Alexandria Engineering Journal (2022) 61, 367–402

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

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Thermal solar sorption cooling systems - A review

of principle, technology, and applications
Radwan A. Almasri a,*, Nidal H. Abu-Hamdeh b, Khaled Khodary Esmaeil c,
S. Suyambazhahan d

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Qassim University, 51452 Buriadah, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
c
Mechanical Power Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Tanta University, Tanta 31527, Egypt
d
Department of Thermal and Aerospace Engineering, School of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering, Adama
Science and Technology University, East Africa 1888, Ethiopia

Received 25 January 2021; revised 7 May 2021; accepted 11 June 2021

Available online 24 June 2021

KEYWORDS Abstract Conventional energy consumption in refrigeration is one of the important reasons in glo-
Solar energy; bal warming. Solar cooling systems are becoming more compact, having lower costs, and are poten-
Solar cooling technologies; tial alternative technologies, especially in hot and sunny climates. The adsorption, absorption, and
Thermal sorption solar cool- dissociative evaporative cooling (DEC) are the technologies used for sorption machines, which are
ing; discussed in this review paper. Various multi-criteria performance indicators appearing in the pre-
Adsorption; vious studies are discussed, followed by evaluating the benefits and drawbacks of distinguishing
Absorption; sorption solar thermal cooling systems. Market research is conducted to prove the capacity of these
Dissociative evaporative technologies. The review shows that compared to other technologies, the solar absorption system is
cooling more efficient, so it is very commonly used for cooling applications in various locations. An impor-
tant topic was also presented using phase change materials and nanofluids in solar sorption systems,
that need more research. It is noted from this that most solar cooling systems are hybrid in terms of
source and there are multiple applications (cooling - heating and electricity generation). The soft-
ware packages to study these systems are introduced. Further research is required on desiccant
materials that can be regenerated under lower temperatures that would augment the extent of solar
desiccant cooling application.
Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: masri.radwan@qec.edu.sa (R.A. Almasri), nabuhamdeh@kau.edu.sa (N.H. Abu-Hamdeh).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.06.005
1110-0168 Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
368 R.A. Almasri et al.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
2. View on sorption cooling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
3. Solar absorption cooling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
3.1. Principle and comprehensive overview of solar absorption cooling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
3.2. Commercially available solar absorption chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
3.3. Summary of the case study of absorption solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
4. Adsorption solar cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4.1. Principle and comprehensive overview of solar adsorption cooling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
4.2. General studies of adsorption systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
4.3. Adsorption solar systems technical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
4.4. Other designs for adsorption solar cooling systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
4.5. Adsorption cooling for ice-maker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
4.6. Commercially available thermal adsorption chillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
5. Dissociative evaporative cooling system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.1. Principle and overview of solar dissociative evaporative cooling technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.2. Solid DEC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
5.3. Liquid DEC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.4. The commercially available DEC systems and components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.5. Summary of the case study of solar DEC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
6. Hybrid solar cooling systems (HSCSs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
7. Multi-use solar system for heating, cooling, and power generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8. Phase change materials (PCM) in solar systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
9. Numerical methods and simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
10. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Declaration of Competing conflicting interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

