the

the compactea g,u,,J*.fiil material 9f

H'ffi q" bridge
selected on the basis of
.l------ ]i,:H.i,= ;;';;H"e the followins
abutment' was
I l- Bridge abdment "o:
2,.')\P"r"*:;l't't;leiccessibilityandconstraints'construction
Y 7T considerations and cost' ^-.^^.,6!i^h ai
- -- excavation at aa
-Existinggrade '"ff:ffiH;;;" used to suPPoIt an
remote and rugged h'iil; Io:id;. f?t,:T1to::,:j..1
,,1H*
Wick
Yj:[ JJ] r.-i-roundationpires I l:H,':":l"r'ffffi;-'il3"
:ffiil";"1,:":t*r,;r*:"Iir:rffi[;:::
boulders
cobbles and f"ttt""* groundwater
No
,*"unt
McDonar"
Y::i
table was
tlreexcavation':Y-"^'..-,r^-^
structure at Berklev lnterchange OtffiI;;;"
;t;; above
t1 *U.-"-1^g3:r*1"r:tr*
i- +*o <nil rnade the
Fig.5. Preloading of a reinforced-soil
corutmctibilitY of a conven ffi"t*fliitt*;
-topography
and
difficult
ft) m (5 ft) ,rr*.,i'[Ir,ri"*ol'--o*i,'s-t
p."or"*r, i top-do*n staged
m (40 at 1.5 excavation
drains were instared to a depth,ilof
12
:;"; g r.h"*" *u, o"r"^li"r'l.."lr' of
spacings in a rriangre' f*r."q, *u: ;;.; i'"tl'"u oi the s"n'"r" cold climate' the use
constmction'requirements,
selected on trne basis
ground conditions and
or
cost
,.r","hrr",
:i1il3ff trl*mr ffi'::fi"[Hfle]:ii:l[ 4
'element wall'
altematives' u ft"cast concrete
most feasible
part 1)' The design of the
proiects w^" ;;;;"*r, G"" ris' '15 o'f and
frinforcement beds at u ,i.,1" i! ai"*r"a in detail in Abramson
\-.io accommodate widening of - tlre track on the basis of cost'
subw^y_in t i"*-I".r.y,
"t"*u."ri ?i'r;,,) Th" warl was selected ground conditions'
ci or tto Ne#ark cbmate,
:ssed secrion
very steep sided slopes were required.
to *uirr,.i. ur, "^""-#"
,rt"
".*rriiriry
and consTrnts,
;'#'tyr*T'T;:k*"?.'.3",#f,.;ement of sof'l
:fl"*:,:".",,*I";':lkrnLlH,",-# Jl'rffi;*: urt"r- cohesive so*s is demonstratedofthrough
an ,nusual applica-
different retaining iJri.-tor"
-rt""r ,"".-e*5it* u cluular structure at the
serected after evaruating
a cantirevered concrete. o, ,n""t- o." *J*g Dsposal Facility in Balti-
natives, inciuding *uir. eo*t c'";i;#;t Dredled Ma?erials
oiline. and a Brav*y-rype concrete
.r,oarj" facility was built in Baltimore
reinforc"*"r,i-*"ru consid- *.ll]'i{,friiolt:11:l*" of the
heiniorced Earth and'seoiextite
." .em for ,rr" n"r^i".."J gurtrr, Harbor to receive materiai dredged forA construction struc-
ered for the MSB. e *?i",
containment
.o.ro"-i.,rr,*oitt rt""i u".iii.il"ry 1"y::*1 rubesheet-pile tunnel'
cells 19 m (52 ft) in
however, was the d$; uccererutea " *." ."-rir,i- g of 76 steer
erectric ,ines located above was buitt on z'o-tzm (25-43 ft)
of very
srrips due to stray .;;;;"-;;; *u, arr*",* irGl')
the subway right-ot-way. The cosr
.f th" g;;;;;i"u* ,ori-io *"ail* itiff o.gu.ic silts or
silty clays' ,nderlain by
ia*,66'/,of *rit oi-,t"^i.ir,ror."a
80% of that of *,u $ffi r"Js!'a or tn^t dense sands and hard Cretaceous claYs'
Earth wall, 6s,/" of*li"ir in" ,rJr*r""*s*"ri'jrjs' o ;;'
requires
tfit,o" or t"ttt'tur struclure construction
The geotextir" inside the cells and replace-
of the concrete sheeting.
Ifdurability
aurability, cor,rti-.r.tiuiirty,
."*or^r oi';itu
a* soft clays-from
t rriu uutit
rherefore, selected or,-rri.basis m";;;;^;""*"' u"ttiiii'and ir left in place' such soils would
horizontal shear resistances'
site access and cost.
for excavation support was
designed ,J;;';;,f the .'ertical
In sifu reinforcement
rr pJ;;;;;;";.:1,'::i::i;^,i:*lX*:i
rwo proiects
svstem' t:f:*Lr:iXI
#":#'"".',.H*j t"; *::i'Hffi"i'tTlqiry'T:4;
[il; Li u" iall Ltement Hffi::::.'il"0"..s"";i'i""' 'r.'" ouiboardin o*he
sheets wourd