List of abbreviations

Abbreviations SF solar fraction

ABSC Absorption Cooling SHC Solar Heating and Cooling
AC Air conditioning STAR Solar Thermal Adsorption Refrigerator
ADSC Adsorption Cooling TSCS Thermal solar cooling systems
AHU Air handling units TSCs Transparent solar cells
CCHP Combined cogeneration heating plant TSE Thermal solar energy
COP Coefficient of performance VCC Vapor compression cycle
DC direct current
DD Desiccant dehumidifier Subscripts
DEC Desiccative Evaporative cooling exp Experimental
DNI Direct normal irradiance c collector
ETC Evacuated tube collector f fluid
FPC Flat plate collector hs Heat source
GHI Global horizontal irradiance h Heating
HCS Hybrid cooling system hw Hot water
IEA International Energy Agency i Inlet
KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia max Maximum
PBP Payback period min Minimum
PCM Phase change materials op Optimal
PTC Parabolic trough collector o Outlet
PV Photovoltaic r refrigeration
PV/T Photovoltaic/Thermal th Thermal
RERs Renewable energy resources to total
SCP Specific cooling power w water
SCS solar cooling system ws weak solute
SCT Solar Cooling Technology
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
1. Introduction
There are many issues in this modern world, but the green-
house effect or global warming is on top. Meanwhile, the num-
ber of conventional vapor compression cooling and air
conditioning systems dramatically increases (Globally, about
2 billion air conditioning (AC) units are now in operation)
International Energy Agency (IEA), [1] which means a higher
generation of greenhouse gas emissions. The number of
installed solar cooling systems (SCSs) cannot be determined
with certainty, but 1800 small units were estimated in 2018.
Small units with a below 20 kW are becoming more compact,
having lower costs, and focused on the mass market world-
wide. SCSs are potential alternative technologies, especially
in hot and sunny climates. Besides the environmental, eco-
nomic, and technical benefits of the solar cooling system
(SCS), this system has a more distinct advantage in harmoniz-
ing the solar radiation and the cooling demand, especially on
the peak demand time. This harmonization permits immediate
use of solar energy to initiate a cooling effect with little depen-
dency on energy storage. Despite the higher initial investment
Fig. 1 General view of solar cooling technologies and applications.
369
required for SCS compared to the corresponding equivalent
conventional systems, the SCS has a lower operating cost,
and it has proved its feasibility, especially in areas having med-
ium or high solar irradiation. Recent research efforts have
been given to the principle, development, and applications of
solar cooling and AC systems.
The implementation of solar energy in SCS can be accom-
plished through two distinguished approaches, as given in
Fig. 1. One approach is based on the solar photovoltaic (PV)
principle, in which solar PV panels are used to generate electric-
ity. The generated electricity is used to drive an electric prime
mover of conventional cooling machine or generate the cooling
effect in the thermoelectric element. The first solar PV-driven AC
units were commercialized in 2018. The second approach
depends upon the solar thermal energy processing in one of
the thermal SCSs given in Fig. 1 to bring about a cooling effect.
Thermal solar cooling systems (TSCS) can be further catego-
rized as; thermo-mechanical systems and thermal sorption sys-
tems. In the thermo-mechanical systems, equipment like
concentrating sun-based collectors or evacuated tube collectors
(ETCs) is commonly utilized to generate steam. The steam is
370
then processed in the thermodynamic cycle to develop the cool-
ing effect as in ejector systems directly or to produce mechanical
power, which drives the prime mover of the vapor compression
cycle (VCC) in the case of Rankine and Stirling engines. The sec-
ond category of TSCS is the thermal sorption system, which is
mainly focused in the present review paper. Generally, a full
thermal sorption system comprises multiple subsystems
employed in conjunction to produce the cooling effect. A typical
sorption system may include solar collectors, heat rejection mod-
ule, energy auxiliary units in addition to the sorption system.
Thermal solar energy (TSE) is absorbed by solar collectors
and deliver to the sorption machine at a specific temperature.
The suitable type of solar collector can be selected depending
on the type of the sorption machine and the required level of
temperature. Concentrators and ETCs typically produce ther-
mal energy at high-temperature levels, suitable for double or
triple absorption systems. Thermal energy produced by non-
concentering collectors is commonly delivered water at low
or medium temperature levels and is applicable in some sorp-
tion systems. Heat rejection module is mostly required in
TSCS to remove the undesired excess heat created in the TSCS
thermodynamic cycle. Typically cooling towers or complemen-
tary heat pumps are standard modules to accomplish the heat
rejection process. The energy auxiliary units are used to
increase the reliability and effectiveness of a TSCS due to their
actions when either the solar energy is not available or when
the required quantity of solar irradiation is not sufficient to
operate the system under the designed conditions. Auxiliary
units may include auxiliary heaters, additional heat exchangers
(HE), and energy storage components. Usually, energy auxil-
iary units should be installed from a lucrative viewpoint.
Finally, adsorption, absorption, and dissociative evapora-
tive cooling (DEC) are the technologies used for sorption
machines. The absorption and adsorption systems work in a
closed cycle while the DEC is working in an open cycle. The
absorption technology is the highest thermal-driven cooling
system worldwide and is the most dominated solar sorption
cooling technology with a share of 82–84%. Whereas adsorp-
tion and DEC systems share with 9–11% and 7%, respectively,
Allouhi et al. [2,3]. The main distinction between the absorp-
tion and adsorption technologies could be viewed in light of
each technology’s sorption approach. In absorption, the sorp-
tion process is carried out by an absorbent material as a volu-
metric phenomenon, whereas in adsorption, the sorption
process is carried out by solid adsorbent material as a surface
phenomenon. On the other hand, the method in DEC systems
could be absorption or adsorption. Henning [4] presented an
overview of STE subjects used for the edifices air conditioning,
such as thermodynamic limitations for heat utilization for
cooling concurrently with STE, available technologies, and
solar employment AC in Europe, and new development of
heat-driven cooling cycles (open and closed).
The commonly used absorbents are LiBr, LiCl, water, and
Silica gel. The suitable technology has been selected for differ-
Table 1 Operating Temperature, and COP for vapor compression and sorption cooling systems [7].
Vapor compression Absorption
o
Operating Temperature ( C) – 75–110 single-stage
COP 3.5 0.50–0.75
Energy-saving (%) – 10–88
R.A. Almasri et al.
ent cooling applications like refrigerators and air conditioners
based on the availability of absorbent, refrigerant conditions
needed, available capacity/technology, peak load time and
condition, equipment required, and control system strategy.
Alahmer and Ajib [5] explained the solar-powered cooling sys-
tems and compared them with conventional systems. Also,
they highlighted different optimization methods, which can
be used to increase the efficiency and economy of these sys-
tems. Alsagri et al. [6] presented and analyzed the works
related to the solar cooling systems powered by all types of
concentrating collectors. They reported that the solar sorption
systems could be viable with the conventional cooling systems
if a suitable combination of the working fluid and system com-
ponents would be selected. Also, they mentioned that there is
an additional need for more research on solar cooling to make
them more efficient and economic. Also, Gado et al. [7] pre-
sented a comprehensive review of vapor compression-
sorption refrigeration hybrid systems. The authors concluded
that these systems still need significant research and develop-
ment, and west and renewable energy could be a promising
option for sorption cooling systems. It should be noted from
Table 1 that there is a difference between the operating temper-
ature, COP, and energy savings in sorption systems compared
with conventional systems.
2. View on sorption cooling systems
In this section, a general view on sorption cooling systems and
technologies is presented and discussed. Baniyounes et al. [8]
explored the potential markets of SCSs for architectural and
managerial implications. They also illustrated the growth of
the SCSs industry market and applying solar cooling technolo-
gies for different applications. Zhai and Wang [9] discussed the
most representative five cooling system projects. According to
them, the solar absorption cooling (ABSC) systems were apt
for air-conditioners of large buildings, and solar adsorption
cooling (ADSC) systems are suitable for air conditioners that
are comparatively smaller in size. They also emphasized the
significant role of solar cooling technologies in the coming
years. Baldwin and Cruickshank [10] analyzed solar cooling
techniques while emphasizing systems at lower levels and their
feasibility and application in Canada’s residential areas. They
found that the world lacks research upon lower-level SCSs.
These systems are capable of reducing the energy consumed
by residential buildings, which consequently results in the
reduction of the release of carbon dioxide. Nowag et al. [11]
presented two generic hydraulic schemes for all solar systems,
including heating, cooling, and household hot water. They
defined the solar, thermal, ecological, and quality performance
indicators for these systems and calculated them for real 11
systems. As a final point, they gave values for each indicator.
Mugnier et al. [12] gave an overview of solar cooling and heat-
ing origin systems with IEA Solar Heating and Cooling (SHC)
task 53. Kojok et al. [13] determined the energy efficiency of a
Adsorption DEC solid DEC liquid
53–82 45–95 67
0.5–0.72 0.51 0.74
24–90 10–63 4–90
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
hybrid cooling system (HCS) for air conditioners production.
They proposed some techniques with distinguished processes
or machines for cooling. A carefully chosen HCS helps lower
the usage of energy and enhancement in the coefficient of per-
formance (COP) varying weather conditions and system
designs. Beccali et al. [14] studied the usage of an essential
life-cycle assessment tool, established in the model of the
IEA SHC Task 48, to make a comparison between different
categories of solar-assisted systems for cooling and heating.
It is observed that the most efficient design in Palermo is the
traditional system aided by a photovoltaic plant connected
through a grid. The impact of solar thermal heating and cool-
ing and a standalone conventional photovoltaic system on the
global energy requirement is 83.7% and 74.5%, respectively.
Husain et al. [15] discussed the developments in transparent
solar cells (TSCs) comprehensively from 2007 onwards. To
enhance the developments, an adequate supply of electricity
is required. Unsustainable energy production methods have
negative impacts on the environment as well as the economy.
Hence solar energy is the most effective way of generating elec-
tricity for various purposes. To generate electricity for larger
buildings, much space is required to install solar energy panels,
which hinders many buildings. Thus this limitation led to the
development of TSCs, that absorb extra energy from any glass
on the building, such as windows. Any such glass fixs with a
photovoltaic cell which solve the space requirements and the
production of sustainable electricity.
Al-Ugla et al. [16] compared these AC systems, including
solar LiBr–H2O absorption, solar PV vapor-compression,
and conventional vapor-compression. This comparison is
based on a techno-economic examination in a continual cool-
ing load condition for a large building. This analysis applies
two economic tools, the payback period (PBP) and a trade
building’s net current value in the Khobar City of Saudi Ara-
bia. This study aims to utilize the outcomes attained in the
exploration, to establish suitable suggestions in reducing the
claims of electrical peak power in KSA by using solar cooling
technology (SCT) in commercial places to determine the sub-
stantial economic gains from utilizing such technology. Com-
paratively, a solar PV-vapor-compression system is
economically less rational than a solar absorption system. In
addition to this, solar-powered systems become more viable
when a commercial building is enlarged and the electricity rate
rises. Allouhi et al. [3] presented a view of the procurable tech-
nologies thermal and photovoltaic systems in which solar
energy dispenses cooling effect. Variousmulti-criteria perfor-
mance indicators appearing in the previous studies are dis-
cussed, followed by evaluating the benefits and drawbacks of
distinguishing solar thermal cooling systems. Market research
is also conducted to prove the capacity of these solar cooling
technologies. In the end, several cooling installations in Eur-
ope, Egypt, and China are briefly discussed.
3. Solar absorption cooling technology
3.1. Principle and comprehensive overview of solar absorption
cooling technology
This section presented and discussed the principle of solar
absorption cooling systems and technologies. Absorption gen-
erally refers to two broad distinct phenomena. In one instance,
371
it relates to when atoms, molecules, or ions get into some vol-
ume–gas, liquid, or solid material. For example, a sponge
soaks up water when it is dry. Absorption also deals with
the process by which the energy of a photon is taken up by
another structure, for instance, by an atom whose valence elec-
trons move between two electronic energy levels. The photon is
eliminated in the process. The absorbed energy may be dif-
fused as radiant energy or converted into heat energy. The
absorption of light when waves disseminate, usually known
as attenuation. In chemistry, the measures of spectroscopy
depend on the absorption of photons by atoms and molecules.
A simple ABSC system mainly consists of an absorber, gener-
ator, condenser, evaporator, expansion valves, solar heating
module, and water cooling module, as shown in Fig. 2. An
ABSC system principally contains a pair of fluids, refrigerant,
and absorbent. A refrigerant can be absorbed with the vital
force of attraction when working fluids pair the absorbent fluid
at low temperatures while it can be released as a vapor from
the absorbent by heating. However, absorbent material may
be initially in a solid-state, but just after going through an
absorption process, it is converted to liquid after absorbing
refrigerant vapor. Shamim et al. [17] reported that advance-
ments in terms of developing new desiccant materials have
been made in the last decade, proposing novel system design,
and developing energy-efficient regeneration methods. They
emphasize that a large technological gap exists which makes
this technology capable of being used in wide applications.
More effort is needed for the development of low regeneration
temperature desiccant material, and the prevention of aging of
the desiccant materials under long-term operation. Typical col-
lections of absorption system working fluids pairs may include:
1. Refrigerant like water and either or Lithium chloride solu-
tions (LiCl) Lithium bromide (LiBr) as absorbent.
2. Ammonia (NH3) as a refrigerant and either water (H2O),
LiNO3, or Sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) as an absorbent.
In an ABSC system, the refrigerant is fundamentally acting
similarly to the refrigerant in the traditional vapor compres-
sion system, i.e., it extracts heat from the evaporator (7) due
to evaporation while it rejects heat in the condenser (5) due
to condensation. However, a thermal compressor is used, not
a mechanical one in the vapor compression system, that con-
tains a pump (9), generator (4), throttling element (6), and
absorber (8), see Fig. 2. In a generator, the existed solution
is heated by a solar collector or an auxiliary heater until the
refrigerant vapor releases resulting in a concentrated solution
(reactivated solution). Whereas the released vapor of refriger-
ant from the cooling water moves to the condenser, it rejects
heat and condenses. This refrigerant is then moved forward
to the evaporator through a throttling element (valve or capil-
lary tube) after condensation. Simultaneously, as the evapora-
tor has lower partial pressure, lower temperature, and is under
strong attraction from the absorbent solution in the adsorber,
the refrigerant is evaporated, and the absorbent solution will
absorb it in the absorber. The absorption process will be
upheld until this absorber solution becomes saturated with
the refrigerant vapor and nominates as a diluted solution.
However, the absorption process is an exothermic reaction
that results in a monotonous rise in the absorbent temperature,
which speeds up, with less absorbed refrigerant to meet the sat-
uration cap. To increase the amount of absorbed refrigerant
372
Fig. 2 The simple schematic diagram of the ABSC system.
and intense the cooling effect, the adsorbent material has to be
cooled through the absorption process. The diluted solution
returned to the absorber through a throttling valve (6) in the
absorber after reactivation in the generator. The simultaneous
actions of releasing the refrigerant vapor in the generator while
absorbing refrigerant vapor by the absorber and circulating
the working pair solution by the pump and the throttling valve
which create the compression effect in the cycle and keep its
continuity. However, the cooling effect of the process is gener-
ated due to refrigerant evaporation in the evaporator, which
needs heat extraction from the evaporator domain and conse-
quently causes the desired cooling effect. An absorption cycle
usually has extra components to enhance its coefficient of per-
formance. One of these additional components is the heat
exchanger (10) between the absorber and the generator for
heat recovery between the weak and strong solutions in the
thermal absorbent cooling systems which have different solar
absorption cycle technologies with single, double, and triple-
effect.
Aliane et al. [18] reviewed studies on solar ABSC. The liter-
ature review is based on experimental studies that were chosen
on purpose. This paper focuses on the operational features
essential to operate an absorption chiller by solar energy.
Zhong et al. [19] presented an SCS applied to a campus univer-
sity library in Hainan Island, China. The absorption chiller is
used to cool with a single-effect absorption cycle H2O/LiBr
with 316 kW capacity and a conventional chiller with a capac-
ity of 1044 kW. The issues such as chiller type, solar collector,
system configuration, and control strategy operation are dis-
R.A. Almasri et al.
cussed. A technical and economic analysis were carried out
and gave suggestions on how to promote an SCS. In non-
air-conditioning time, the system is used to supply domestic
hot water. The overall daily collector efficiency was about
40%. Boudéhenn et al. [20] studied a small capacity of 5 kW
of one-stage solar absorption chiller numerically and experi-
mentally using NH3/H2O as a working par. The experimental
COP was about 0.65. The empirical findings vary from the
numerical ones; it was described by the inadequate proficiency
of the HE and control strategy in the system.
Puglisi et al. [21] examined the SCSs theoretically and
experimentally to develop a useful and vigorous tool to assist
the planning and management stages. The model was created
in MATLAB -Simulink which assist in increasing the commer-
cial distribution of solar cooling. The solar system comprises
112 m2 solar fields, and thermal storage consists of two tanks
of 1500 L each, an absorption chiller with H2O/LiBr of 70 kW
with a cooling tower, and chilled water storage 2000 L. The
simulations made accurately were featured by the low mistake
rate between recreated values with these measured. Increasing
the solar field collector area from 100 to 150 m2 demonstrated
that contrasted with the based circumstance, a 28% expansion
in energy given by the sunlight-based field produces a 10%
ascent in solar fraction (SF). The absorber chiller’s COP lies
between 0.72 and 0.74.
Eicker et al. [22] studied the capacity of absorption SCSs
for a middle-sized office building was evaluated with a total
floor area of 5040 m2 x 3.2 m = 16128 m3 (efficient building)
using EnergyPlus simulation environment INSEL for a differ-
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
ent location. The solar system comprises solar collectors with
seven surface areas from 440 m2 to 1680 m2, hot water storages
with distinguishing proportions from 5 to 20 m3, and simu-
lated 10 m3 storage of water. They estimated that the collector
area could be up to 5 m2 to 10 m2 per kW of cooling energy.
ABSC can have solar cooling fractions up to 80% and up to
30% CO2 and 79% primary energy savings are feasible. As
per the findings of this study, solar thermal and cooling sys-
tems are best suited in warm than cold environments. They
found that the particular cooling costs in German areas change
somewhere in the range of 0.25 and 1.01 € per kWh, in Spain,
0.13–0.30 €/kWh, and atmospheres in Jakarta and Riyadh are
0.09–0.15 €/kWh. The PBP for the absorption SCSs was higher
than 17 years. In Jakarta and Riyadh, areas with higher tem-
peratures and solar thermal single effect ABSC systems are
not so climacteric compared to European and moderate cli-
matic conditions. Corrada et al. [23] carried out a theoretical
study on improving solar collector tilt angle to enhance energy
harvesting in SCS, assessing the number, types, and solar col-
lectors’ installation angle to achieve economic feasibility of
heating and cooling systems in the region of South East
Queensland. The FPCs prove to be the finest for a solar cool-
ing and heating installation. But, few aspects are still impeding
the installation of SCSs to a great extent. One is the price of
the solar collectors needed to give heat to the absorption chil-
ler. This research indicates the likelihood of lowering the num-
ber of solar panels in a domestic SCS that depends upon
evacuated tubes generating hot water at a low temperature
of 90 °C and an NH3/H2O absorption chiller.
Rossetti and Armanasco [24] performed a theoretical study
on performance analysis of a medium-temperature solar cool-
ing plan for a high-efficiency medium temperature solar cool-
ing system. A numerical model in TRNSYS has been
established to analyze the performance and the likelihood of
setting up a pilot plant. However, they presented a solar cool-
ing pilot plant by nominal cooling power of the absorption
chiller of 25 kW having double effect property with linear
parabolic solar collectors area of 50 m2, hot storage container
volume of 0.75 m3, and chilled storage container volume
1.5 m3 for experimental study for the location of Milan in
Italy. A scale-up procedure has been implemented for the solar
cooling plant having 20–45 kW nominal cooling power. In the
instance of 24 hour continuous plant operation (experimental),
within months, SF quickly declines when the cooling burden is
the highest (July-September), where the solar factor ranges
from 0.78 to 0.95. Kanan et al. [25] presented a solar pond that
used MATLAB and TRNSYS to direct the absorption chiller
for a single-family house during summers. The different solar
pond areas with the same chiller capacity have been studied,
and it is found that a 400 m2 solar pond area was required
to provide proper AC for a 125 m2 wide house for Baghdad
condition in Iraq. Ssembatya et al. [26] demonstrated a com-
prehensive simulation study for the solar ABSC system for
the United Arab Emirates condition. Simulation results
showed that the SCS follows the cooling needs for almost
2/3rd of the year without heating and/or cooling reserves with
COP = 0.60–0.80. The system was studied and allocated to
cooling a floor area of three cabins which was 91.75 m2, and
a tent of 25 m2. A single-effect absorption chiller of 10 TR
(~35.2 kW) powered by a 128 m2 gross area of vacuum tube
solar collectors, 2*1000 L hot water storage containers, and
1000 L chilled water container has been used. The results of
373
experiments and simulations and SCS values for a typical
day of April were compared. The results reveal that the exper-
imental thermal COPexp is slightly less than the theoretical
COPth, especially during the startup period. The effect of dif-
ferent parameters to enhance the SFC for June – September
has been studied. A gross collector area of 150 m2 was enough
to meet all the months’ cooling needs, including June –
September, even without an auxiliary heater. Furthermore, a
collector slope of 15° maximizes the average SFC for June –
September. The low SFC for the months of June-September
can be enhanced either by increasing the total gross area to
150 m2, holding the flow of water to the collector arrays in
150–200 L/hour limit, maintaining a chiller initiating tempera-
ture of 78 °C, or by the inclusion of an auxiliary heater in the
stratified container.
Shirazi et al. [27] conducted a numerical feasibility study of
three configurations of solar absorption chillers under distin-
guishing weather states for AC purposes. The configurations
are: a single-effect absorption chiller is combined with ETCs;
double and triple effect H2O/LiBr chillers connected with
parabolic trough collectors (PTCs). It has been discovered that
the use of a multi-effect absorption chiller with a concentration
collector does not have an advantage if direct normal radiation
(DNI) has 60% or less at any global horizontal irradiance level
(GHI). More than 60% of DNI growth indicates that double
and triple effect chiller reduces the solar field area more than
a single-effect chiller. This makes the multi-impact chillers with
moving collectors function only in the climate conditions with
high sun direct normal radiation (>~60%). At least 70% of
DNI is needed for the solar multi-effect chillers’ competitive
price at the GHI level, compared with single-effect solar chil-
lers. The outcome exhibited that all configurations’ overall
effectiveness when the DNI fraction is about 60% was 0.16
for low, 0.30 for medium, and 0.37 for high GHI level. Asim
et al. [28] modeled a 12 m2 ETC solar absorption chiller using
TRNSYS software. A 2 m3 hot water storage container was
enough to uphold the temperature of 14 m2 in a nuclear-
family house for the climate of Lahore in Pakistan at/or below
26 °C when it begins to cool. It is concluded that the electrical
energy consumption in the system is about 14% of the cooling
load, and Pakistan’s climate can use solar thermal cooling sys-
tems for air conditioning. Shirazi et al. [29] modeled five SHC
absorption system configurations depending upon the kind of
chiller and solar collector, utilizing TRNSYS software under
distinguishing weather states. ETCs were used to run a
single-effect absorption chiller, whereas the double/triple-
effect chillers were tested with parabolic troughs, linear fresnel
concentrators, and evacuated flat plate collectors. It is con-
cluded that the solar single-effect chiller plan needs approxi-
mately 70 L/m2 storage space, whereas it was 40–50 L/m2 for
the solar multi-effect chiller designs for efficient use of solar
yield. In less solar-irradiated regions (GHI < 1000 kWh/m2-
), heating is essential, and the multi-effect solar chillers are
not successful. In a wide range of weather conditions with
PBP below 8.6 years, the chiller pair with double effect and
evacuated flat plate collectors attain significant energy and effi-
ciency. Reda et al. [30] studied two configurations of a solar
ABSC system using TRNSYS software for a workplace build-
ing situated in Finland. Only the chiller can be provided by the
heat from the tank during the first method configuration, but
the chiller is directly provided by container or solar collectors
in the second method. These findings proposed that the first
374
method has superior functioning to the second method. Mostly
when solar irradiance was less, the second method performed
far better than the first one.
Agrouaz et al. [31] examined the energetic functioning of a
solar ABSC under Moroccan weather conditions. The SF and
the COP of the SCS were used to evaluate multiple weather
conditions. The most successful annual average SF = 30%
and COP = 0.33 were established for the Errachidia system.
SF values in other regions showed a variation between 19%
and 23%. In addition to this, the COP values ranged between
0.12 and 0.33 in the same areas throughout the year. The incli-
nation angle significantly influences the solar incident irradia-
tion. Collector’s slopes’ ideal count (30% 35% in Marrakech)
gives rise to better functioning. It was also determined that the
SF was kept constant for an area bigger than 50 m2. On the
contrary, the difference in the storage container’s size does
not show a substantial impact on the percentage of solar
energy. The increased flow rates of both evaporators and gen-
erating systems improve solar cooling in months with a higher
temperature when the solar radiation and refrigeration loads
available are substantial. Izquierdo with his colleagues [32]
developed a solar absorption refrigeration system for an
80 m2 laboratory in Spain. This installation consists of FPCs
48 m2, 1500 L container for storage of hot water, and an air-
cooled LiBr absorption prototype 4.5 kW or 7 kW respec-
tively, with single and double effect. The system was examined
in August 2009 in a single effect absorption system. This study
demonstrated the accordance of a system with an estimated
65% of the laboratory’s periodic cooling requirement. It was
shown that the cooling power by double effect is the same as
the single-effect mode, but the thermal operation coefficient
has been doubled compared with the single-effect mode. With
his partners, Li suggested that the H2O/LiBr absorption chil-
ler’s cooling efficiency is operated by PTC, Li et al. [33]. They
predicted the average COP varies from 0.11 to 0.27 and
increased as the hot water rose temperature. The cooling water
temperature could significantly affect the functioning of the
refrigeration chiller. Also, the values of the COP were compar-
atively lost because the hot water temperature was too less.
Thus, to enhance the systems’ functioning, the heat transfer
pipeline’s size is reduced to avoid heat losses. Moreover, there
should be an increased PTC area and the operating aperture
temperature.
Ibrahim et al. [34] studied the performance and charging /
discharging types of energy storage integrated with a solar
double-effect absorption chiller for AC use for climatic condi-
tions of Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The results indicate an aver-
age COP of 1.35 for this system. Furthermore, the energy
storage density is noticed to be 444.3 MJ/m3, which is higher
by13–54% compared to other systems based on single-effect.
Also, Ibrahim et al. [35] investigated the water extraction from
an SCS using an absorption chiller with different airflow rates.
A study was conducted to examine the effects of limitations
and water production in a hot/humid weather condition. Sim-
ulation study revealed that there is an ideal fluid collector with
0.3 kg/s flow rate is giving 0.66 maximal collector efficacy,
14800 W power generator energy, water output ratio 8 L/hour
at Ac = 28 m2, Tf = 45 °C, I = 800 W/m2, and fresh air vol-
ume ratio R = 50%. Therefore, a too-high flow rate remained
insignificant to the production limitations. The cold water tem-
perature descends as the solar flux ascends due to the high
cooling effect that generates effective dehumidification, leading
R.A. Almasri et al.
to an increase in water production rates. They reported that
COP = 0.73 for chiller and the water production rate extended
to a maximum of 6.6 L/hour at mid-day when the solar flux is
at peak 935 W/m2 for a 45% fresh air volume proportion. In
Greece, the functioning of a one-effect H2O/LiBr absorption
chiller was numerically demonstrated by Tzivanidis and Bellos
[36]. They reported that an optimum specific mass flow rate
was 0.03 kg/s m2 and the optimum storage tank volume to
0.3 m3. With 54 m2 and 1.35 m3 storage tank, a cooling load
of up to 12.8 kW could be reached, which means that a build-
ing area of 100 m2 could adequately be cooled. Drosou et al.
[37] examined the suitability of two effect absorption chiller
with a solar field with PTCs for usage in the building sector.
As was exhibited, the application of PTCs leads to substan-
tially higher production temperatures that can allow the appli-
cation of a chiller with a higher COP. Moreover, it has become
clear that it is hard to try to develop SCT in energy-inefficient
buildings. Hence, it was more feasible to look at applying those
systems in new buildings, which focus on nearly zero-energy
buildings. If those prerequisites are met, solar cooling is a good
choice to make.
Ajib and Günther [38] conducted experimental research to
optimize the heat and mass exchange processes in the shell tube
heat exchanger in the H2O/LiBr solar absorption chiller with a
5 kW capacity. The first heat exchanger has an even outer sur-
face, and the other one has an uneven outer surface. The heat
and mass exchange features of the uneven tubes heat exchan-
ger were better than the even ones. They reported that the heat
exchange coefficient of the heat exchanger, by both even and
uneven tubes, ascends, if the flow rate of the working fluid
ascends. Furthermore, it rises by decreasing the cooling water
temperature. In both instances, the heat exchange coefficient of
the uneven tubes heat exchanger was better than the even ones.
Soussi et al. [39] evaluated a 16 kW double effect H2O/LiBr
absorption chiller theoretically and experimentally for a
126 m2 laboratory building in Tunisia. The solar field is com-
prised of PTC (3*13.1 m2). According to the results, collectors’
efficiency was between 26% and 35% and the COP between
0.65 and 1.29. They reported that incorporating an auxiliary
heater increases the functioning, running time, and cooling
potential of the absorption chiller. Gao et al. [40] assessed the-
oretical and experimental single-stage and double-stage cool-
ing absorption solar thermal systems using H2O/LiBr
working pair. They reported that the system with double-
stage absorption thermal storage can achieve 2.51 times higher
energy storage density than single-stage one, multifunctions,
feasible system design, and large temperature rise. Table 2
depicts the various parameters studied in ABSC systems like
the technology used, working material, power of chiller, collec-
tor type and area, and applications. It is observed that the
ABSC technology is widely used due to the efficiency, econom-
ical, and environment-friendliness of the cooling system.
3.2. Commercially available solar absorption chillers
An overview of commercially available absorption chillers and
applications is presented and reviewed in this section. Table 3.
depicts various parameters like solar collector’s total aperture
area, collector fluid, technology type, nominal chilling power
output, nominal hot water power input, COP, hot water input
temperature, and chilled water output temperature, heat rejec-
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 375