",;,!ii{ HllT::3,1'#ll?
YxTff"Hl"**,t::$T:i1"""::"'ff;-construction ."ti.rlu. sir"" u''uiro*ental
'l*'ling
structure'
restrictions precluded
increases.-To allow cohesive material could not
be re-
accommodate traffic volume
trrffi. or, th" tridge deck P;;g*g' "i;J";;;;;,e,,,,ing
and the
to the potential
of the new lane while maintaining from *itrri" ttr" cetls owing
ieihod was serected, using *;;-;"#;ry
above, a top_down;;;k;" earth
soil nailing fo' "x'uuutio" suPPort'
co"""tio"ul '*:ld'.t"ffi::il ;:ni**Z'T*:1'#tf::i: ffi:?
-_)

2 minimum Bridga abutment Plate

Nut-\
Gunite cover layer f -frizontal
Level A 4 water bars
Anchor Pin Soil nail
wall drain

Select fill Wirs mesh

Level B
wall drain
Cross-section
Gravel base
widening
Fig. 7. Soil naiiing at New Jersey Turnpike
New lersey
Fig. 6. Geotextile wall at
Newark Subway rehabilitation'
219
 cretlceous soits over
;T:::tu;rf,T;fr, residuai coh
were driven *.i*,
th" *,"irlrJ",
";;";" ;;J"*rr
sranuJa*o, u*ro,"'i':H:::ff:me o 3-r.8 (i_;; *
ro marntain the
minimize ,hu ;*or,ru*iceability of the railroad funnel
the new corsfrucfion
tu rl irt;;;.":''i:' 3f orr irs s
:!"*;1 il"{dil'H:J' r::"#" .:;H..;_*i
"

ffilffJ"L*ffi;iit flo*tus *f, .o,,i,",,.ionar un

ieiectei of the foundation solJ
considered ""'"" i"rtfl::t*q
of a detailed evaruat'
t".r,".i.r-,tt'
op"'ui"''tui-#':::::J:T"t;.
(l,ir:nfalih, 1991).
Figure 10 illustratt

ff ll. :"" ?a+; t" ii.[.{i:::F:"J:l;I

t:'*" ;:ff ::.,
ground loss durine i,P coherence, thus minimiz
** au""ropj-"".*Ylf-s lt,. grouring progranr
basis of" a rield and a lrb:;;;;
grouting ,"r',
,ro},,te
*itr, ui.'i.,r-riy;;::;l-" rhe new run,ers r
i I;; ;""
"'it: ffi :tr':i T
i- : :: l: ol was selected
gro un d mp ro v em
i
e
ground .."atn",-'r.^"(scneme on"the basis
it ui.,t . G;;;;i..".iT1,*nt"
c.*,.,'.C;;;;'ilrT;I"t:j-:n:1: -
requirements, site
e-
^
Qfueens Bouleve".l ,- t'.-".1
ut'sEr i"o;",;
rurulel connecdo
.

; ;" #, d; ;Til::il:.#.LT..il:,
*x,::,;;
oetow the groundwate #
*.m.:,m.{tr1}':'t't"#i'",#'ff T'".ffit"i
dritu iluned;;,;; ;""1"""*truction callgd f67 ,
;illi
and usine nir ,,-i^*:-* ttu "*oti.; il:X'f":"::
support the eisting o -- lvrrr'rqur concrete walls tha
st --'*' *tute protecting
proteching the
openings.
operungs. conhoi;
Frg. 8. Celfular containment
To conrroi
*",.,.i"," ".# ;:"J,fj.H-":::Y: ,while minec
mineo
*.u ui ti o,,,,r,,,,1
i::1" :,i::p,
u
saruc&re for dredged
material disposal hcility
[1H ffi:#l"Ji:fl
keyed into .*k;;;t;.:],:
cr';r
:"n : $,.i
ulrp€rlrleable
;:'ilX':h:l;:]
srde of the box srru*'re,
[o move. The stone al'
under
. .it"
al. owing to
uno er existing
"""tj,T
.ii"..."I:,::iv TP"::eable
.o.r"ti".' Lquscu glaciat
slacial
by lnadeouate
Dy inad"equa
till *ut"ril
uu materi-
evatuadng Jiir.r"ii=rf?iumns scheme was selected existin* ufuvuie;:"o
ro.1*rl1:1Lt:d te headroom
after stu*y
sturry walr
wall .";,"o".il,i
"1.,r, ubor" the site, the
corisrrucro- *,?il,
,^:"1Tt: Tu"f .
Efr,:t::".H:tl;'T;
"fl:J H #""'.:r**i_i;.ff1'H:#E?Ffi
l:l
u,,a.o*t.,.i;;fiL..J*11y$f""if
fl:
n"*."";,;:;J;i
ehen rica! stabilization
projects
_ The hvin 5.5 m (18 f tururels
Market Secrion * urrntllili*r of the Lexingron
compressecj air 'Io.Iu Yuho were driv
rrned B&o railroad ;;;'" fi:::-"]ffi"f
shield
*"T-l'hof:'
l:rm*: ;fh,#:,+ t,l:["#:ff til,r.[,,fj
:tace conditions at
Steel Grout
ihe intersection liner pipes

o frtf.=C--ft?, )'.',, : ): - /,. .; -/'

,'r1,-a.:11',:,ZZt-lWi*:,
a,.- r.-.t' /' r, ..- 4
.r
-
/zzz--
./ / / /'
z/ t / -t t/./

s"ur"t---fioft
Fig. 9. Stone column layout
inside a cellular sructure
0 1 Z 3m
a1n Fig. I0. Chemical grouting
for protection of
the B&O Railroad runnel