Table 2 Performance of the absorption solar cooling system.

Ref. The technology Power of chiller Collector type and Applications The scope
used and Working (kW) area (m2)
material
[19] Single effect (COP 316 kW and a U-tube ETC library in a university campus  Different factors were experimentally
0.7) H2O/LiBr conventional aperture areas 1492 20.2 km2 studied, chiller type comparison,
electric screw solar collector types, system configu-
chiller 1044 kW rations, and control strategy.
 Assessment of the technological and
economic implications of the Hainan
island absorption mechanism in
China
[20] Single effect NH3/ 5 NA Building  Numerical and experimental study of
H2O absorption chillers for solar cooling
applications.
[21] Absorber chiller 70 ETC 112 (100–150) building F-51 of the ENEA  Compare simulated values with those
(COP = 0.72– Research center measured of the absorber system.
0.74) H2O/LiBr
[22] NA Cooling energy Solar collectors with Office building, total floor area  Evaluated the potential of thermal
demand 12 to seven surface areas of SCSs for efficient building covering
274 kWh/m2 from 440 m2 to 5040 m2  3.2 m = 16128 m3 most climatic regions worldwide
1680 m2. location theoretically
[23] Single effect NH3/ 12.2 24 m2 solar 120 m2 dwelling in  Theoretical assessment of the num-
H2O collectors with a ber, types, and installation angle of
different tilt angle. solar collectors to achieve the eco-
nomic feasibility of the absorption
system in South East Queensland,
Australia.
[24] Double effect 20–45 linear parabolic Experimental  . Describe the key characteristics (so-
chiller. collectors’ 30–80 lar field area, absorption chillers
nominal power, and heat storage
volumes).
 Evaluate the functioning and the
likelihood of developing a pilot sys-
tem for Milan, Italy.
[25] The single effect, 24.6 solar pond area Typical house with a floor area  Study solar pond utilization to direct
H2O/LiBr 400 m2 of 125 m2 an absorption chiller using
MATLAB and TRNSYS for a
nuclear-family home during summers
for Baghdad condition in Iraq.
[26] Single effect H2O/ 35.2 ETC 128 The total floor area was  Compared to the effect of different
LiBr COP = 0.6– 91.75 m2 and the tent 25 m2 parameters by experimental and sim-
0.8 ulation results and values of the solar
ABSC system in the United Arab
Emirates.
[27] Single, double, and 1023–1163 ETC and PTC NA  A numerical energetic and economic
triple effect COP feasibility of different configurations
(0.76, 1.41, and solar absorption system under other
1.81), H2O/LiBr climate conditions using various
solar collectors.
[28] COP = 0.60 3.52 ETC, 12 Room floor area 14 m2 in  Study an ABSC system using the
residential building TRNSYS in a usual nuclear-family
house for the climate of Lahore.
[32] Single and-double 4.5, 7 11.5 FPCs 48 m2 80 m2 laboratory  Experimental taste is a solar-pow-
effect air-cooled, ered air-cooled ABSC system for a
H2O/LiBr laboratory in Spain, representing a
Spanish housing unit size.
[29] Single, double and 1023–1163 ETC, PTC, linear A standard hotel building  Numerical evaluation of five SHC
triple-effect Fresnel which is with a total floor area absorption system configurations
COP = 0.76, 1.41 concentrating, and of 11346 m2 from energetic, economic, and envi-
and 1.81, H2O/ evacuated flat plate ronmental views under distinguishing
LiBr collectors weather states.
(continued on next page)
376 R.A. Almasri et al.

Table 2 (continued)
Ref. The technology Power of chiller Collector type and Applications The scope
used and Working (kW) area (m2)
material
[31] NA 10 25 buildings  Investigation of the energetic perfor-
mance of a solar ABSC using SF and
the COP for various climatic condi-
tions in the Moroccan climate.
[30] COP = 0.825 12 36, 24 and 18 m2 170 m2 office building  Study different configurations of
SCS in Mikkeli, Finland.
[33] Single-effect, H2O/ 23 PTCof 56 m2 Meeting room 102 m2  The experimental study of the ABSC
LiBr aperture area system
[35] NA 14.8 NA The water production rate was  Investigate the water extraction from
8L/hour in August climate the air using an absorption SCS for
Dhahran, KSA.
[36] Single effect H2O/ 12.8 PTC 54 Typical building 100 m2  Determine the performance of an
LiBr SCS driven by a PTC for Athens in
Greece.
[37] double-effect, 1163 1716 PTC Typicaloffice building,  Examine the suitability of a two-
H2O/LiBr 10000 m2 effect absorption SCS with PTCs in
Greece.
[38] Single effect H2O/ 5 10 –  An experimental study to optimize
LiBr heat exchange by shell tube HE com-
prising of two types of tubes to use in
an absorption chiller. The first one
has an even outer surface, and the
other one has an uneven outer
surface.
[41] Double effect 23 Parabolic trough Building  The research aimed to design a
H2O/LiBr collector 50 m2 hybrid control system, based on
Model Predictive Control, for the
solar cooling plant located at Ricerca
Sistema Energetico, Milan - Italy
using Matlab/Simulink.

Table 3 Overview of commercially available absorption chillers.

Manufacturer Refrigerant/ Cooling capacity (kW) COP The temperature of The temperature of The temperature of
Sorbent hot water (°C) cooling water (°C) chilled water (°C)
Yazaki Energy [42,44] H2O/LiBr 17.5, 35, 70, 105, 175 0.7 83–88 31–35 7–12.5
EAW [42,43] H2O/LiBr 15, 30, 50 0.71 80–90 30–35 (27) 17/11
Fischer Eco Solutions [43] H2O/LiBr 15 – 85 27 15/10
Pink [42,45] NH3/H2O 12, 19 0.63 68–75 24/29 18/15
Jiangsu Huineng [43] H2O/LiBr 11, 11.5 – 90 30 10
Sakura [43] H2O/LiBr 10.5, 17.5 – 88 31 8
Thermax [43] H2O/LiBr 17.5, 35, 70, 105, 175 – 85 30 6–8
AGO [43] NH3/H2O 50 – 95–115 25 10 to 6
BROAD [43,46] H2O/LiBr 23–11630 – 95 30 5
Solarice [43] NH3/H2O 25, 40 – 95 24 3

tion capacity. It is observed that the parameters studied above
play an essential part in the selection of suitable technology for
a particular location, concerning the requirements from the
commercially available chillers. The COP of the EAW [42,43]
is better than the other chillers. Also, the chiller’s capacity even
nominal 15–50 kW to produce the chilling effect for the partic-
ular application. The particulars provided in Table 3 are as per
the literature survey carried out. But it is not sure that all the
available studies are covered.
3.3. Summary of the case study of absorption solar system
A summary of the case study of the absorption solar system is
introduced in this section. Table 4 describes the significant
component specifications for some solar absorption system
studied from the available literature concerning the type of
the parameters of solar collector’s total aperture area, collector
fluid, technology type, nominal chilling power output, hot
power input, COP, hot water input temperature, chilled water
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 377

Table 4 Component specifications for some solar absorption systems.

Ref. Solar Total Technology Chilling Hot Heat COP input Output
collector aperture power power rejection (-) temperature of temperature of
area (m2) output input capacity hot water (oC) chilled water (oC)
(kWr) (kWth) (kWth)
[42] PTC 532 Double-effect H2O/ 346 (99 RT) 266 Wet cooling 1.3 180 7
LiBr tower
639
[43] Fresnel 88 NH3/H2O 12.8 23.8 Directly air- 0.54 180 10
collectors cooled
chiller
36.6
[47] PTC 360 Double-effect H2O/ 116 97 Wet cooling 1.2 180 6
LiBr tower
213
[43] PTC 574 Double-effect H2O/ 295 255 Wet cooling 1.16 175 6
LiBr tower
550
[48] PTC 70 NH3/H2O 12.8 23.8 Directly air- 0.54 180 5
cooled
chiller
36.6
[43] PTC 350 Double-effect H2O/ 233 160 Hybrid 1.4 180 7
LiBr cooling
tower
393
[49] FPC 160 Single effect H2O/LiBr 70 (40) – Wet cooling 0.6 88 7
tower 170
[32] FPC 48 (42) Single-and double- 4.5–11 – – Max 113 (185) 9
effect directly air- 1
cooled H2O/LiBr
[33] PTC 56 Single effect H2O/LiBr 23 – BLT-10 0.11– 50–90 10–14
0.27

output temperature, and heat rejection capacity. The used
working fluids in all systems were water or Thermal oil. It is
observed that the component specification is vital for the selec-
tion of chillers for the particular application.
4. Adsorption solar cooling system
4.1. Principle and comprehensive overview of solar adsorption
cooling technology
The principle of solar adsorption cooling systems is introduced
in this section. A typical adsorption system includes an evapo-
rator, am adsorber, a condenser, a throttle, a heater, and a
cooler, as shown in Fig. 3. The adsorber is packed with solid
adsorbent material while the evaporator is charged with the
adsorbate material (refrigerant).
The adsorption system is derived by consequent actions
demonstrated on the thermodynamic cycle represented in the
Clapeyron diagram, see Fig. 4. Adsorption action occurs when
the solid adsorbent material is cool and relatively dry, reducing
surface vapor pressure than the adsorbate vapor pressure. This
yields a strong attraction to the adsorbate vapor generated in
the evaporator due to the evaporator’s appropriate designed
pressure conditions. Adsorption action continues until the
adsorbent material is loaded with the maximum possible
adsorbate capacity. This situation is called the saturation limit.
However, adsorption action is an exothermic reaction, i.e., the
temperature of adsorbent material will increase, and conse-
quently, its surface vapor pressure will also increase. Accord-
ingly, the adsorption action will continue until the vapor
pressures on the adsorbent surface reach the adsorbate vapor
pressure without getting the saturation limit, which means los-
ing the available amount of cooling ability. To recover this
problem and keep constant appropriate surface vapor pres-
sure, the adsorbent material is concurrently cooled through
the adsorption process, which justifies the cooler’s existence
as shown in Fig. 4. The adsorption process, which is repre-
sented by the isobaric cooling process 1–2 on the Clapeyron
diagram, occurs when valve A is opened while the adsorber
is connected to the cooling loop. After the adsorbent reaches
its saturation limit, valve A is closed, valve B is opened, and
the absorbent material is heated to release the adsorbate as
vapor and become dry and ready for reloading with a new
charge of adsorbate in a new cycle. This is called a regenera-
tion action. The regeneration action occurs through the two
thermodynamic processes 2–3 and 3–4. Process 2–3 is isosteric
heating in which heat is added to the adsorber causing the
working pair temperature and pressure to rise at constant
adsorption capacity until the adsorbate material reaches evap-
oration condition. Then, in process 2–3, Isobaric heating, fur-
ther heat is added to give the adsorbate material the required
latent heat for evaporation and releasing away from the adsor-
bent. The regeneration action is ended when the adsorption
capacity reaches its designed minimum. Simultaneously, the
378
Fig. 3 The simple schematic diagram of the ADSC system.
Fig. 4 ADSC cycle in the Clapeyron diagram.
adsorbate vapor is converted into liquid in the condenser and
throttled to the evaporator pressure on the adsorbate satura-
tion liquid line. Finally, the adsorbent material on state 4 is
cooled in isosteric cooling process 4–1 (adsorption capacity
is constant at minimum value) to decrease its pressure until
the evaporator operational condition to restart a new cycle.
Heating could be performed by TSE, waste heat recovery, or
any other thermal source. In the cooling adsorption system,
the consequent humidification processes and dehumidification
are carried to drive the cycle and develop the cooling effect
thermally. However, to keep the cooling effect consistent, the
cooling adsorption system either has two beds of adsorbent
material to allow concurrent humidification and dehumidifica-
tion processes in one thermodynamic adsorption cycle and/or
is provided with a thermal storage system.
The adsorption could take place with physical and chemical
actions. Physical adsorption action takes place based on weak
van der Waal forces. In chemical adsorption action, a chemical
reaction between adsorbent and adsorbate is happening,
resulting in new chemical bonds and composite adsorption
working pairs, which are used to enhance the adsorption
refrigeration systems functioning [50,51]. Shabir and his team
[52] conducted an extensive reference study and comparison
R.A. Almasri et al.
of adsorption working pairs and emphasize that it is always
challenging to find the optimum pair for all applications.
Adsorption application data are classified and compared
accordingly, utilizing adsorption isotherms. The parameters
of adsorption isotherms models are collectively listed. The
study is useful for selecting the appropriate adsorbent-
adsorbate pair for typical adsorption cooling applications.
They presented a useful review to develop a new appropriate
working pair for adsorption systems. The working pair of
adsorbent/adsorbate materials play a central role in demon-
strating an adsorption system’s functioning. Shmroukh et al.
[53] classified working pairs into classical-like activated car-
bon/methanol and modern-like maxsorb III/R-134a. They
reported that modern functional pairs have better adsorption
capacity. A comparison between working adsorbent/adsorbate
pairs based on driving temperature, COP, specific cooling
power (SCP), and evaporation temperature has been reported
by Askalany et al. [54]. The effect of iron, copper, and alu-
minum additives on the adsorbent material on the SCP,
COP, ADSC system, and cycle time have been experimentally
studied by Askalany et al. [55]. They reported that the utiliza-
tion of aluminum fillings in 30% concentration caused a reduc-
tion in cycle time by 50% and a rise in SCP by 100%, and it
has a small negative effect on the COP. The additives of Alu-
minum and Nickel metals nanoparticles have also been studied
experimentally by Wu et al. [56]. They indicated that compos-
ite adsorbents would increase their thermal conductivity by 20
percent if the nanoparticles’ weight percentage is 10%. Fur-
thermore, carbon-coated aluminum nanoparticles show a bet-
ter increase in thermal conductivity than nickel nanoparticles.
The use of different adsorption pairs (water/silica gel,
water/13X molecular sieves, and methanol/activated carbon)
in a four-bed ADSC system has been investigated experimen-
tally to optimize operational conditions. Bretado-de los Rios
et al. [57] reviewed the sustainable use of nanofluids in thermal
applications. They emphasized that the nanofluids affected a
thermal system which gave positive results. They reported that
the thermal efficiency of flat plate solar collectors increases
between 3 and 35% by using different types and concentra-
tions of nanofluids. Esmaeil et al. [58] examined the heat trans-
fer characteristics using Al2O3/water-based nanofluid flow.
They reported that a heat transfer enhancement was found
for a very low nanoparticle loading ratio. Also, the heat trans-
fer enhancement was noticed if the forced convection effect
was significant at the highest nanofluid flow rate. Taamneh
et al. [59] evaluated the performance of the different configura-
tions of a solar system for extracting freshwater 110 ppm from
brackish water 1395 ppm in the environmental condition of
Chennai, India. They reported that the integration of the spiral
tube collector with solar stills in passive enhances the daily
average brackish water temperature by 7% as compared to
the solar stills in passive. The yield from the active solar stills
improved the efficiency by 47% as compared to the passive
one. They reported that the pH value was 8.7 and 7.6 for
brackish water and freshwater respectively. Manokar et al.
[60] evaluated the productivity of the freshwater from the
active inclined solar panel basin solar still for different water
mass flow rates. They reported that the maximum production
of freshwater was 7.5 kg, increasing mass flow rate reduced the
performance, and the payback period 17.5 and 20.0 years.
Basha et al. [61] studied the effect of nonlinear radiation and
magnetic field of Single-Walled Carbon Nano Horn
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
(SWCNH)/diamond-ethylene glycol (EG) 40% and water 60%
nanofluid over a wedge, plate, and stagnation point on forced
convective. The authors reported that rising the volume frac-
tion of nanoparticle course improves the temperature over
the wedge, plate, and stagnation point. Also, they reported
that the suspension of SWCNH nanoparticles improves the
performance in a solar system more than diamond nanoparti-
cles. Chamkha [62] studied theoretically the effect of solar radi-
ation on natural convection in porous medium on flat plate
collector. He concluded that Nusselt number was enhanced
as the Prandtl number rose, and a reduction was reported as
a result of improving: heat transfer coefficient, inverse Darcy
number, tangential distance, and the medium inertia coeffi-
cient. Askalany et al. [63] reviewed ADSC systems which apply
carbon as an adsorbent material with different refrigerant. The
COP values 0.78 and 0.8 reported for methanol and ethanol,
respectively. Examples of adsorption systems working pairs
are illustrated below:
1- Physical adsorption pairs: NH3/activated carbon, etha-
nol/activated carbon, ethanol/activated carbon, silica
gel/water, and zeolite/water
2- Chemical adsorption: NH3/metal chloride, hydrogen/
metal hydrides, and water/metal oxides.
3- Composite adsorption working pairs: silica gel/water
and chlorides, methanol/silica gel and chlorides, NH3/
chlorides, porous media, water/zeolite, and foam
aluminum.
To keep the continuous cooling effect of an ADSC system,
two-bed adsorbers are used in common practice. Moreover, to
improve the cycle performance, heat recovery among these two
beds is applied practically. In Fig. 5, an adsorption SCS with
heat restoration between the two beds are appeared. The figure
also demonstrates the layout of different operational phases of
this system, which can be described as follows:
Phase I The humidification in the left bed extracts vapor of
refrigerant from the evaporator while dehumidification
in the right-sided bed releases refrigerant vapor to the
condenser.
Phase II The process of heat recovery between the two beds
improves the cycle COP
Process Dehumidification in the left bed releases vapor of
III refrigerant to condenser while humidification in the
right-sided bed releases vapor of refrigerant from the
evaporator.
Process Heat recovery process between the two beds improves
IV the cycle COP
4.2. General studies of adsorption systems
General studies of solar adsorption cooling are introduced and
discussed in this section. Alahmer et al. [64] performed a com-
prehensive review to improve the implementation of adsorp-
tion chiller systems. They provided useful information to
guide scientists in their future studies and to support engineers
in system optimization. A comprehensive literature review by
Goyal et al. [65] has been presented to provide fundamental
knowledge regarding adsorption systems and different
379
approaches for utilizing solar energy in these systems. Techni-
cal and economic limitations were also discussed. In three sep-
arate cities (Milan, Rome, and Messina), Vasta et al. [66]
utilized TRNSYS to show the elements of restricted sun-
based adsorption cooling. Economic analysis and optimization
against a traditional AC system were also reported. Wang
et al. [67] examined experimentally and theoretically a silica
gel/water adsorption chiller prototype consisting of the follow-
ing vacuum chambers: 2 vacuum chambers for adsorption/des-
orption (or evaporation/condensation) and a vacuum
operating chamber for the heat pipe as an evaporator. Reports
indicated the cooling potential exceeds more than 10 kW and
COP exceeds 0.5 with hot with 85 °C hot water, 31 °C cooling
water, and a temperature of 15 °C cooling water inlet. Pan
et al. [68] developed a silica gel/water adsorption chiller with
these two separate sorption chambers and a single condenser
and evaporator supporting each chamber. Mass and heat
recovery times and other system operational conditions on
the system performance have been examined. Resulting in
cooling power, COP and SCP have been evaluated, and excel-
lent functioning with higher COP and SCP was concluded.
They used cooling, mass recovery, and heat recovery times
of the 720 s, the 40 s, and 24 s, respectively. They announced
that the cooling force, COP, and SCP were 42.8 kW, 0.51,
and 125.0 W/kg, individually, under a heated water gulf
86 °C, the cooling water channel 30 °C, and the chilled water
source temperature 11 °C. They assessed that if the tempera-
ture of the cooled water source ascends to 15 °C, the cooling
force will be 52 kW, COP = 0.65, and SCP = 146.4 W/kg.
They stated that this system has outstanding functioning with
higher COP and SCP as compared toother similar chillers. The
switching time is the time needed for two isosteric cooling and
heating cycles has been theoretically studied by Hong et al.
[69]. Effect of geometrical and operational conditions of a
CaCl2-in Silca gel (SWS-1L)/water system with fin-tube type
adsorption chiller on the switching time has been examined.
Optimal switching time for the isosteric heating process was
shorter than that of the isosteric cooling process. The function-
ing of a silica gel/water double bed ADSC system has been the-
oretically and experimentally examined by Chan et al. [70].
Bakker et al. [71], Wang et al. [72], and Tierney et al. [73] were
studied the different adsorption system configurations else-
where. An adsorption chiller of silica gel/water consisting of
two vacuum chambers; one for adsorption/desorption (or
evaporation/condensation) and a vacuum operating chamber
for the heat pipe as an evaporator. Reports indicated that
the cooling potential exceeds more than 10 kW and COP
exceeds 0.5 with 85 °C hot water, 31 °C cooling water, with
a cooling water inlet temperature of 15 °C. Wang et al. [74] cre-
ated and inspected a model of a silica gel/water adsorption
chiller. They revealed that the cooling potential and COP were
7.15 kW and 0.38, separately, at boiling water 84.8 °C, the
cooling water 30.6 °C, and the chilled water source tempera-
ture 11.7 °C. The capacity was 6 kW at 65 °C hot water,
30.5 °C of cooling water, and 17.6 °C of chilled water temper-
ature, so that TSE can be used effectively. By comparing the
experimental and theoretical results, the experimental results
were found to be less than the theoretical results. A 900 s heat/-
cooling time and a mass recovery time of 120 s to 180 s is a bet-
ter option for capacity and COP. Denzinger et al. [75] reported
that the adsorptive refrigerators are different from modern
refrigerators using the vapor compression cycle. Adsorptive
380
Fig. 5 The schematic diagram for the four phases of a typical two-bed adsorption solar cooling system with heat recovery between beds.
refrigerators are very beneficial for remote areas where electric-
ity is unavailable because they are made up of ethanol and acti-
vated carbon. These two materials are advantageous because
of their ease in availability and environmental friendliness. A
Solar Thermal Adsorption Refrigerator (STAR) proved to
be significant for the environment compared to a traditional
refrigerator because it used temperatures between 2 °C and
8 °C. Hence, replacing conventional refrigerators with STAR
can help decrease global warming to a great extent.
R.A. Almasri et al.
4.3. Adsorption solar systems technical studies
In this section, technical studies of solar adsorption cooling are
introduced and discussed. For the last two decades, solar
energy application in ADSC systems has taken a considerable
research focus. Fasfous et al. [76] studied the feasibility of
applying 8 kW adsorption SCS in Jordanian conditions. It
was reported that incorporating solar collectors of 40 m2 was
enough to allow the adsorption system from an AC-tested
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
lab area of 41 m2 and provide the total required domestic hot
water and SF = 15–25%. However, the PBP of 24 years,
which exceeds the examined system’s lifetime, was reported.
Daßler and Mittelbach [77] tested an 8 kW adsorption chiller
equipped with an FPC in Austria’s condition. The essential
issues discussed are: reducing cost for all components, develop-
ing standards, and increasing the support and attention of
SCT. Baiju and Muraleedharan [78] concentrated a two-bed
a two-bed sun-oriented adsorption warming/cooling frame-
work with methanol/initiated carbon hypothetically and tenta-
tively in Kerala, India. The framework was worked for
warming 50 L/hour of water from 25 °C to 90 °C and as cool-
ing 10 L/hour of water from 30 °C to 10 °C. They detailed that
the ideal warmth activity temperature was 72.4 °C. The mean
test COP = 0.196 during daytime and 0.335 for evening time,
and the typical daytime refrigeration SCP values are 47 W to
78 W and 57.6 W to 104.4 W during the evening.
Reda et al. [79] theoretically optimized the parts of small-
scale water/silica gel ADSC systems for different solar propor-
tions using TRNSYS in Assiut City conditions, Egypt. The
simulation outcomes were verified by comparing the results
of the installed cooling system. They reported that the best
angle of tilt for the solar collector’s surface was 5◦. They pre-
sumed that the SF didn’t affect the size of the virus water
stockpiling compartment though it profoundly affected the
sun-powered authority field’s territory just as the volume of
the boiling water stockpiling holder. They expressed that the
most financially doable arrangement for SCS adsorption is a
24 m2 sun-oriented gatherer region, a 0.6 m3 blistering stock-
piling compartment, and a 1 m3 cold stockpiling holder 94◦C
assistant warmer set temperature. Jaiswal et al. [80] conducted
a simulation study on adsorption SCS with water/silica gel
pair, in Bangalore, India. They noticed that the standard cool-
ing limit of the cycle increments with an increment in the sun-
powered authority region and an expansion in the process
duration for a similar gatherer area. The day by day arrived
at the midpoint of cooling limit ascends with an extension in
the sunlight-based gatherer zone for a similar process duration.
Anyway, on account of a huge gatherer region or a huge pro-
cess duration, the cooling capacity is practically consistent
around early afternoon, as the heated water gulf temperature
surpasses its most noteworthy allowable constraint of 95 °C.
Poshtiri et al. [81] theoretically examined a solar adsorption
chiller for natural cooling of a building with a cupola roof in
Bandar Abbas, Iran. The influence of geometric parameters
and the room temperature was evaluated. They estimated that
the suggested building cooling system uses 45% less energy
than a split air conditioner with the same potential. Jafari
and Poshtiri [82] presented and evaluated the solar adsorption
chiller system. This system can provide fresh air and keep the
temperature within the thermal comfort limit and humid. They
revealed that in dry and moist weather conditions, this system
can generate the fresh air needed, and keep the temperature
within the thermal comfort limitations, and uses around
37% less energy compared with traditional air conditioners.
Almogbel et al. [83] theoretically compared the solar ADSC
system’s functioning with a traditional cooling system for four
Saudi locations. They concluded that solar ADSC could offer
a noticeable decrease in energy consumption for AC. But, at
present, available ADSC systems are not optimized for work
381
at high-level ambient temperatures. They endorsed using a
hybrid system and modern adsorption systems designed to
operate at high-level heat ambient temperatures. Atiya et al.
[84] presented a solar adsorption chiller prototype test with a
finned tube for AC usage. They showed that the
COP = 0.16 and SCP = 163 W/kg with the cycle time was
40 min, the hot water temperature was 90 °C, the cooling water
temperature was 30 °C, and the evaporative water temperature
was 11.4 °C. They found that the silica gel adsorbent can inter-
change the amount of 0.08 kgwater/kgsilica gel. Tso et al. [85]
studied an ADSC chiller with zeolite water/13X/CaCl2 experi-
mentally. A significantly less desorption temperature can be
used to desorb the new adsorbent while comparing it with
the zeolite 13X adsorbent. They reported that this system’s
SCP is approximately 30 percent higher than its adsorbent
SCP using silica gel. They informed that the heat and mass
recovery cycle has a massive increase in the performance,
enhancing the SCP and COP by about 126% and 125%,
respectively. Hence, mass recovery and the pre-heating and
pre-cooling cycle were favored to achieve the SCP = 106 W/
kg and COP = 0.16.
In the Upper Nile Valley operating conditions in Egypt,
Schwerdt and Ali [86] carried out a theoretical and practical
study on the solar ADSC system for residential use. The
SCS consists of an ETC field 40 m2 (35 kW), a hot water stor-
age tank 1.8 m3, the ADSC machine 7.5 kW, a cold storage
buffer of 1.2 m3, a cooling tower 34 kW, and fan coils
2x4.8 kW. They tested the change of cooling system tempera-
ture with 27 °C instead of 31 °C, which led to improving chiller
efficiency by 20–50% and the cooling capacity by about 15%,
and the overall COP of the SCS range from 0.25 to 0.3. Also,
Ali [87] experimentally investigated the application of this
adsorption chiller. He demonstrated the chiller COP range
from 0.4 to 0.64 after changing the cooling tower. Under the
new wet cooling tower of 50 kW, the chiller average cooling
potential was 6.42 kW, and COP reaches 0.64. It is reported
that the solar collector field’s efficiency is between 50% and
65% [86] and ranged from 50% to 78% [87]. Najeh et al.
[88] experimented on a solar ADSC system using water/silica
gel. They also simulated the system with SIMULINK. They
demonstrated that the COP = 0.62 and the cooling capacity
was 5.64 kW. Table 5 illustrates a brief literature review, the
performance of the adsorption solar cooling system.
4.4. Other designs for adsorption solar cooling systems
In this section, additional designs of solar adsorption cooling
systems are introduced and reviewed. In the literature, there
are other designs of adsorptive solar cooling systems, including
a solar collector or new connection. Bouzeffour et al. [91]
tested a new adsorption SCS experimentally with a collector
adsorbent bed using water/silica gel for small medical storage
in Bou-Ismail, Algeria. They showed source temperature
between 95 and 117 °C, ambient temperature 33 °C, minimum
evaporator temperature +5 °C, and the pressure values
recorded in the adsorbent bed 80 to 100 mbar. They reported
that the energy collected was around 19 MJ/m2 and the
COP = 0.083 to 0.09. Ambarita and Kawai [92] studied a solar
adsorption collector bed cooling system experimentally with
various adsorbents and mixtures for preserve foods and vacci-
382 R.A. Almasri et al.

Table 5 The functioning of the adsorption solar cooling system.

Ref. Cooling Power material Collector Study method Applications The scope
(kW) type and
area (m2)
[76] 8 a double- FPC Experimental laboratory Investigate the feasibility of solar adsorption
bed zeolite/ 40 m2 41 m2 cooling in Jordan.
water
[77] 5–15 a double- FPC Experimental Workshop Study the techno-economic performance for
bed silica 31 m2 studio and small-scale application of solar ADSC systems
gel/ water bureau in Austria.
[78] COP = 0.196– two-stage PTC 3 m2 Experimental cooling 10 L/ Studying experimentally two stages of solar
0.335 methanol/ hour of water ADSC system during the day and nighttime
activated from 30 °C to under Kerala, India.
carbon 10 °C
[89] SCOP = 0.122– methanol/ FPC Mathematical medicine and Study theoretically, the capacity of solar
0.132 Activated 1.2 m2 modeling vaccine adsorption chillers under real data for four
CSP = 1.89– carbon one perseveration Sub-Saharan African cities’ weather
3.18 W/kg bed conditions.
[79] 8 a double- ETC 0– Compare the residential A dynamic system simulation model was
bed water/ 60 (24) dynamic simulation Building tested by comparing the outcome of the
silica gel model and 225 m2 ADSC solar water/silica gel installation
experimental result developed for different solar proportions for
dry places to optimize and evaluate the
economic and environmental impacts in
Assiut, Egypt.
[80] 12 two-bed, ETC 51– simulation General Study the dynamic functioning of a single-
water/ silica 105 m2 application stage adsorption chiller operating in
gel Bangalore, India.
[81] 2.5 two-bed, FPC 30– Modeling using residential The theoretical study investigates solar
water/ silica 40 ANSYS Fluent 6.3 buildingwith adsorption chiller to supply natural cooling of
gel CFD software domed roof a one-story building with a cupola roof and
4x4 m2 compares the result with a split air conditioner
under climatic conditions in Bandar Abbas
and Yazd in Iran.
[82] 9–16 two-bed FPC 60 Simulation Building with Theoretical research of a new solar passive
water/ silica domed roof cooling system of buildings using adsorption
gel 8x8 m2 chiller, a solar chimney, and a cooling channel
in Tehran and Bandar Abbas in Iran.
[83] COP = 0.3– water/ silica FPC Simulation using Single-floor Compare the solar ADSC system with a
0.47, 8.2 gel and 150 m2 PolysunÒ 5.9 house 135 m2 conventional grid-connected compression
water/ (net area cooling system for four locations: Riyadh,
zeolite 135 m2) Jeddah, Dammam, and Abha in KSA.
[84] COP = 0.06– One bed NA Experimental AC A fine-tube silica gel-adsorption chiller for AC
0.22, less than water/ silica usage was manufactured to produce cooling
793 W gel energy and analyze the cooling output
functioning using the SCP and COP.
[85] 371 W a double- Solar or Experimental cooling effect An experimental study of ADSC system with a
bed water/ west heat water/zeolite 13X/CaCl2 under different
zeolite 13X/ working conditions.
CaCl2
[86,87] 8 kW (3.6–6.42) a tow-bed ETC Experimental Floor area Testing the thermal adsorption chiller under
silica gel/ 36 m2 80 m2 the working conditions of the upper Nile
water valley in Egypt.
[88] COP = 0.62, a tow bed FPC Simulation model, for heating one Research the solar adsorption cooling system
5.64 kW silica gel/ 38.4 m2 Experimental room and using silica gel/water pair and compare
water cooling one simulation findings with experimental results
on the Enerbat platform in Nancy, France.
[90] 8 silica gel/ FPC Experimental Kitchen 42 m2 Study a solar adsorption refrigeration system
H2O 22 m2 for kitchen in Fraunhofer Institute for Solar
Energy Systems in Freiburg, Germany.
[90] 3x350 – ETC Experimental Technology Study a solar adsorption refrigeration system
1218 m2 center for building in FESTO AG in Berkheim/
26000 m2 Esslingen, Germany.
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
nes in Medan city, Indonesia. They noticed that the mixed
adsorbent of activated alumina (AA) and activated carbon
does not have a better COP than the pure activated carbon
or activated alumina. They calculated the COP between
0.054 and 0.074, and found the pair of methanol/activated car-
bon was better than methanol/activated alumina. Aman et al.
[93] compared the functioning of two 10 kW ABSC systems,
NH3/water, and activated carbon/NH3 ADSC systems, using
heat sources with temperatures ranging from 60 to 90 °C. They
reported that the absorption chiller brings a better
COP = 0.60 than the adsorption one COP = 0.35, and the
adsorption needs almost twice as much energy compared to
the absorption system. They also stated that the adsorption
system is exceptionally responsive to the temperature of the
heat source. San and Lin [94] studied the use of three adsorp-
tion pairs (methanol/activated carbon, water/silica gel–and
water/13X molecular sieves) in a four-bed adsorption heat
pump theoretically. They reported that for operations at the
maximum SCP (s = 3–6 min) and with restoration tempera-
tures in the range of 80–120 °C, the methanol/activated carbon
pair gives rise to the maximum SCP, COP value, and second-
law effectiveness than water/silica gel and water/13X
molecular.
Ali [95] compared the technical, economic, and environ-
mental impacts of solar silica gel/water ADSC system with a
potential of 8 kW versus an off-grid PV operated direct current
(DC) system and a conventional system in hot, arid areas at
Assiut, Egypt. He indicated that compared with the traditional
AC system, the solar ADSC system has an energy intake of
about 11%, a Total Equivalent Warming Impact of about
10%, and total cost per kW cooling was almost 296%. On
the other hand, the off-grid PV - DC cooling system doesn’t
have energy intake from the grid, with a Total Equivalent
Warming Impact of less than 1%, and the total cost per kW
cooling was around 55% compared with the typical AC sys-
tem. He recommended the use of an off-grid PV - DC air con-
ditioning system for smaller areas. Dai and Sumathy [96]
investigated theoretically and experimentally a methanol/ acti-
vated carbon solar ADSC system with a glass tube for cooling
temperatures 5 °C and 15 °C and examined various parame-
ters’ performance in obtaining an optimized system design.
They found the mean thermal efficiency of about 30–40%.
The mathematical model has the potential to predict the per-
formance of solar adsorber. They confirmed that the theoreti-
cal study’s outcome and subsequent development of practical
research.
4.5. Adsorption cooling for ice-maker
Solar adsorption cooling systems for ice-maker are introduced
and reviewed in this section. Hassan [97] studied a solar ADSC
system for ice production using methanol/activated carbon as
the working pair under Egypt’s weather conditions. He found
that the daily ice production is 27.82 kg at a temperature of
5℃ at COP, cooling power, and SCP 0.618, 255.6 W, and
5.11 W/kg, respectively. Santori et al. [98] presented an exper-
imental solar adsorption ice-maker using working pair metha-
nol/activated carbon. The first outdoor tests, performed at
CNR-ITAE in Messina, exhibited that the ice production up
to 5 kg per day with a COP = 0.08. They delineated that
383
the functioning decreases when the system is used with a little
higher diurnal temperatures or less solar irradiation. Sumathy
and Zhongfu [99] introduced a solar adsorption ice-maker with
a pair of methanol/activated carbon using an FPC area of
0.92 m2. They reported that by total daily solar insolation of
17–19 MJ/m2, the ice production was around 4–5 kg and the
COP range between 0.10 and 0.12. Qasem and El-Shaarawi
[100,101] studied and investigated all factors’ thermodynamic
processes to enhance the functioning of a methanol/activated
carbon solar adsorption ice maker system using MATLAB
under the Dhahran climate, KSA. 14.1 kg of activated carbon
NORIT RX3-Extra per m2 of solar collector with double glaz-
ing cover; thin absorber tubes with selective coating, appropri-
ate collector tilt angle, and the right time for setting up the
cycle enhances the functioning of the system. They indicated
that the winter performance was better than summer and the
daily production lies between 5 kg up to 13 kg of ice per m2
of collector area [100] and less than 3 kg on days with high
temperature and more than 5 kg per m2 of a collector in the
cold days [101]. They reported the solar COP range from
0.12 and 0.24 [100], and from 0.077 to 0.17 [101]. Li et al.
[102] studied a methanol/activated carbon solar adsorption
ice maker experimentally. The adsorbent bed is built of two
FPCs, with a total surface area of 1.5 m2. They reported that
this system could make 4–5 kg of ice after collecting 14–
16 MJ with a surface area of 0.75 m2, whereas 7–10 kg of ice
can be produced after obtaining 28–30 MJ with 1.5 m2.
Khattab [103,104] designed, studied, and tested a simple
structure, low cost, methanol/charcoal solar ADSC system, a
modified glass tube, and reflectors under Cairo city condition,
Egypt. He stated that applying the same types of reflector-
heated bed techniques in cold weather could increase the bed’s
maximum temperature between 13 and 60% above the temper-
ature of the bed directly heated, especially in cold conditions.
[103] And the total energy input to the sorption bed rises from
11% to 33% [104]. The lowest bed temperature at night was
reported very close to ambient temperature at all times. He
found that the system’s everyday ice production of 6.9 to
9.4 kg/m2 and the solar COP lies between 0.136 and 0.159
[103]. Applying the ideal proportion of the steel additives in
the bed, the annual average ice creation improves from 0.23
to 0.25 kg/day, the average bed efficiency from 55.2% to
58.5% average net COP raises from 0.146 to 0.156. He demon-
strated that the hot environment’s loss of cooling energy
affects about 17.5% to 28% [104]. Table 6 illustrates the func-
tioning of the adsorption solar cooling system for the ice
maker.
4.6. Commercially available thermal adsorption chillers
Commercially available thermal adsorption chillers are pre-
sented in this section. Table 7 depicts the overview of specifica-
tions of the commercially available thermal adsorption chillers.
It describes the chiller manufacturer, chiller type, refrigerant,
capacity, COP, hot and cold water temperatures, chiller tem-
perature, and electric power consumption. It gives a clear idea
for selecting the appropriate chiller for a particular location
and climatic condition. The particulars provided are as per
the literature survey carried out, but it is not sure that all man-
ufacturers are listed.
384 R.A. Almasri et al.

Table 6 Functioning of adsorption solar cooling system for the ice maker.
Ref. COP Material Collector type Study method Production The scope
and area (m2) (kg/day)
[97] 255.6 W methanol/ activated FPC 2 m2 Theoretical 27.82 Study a solar ADSC system to produce ice under
carbon collector one Cairo - Egypt’s weather conditions.
bed
[98] 0.063– methanol/ activated FPC 1.2 m2 Experimental 5 Develop and test a solar adsorption ice maker system
0.08 carbon collector one operating at CNR-ITAE in Messina, Italy.
bed
[99] 0.1–0.12 methanol/ activated FPC 0.92 m2 Experimental 4–5 Focuses on a solar adsorption icemaker with pair of
carbon collector one methanol/activated carbon by daily total solar
bed insolation 17–19 MJ/m2.
[100] 0.12– methanol/ activated FPC 1 m2 Transient 5–13 Examine the working and functioning of an irregular
0.24 carbon collector one simulation solar ADSC system methanol/activated carbon
bed model (NORIT RX3-Extra) using a transient modeling
study under real climate conditions, Dhahran, KSA.
[101] 0.077– methanol/ activated FPC 1 m2 Transient 3–5 Examine the working and functioning of solar ADSC
0.17 carbon collector one modeling system methanol/activated carbon applying a
bed thermodynamic examination and an ephemeral
modeling examination under real climate conditions,
Dhahran, KSA.
[102] 0.12– methanol/ activated FPC 0.75, Experimental 3.5–9 Present an adsorption refrigeration ice maker with a
0.147 carbon two 1.5 m2 working pair methanol/activated carbon and
collectors each one adsorbent bed consists of two FPCs, with a total
bed surface area of 1.5 m2 in the Lab.
[103] 0.136– methanol/ domestic 0.03 m2 Experimental 0.206–0.28 Investigations enhance heat transmission in the
0.159 charcoal one-bed modified tube adsorbent bed of the bed of a basic structure solar
collector and plane adsorption refrigeration system under Cairo city
reflectors condition, Egypt.
[104] 0.146– methanol/ domestic 0.03 m2 Simulation 0.23–0.25 Established a mathematical model to improve a solar
0.1558 charcoal one-bed modified tube adsorption refrigeration system with the pair of
collector and plane methanol/domestic type of charcoal under actual
reflectors measured meteorological data for Cairo, Egypt.

Table 7 Overview of commercially available thermal adsorption chillers.

Manufacturer Sorbent/ cooling capacity COP hot water cooling water chilled water Electric power
refrigerant (kW) (-) temperature temperature (°C) temperature (°C) consumption (W)
(°C)
Fahrenheit [42,105] silika gel/ 13, 26, 29, 52, 0.53 75–95 22–45 21/8 147–2856
H2O 65, 78, 91, 104
InvenSor [42,106] zeolith/ 4, 18, 35–300 0.5– 60–99 20–37 25/10 895–2865
H2O 0.75
Mitsubishi Plastics [43] zeolith/ 10, 88, 175, 350 – 50–80 30–32 15 1100 by 350
H2O
HIJC [107] silika gel/ 6.5–630 0.2– 50–90 29–36 12–7 400 max
H2O 0.7
Mayekawa [108] silika gel/ 105–430 0.45– 60–80 27 15 700–1850
H2O 0.66
Bry-Air [109] silika gel/ 35–1180 0.51 52–93 10–39 20/3 600–1900
H2O
Lucy New Energy silika gel/ 5, 10, 15, 30, 50 0.4 80–85 30–35 15/10 750–1500
Technology Co., Ltd. H2O
[110]

5. Dissociative evaporative cooling system
5.1. Principle and overview of solar dissociative evaporative
cooling technology
Principle and overview of solar dissociative evaporative cool-
ing technology presented in this section. Heinrich and Franzke
[111] have registered a patent on the method of AC using des-
iccative evaporative cooling. The optimum desiccant dehumid-
ifier (DD) would have a large surface area for assembling
vapors and a low mass since the necessary heating and cooling
energy is commensurate with the mass of the desiccant. Desic-
cants can either be solids or liquids. Liquid and solid desic-
cants both act identically - their surface vapor pressure is an
outcome of their temperature and moisture content. The
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
increase in temperature is corresponding to the amount of
vapors eliminated from the dehumidifier. The total energy
increases partially due to the unwanted heat transmitted to
the air from the regeneration process. In many applications,
primarily product drying, and unheated storage, this increase
in temperature of the dry air is beneficial. In other instances,
excessive sensible heat is disadvantageous, so the dry air is
cooled before being supplied to the point of use. There are five
typical equipment configurations for desiccant dehumidifiers
liquid spray-tower, solidly packed tower, multiple vertical
beds, rotating horizontal bed, and rotating honeycombs as
classified by Wang et al. [61].
Solar thermal energy can efficiently operate these cooling
cycles since these circuits’ operating temperature is relatively
low, which means that simple FPCs (non-concentrating collec-
tors) can drive these circuits. As demonstrated above, the DEC
is an open system directly linked to the surrounding air. They
differ from the closed SCSs (absorption and adsorption), the
DEC, and the environment’s climate conditions. The desiccant
used in DEC systems may be liquid or solid depending on cli-
mate condition, operational parameters, and other design con-
straints. The generic layout of DEC systems is depicted in
Fig. 6. Despite the air temperature increment in the DD sec-
tion, its enthalpy became smaller, which resulted in higher
potentiality for cooling, as can be concluded from Fig. 7 pro-
cess 1–2. The evaporative cooler in the DEC cycle shown in
Fig. 7 is to condition the air according to the required comfort
condition. Adding a HE (evaporator/condenser of AC before
the new air enters the building) is an additional option to
accommodate the necessary operational requirements for cool-
ing or heating. Many configurations of the DEC system can be
found in literature and applications. However, DEC systems’
two standard technologies depending on the desiccant type
solid or liquid are given in Fig. 7 and Fig. 9. In the solid tech-
nology (Fig. 7), the rotation of the DD and HE wheels transfer
humidity and heat from the supply line to the exhaust line.
Fig. 6 The generic layout of the Dissociative Evaporative Cooling system.
385
Solar thermal energy’s primary function could be noticed
through processes 7–8, in which the desiccant material is dehu-
midified and regenerated. An additional function for solar
thermal energy can be acting as a heating coil when needed
before the new air enters the building. Fig. 8 exhibits the sche-
matic diagram for the solar DEC processes with a solid desic-
cant wheel in Psychrometric charts. Method 4–5 represents the
change in air condition in the area to be cooled. Fig. 10 pre-
sents the DEC processes with a liquid desiccant in Psychromet-
ric charts.
5.2. Solid DEC systems
Solid DEC systems are presented in this section. Ma and Guan
[112] contrasted the solar desiccative evaporative cooling
(SDEC) system with a traditional substantiative system for a
standard office building in all Australian capital cities using
EnergyPlus software. The comparison’s performance indica-
tors are system COP, primary energy consumption, energy sav-
ings, and CO2 emissions reduction per year. They showed the
benefits of SDEC system usage with annual energy savings of
557 GJ and CO2 emission reduction of 121 tones. For other
areas with different weather conditions like Canberra, Hobart,
and Melbourne, the SDEC system is not as energy efficient as
the traditional system. Kolewar et al. [113] examined the
SDEC technology, which was managed from different contexts
including background, history, current status, types, concept,
operational mode, system configuration, research, and indus-
trial as the future, focuses on R&D and commercialization.
They emphasized that the SDEC systems can substitute tradi-
tional mechanical systems with AC, and solar energy is plausi-
ble. Jani et al. [114] presented the solid DEC system,
applications, advancements, and different configurations of
DEC and hybrid systems. They discussed a variety of mathe-
matical models of a rotary desiccant dehumidifier, perfor-
mance evaluation. They presented the advantage of energy
386
Fig. 7 The schematic diagram for the solar DEC system with a solid desiccant wheel.
and cost savings. An overview of the features studied by the
preceding experimental work for solar solid desiccant hybrid
systems was presented. They detected that a hybrid system
could save significant energy by using solar energy or excessive
heat and make the AC system more cost-effective. Zouaoui
et al. [115] examined the performances of different DEC con-
figuration systems using the working principle, feasibility
Fig. 8 DEC processes with a solid desiccant wheel in Psychro-
metric charts.
R.A. Almasri et al.
study, energy saving, solar energy exploitation, desiccant
adsorbent, and DD types. They reported that three configura-
tion systems are best suited for hot and moist weather condi-
tions. Also, Zouaoui et al. [116] examined the suitability of
three desiccant cooling systems under Tunisian climatic condi-
tions. The beds’ regeneration can be achieved using a solar
FPC. They emphasized a continuation of research work in this
subject to study solar heating ramifications for renewal and a
comparative study with the traditional system operating with
the rotary desiccant wheel.
Baniyounes et al. [117] assessed a solar desiccant cooling
system for a building at the Rockhampton on Central Queens-
land University in subtropical Queensland (Australia) using
TRNSYS. They evaluated the technical performance, eco-
nomic, and environmental analysis. They reported that the
installed cooling system composed of solar collectors 10 m2
and a hot water storage container of 0.400 m3 attained a
COP = 0.7 and SF = 22% during the cooling season. If a col-
lector’s area of 20 m2 and a hot water storage volume of 1.5 m3
were installed, the cooling system could be improved to
COP = 1.2, and 60% energy can be saved. The PBP was
22 years if the system materials and equipment’s resale value
amount at least 20%, which also has a tremendous environ-
mental impact. Ali et al. [118] conduct a theoretical study of
five DEC system configurations of five cities from separate
regions: Vienna, Karachi, Sao Paulo, Shanghai, and Adelaide,
under different weather conditions. All these system configura-
tions’ functioning was measured through three performance
specifications: cooling capacity, COP, and cooling energy
delivered. The ventilated Dunkle system was a highly suitable
configuration for Vienna, Sao Paulo, and Adelaide’s weather
regions that signify continental, temperate, and dry-summer
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 387

Fig. 9 The schematic diagram for the solar DEC system with a liquid desiccant.

subtropical climates, respectively. In contrast, the DEC sys-

tem’s functioning was efficient with the ventilation cycle con-
figuration in Karachi and Shanghai weather conditions. Zeng
et al. [119] studied theoretically a solar hybrid one-rotor two-
stage desiccant cooling and heating system using TRNSYS.
The system’s annual functioning simulated and enhanced the
system’s variables, including the solar collector area, the ratio
between fresh air and return air and the HE efficiency. Numer-
ical results acknowledge the experimental ones. The simulation
outcomes exhibited that around 60% of the dampness can be
regulated through the one-rotor two-stage desiccant refrigera-
tor. The room temperature for three values of the ratio
between fresh air and return air, which were 0:1, 1:1, 1:2, were
examined. They found that all the room temperatures decrease
with time, and there is a slight difference between the last two
ratios’ values. Three different solar air collector areas were
proposed; 15 m2, 19.5 m2, and 24 m2 under the solar radiant
intensity of 608.7 W/m2 and the ambient temperature of
31 °C. In winters season, room temperatures were 25.1 °C,
24.2 °C, and 23.4 °C at 11 AM, respectively.
Yadav and Bajpai [120,121] conducted theoretical and
Fig. 10 DEC processes with a liquid desiccant in Psychrometric experimental research for performance analysis of a desiccant
charts. wheel fabricated and installed in Kurukshetra, India. They
assessed the regeneration and adsorption of different desic-
388
cants for generating dry air. The air required for renewal of the
desiccants was heated in an ETC of 4.44 m2 in the range of
54.3–68.3 °C and 40–65 °C. The academic data followed by
the practical result. Finocchiaro et al. [122] assessed the perfor-
mances of a compact DEC system called ‘‘Freescoo” and com-
pared it with standard traditional methods with comparable
heating and cooling system. This system’s application stage
has fewer effects for all the classifications by 96% than a con-
ventional system and competitive from an energy and environ-
mental approach for most considered indicators. Sultan et al.
[123] performed a study on comparison between desiccant
AC systems and traditional vapor compression AC. They
found that the desiccant AC system’s functioning improves
with a rise in regeneration temperature up to a specific temper-
ature level. The beginning regeneration temperature relies
upon various aspects. They reported that eliminating the
dampness in the two-stage dehumidification was more signifi-
cant than the single-stage with a constant flow rate, which
enhanced the system COP. Practical research shows that the
capacity of desiccant AC in an arid environment is restricted,
but evaporative cooling will become an ideal solution instead
of a traditional vapor compression AC system. Several studies
showed that PBP is less than five years, and it has significant
benefits in saving energy and protecting the environment. In
Berlin and Shanghai’s cities with distinguishing weather condi-
tions, Ge et al. [124] theoretically compared a solar-driven two-
stage desiccant cooling system and a vapor compression sys-
tem to cool a story in an office building, with a total area of
1550 m2, and a volume of 6300 m3. It was concluded that
the desiccant cooling system meets the cooling requirement
in both cities. The temperatures needed in Berlin and Shanghai
are 55 °C and 85 °C respectively. A comparison between the
vapor compression system and the desiccant cooling system
shows better performance for the second one. They reported
that PBP was 4.7 years and 7.2 years in Berlin and Shanghai
respectively.
5.3. Liquid DEC systems
Studies on liquid DEC systems are introduced in this section.
Buker and Riffat [125] reviewed the latest researches on solar
liquid desiccant cooling and applications integrated with evap-
orative AC under distinguished weather conditions. An expla-
nation of the fundamentals of hybrid solar liquid desiccant
with direct and indirect evaporative cooling is given. More-
over, solar regeneration processes and the latest successes in
the liquid desiccant AC system are demonstrated. Cuce [126]
presented a liquid DEC system for a different climate, espe-
cially in hot and damp weather conditions. They stated that
the system could be an attractive solution for these climatic
conditions. They reported that an average reduction of
5.3 °C has succeeded in supply air temperature and an average
of 63.7% dehumidification effectiveness. Liquid-descendant
dehumidification combined with evaporative cooling technolo-
gies was demonstrated by Mohammad et al [127]. An explana-
tion of the fundamentals of liquid desiccants, hybrid liquid
desiccant systems, and the liquid desiccant dehumidification
systems was given. The hybrid liquid desiccant with direct
evaporative cooling and indirect evaporative cooling systems
were analyzed. The evaporative cooling combined with the
R.A. Almasri et al.
liquid-desiccant system is more captivating, and the system
COP was 20% higher than the others.
Armanasco et al. [128] assessed the application of waste
heat combined with solar energy experimentally to drive the
liquid DEC system to reduce the load on the electric supply
system and the environmental impact in Northern Italy. They
stated an average primary energy ratio of about 1.6 and a pri-
mary energy saving index of 30%. It can be improved in
attaining a better performance. Lychnos and Davies [129] car-
ried out theoretical and experimental research to assess a solar
liquid desiccant cooling system’s functioning using liquid des-
iccant MgCl2 for greenhouses. The theoretical result gave good
agreement with the experiments, with errors between 7% and
13%. The confirmed model is utilized to anticipate the whole
system’s functioning during the hot summer months in distin-
guishing weather conditions. The desiccant system lowers the
average daily maximum temperatures in summers by 5.5–
7.5 °C compared to the traditional evaporative cooling, ade-
quate to maintain feasible growing conditions for different
vegetables over the summer months. They also demonstrated
that the collector area in needed could be between 500 m2
and 4000 m2 per 1000 m2 of the greenhouse area.
Sahlot and Riffat [130] reviewed and compared different liq-
uid desiccant systems (LDSs). Also, a hybrid of LDSs with a
conventional cooling system has been analyzed. They analyzed
different sorts of mathematical models to anticipate the desic-
cant system’s outlet limitations and existing liquid and solid
desiccants problems. An overview of some significant case stud-
ies and economic analysis of desiccant systems was also pre-
sented. Yang et al. [131] developed a liquid DEC component
module in the versatile SorpSim software. The liquid DEC
was projected to take away 7.8 kg/ hour of vapor with a COP
of 0.64 under a 70 °C heat source. The simulation results reveal
that the liquid DEC increasing heat source temperature leads to
improvement of humidity removal but decreased the COP and
heat exchanger size has a significant effect. At the last time, it is
noted that research on liquid DEC systems has increased
because of energy-efficient AC applications.
5.4. The commercially available DEC systems and components
It is observed from the literature and web sites that some man-
ufacturer is producing complete DEC systems such as Klingen-
burg, Munters, Robatherm GmbH, Siegle + Epple GmbH &
Co. KG for solid sorption [132]. Table 8 depicts the overview
of the commercially available DEC system with different
parameters like dimensions, volume load, cooling capacity,
electrical capacity, and regenerating capacity. It is observed
that when the volume load increases the dimension should also
be increased for particular cooling capacity. There are a lot of
manufacturers for parts of liquid sorption such as Menerga
Kathabar Inc., Ficom, L-DCS Technology GmbH, Ail
Research, and AEX – American Energy Exchange. The man-
ufacturers for part of solid sorption are Klingenburg, Munters
Seibu Giken, Nichias DRI, ProFlute, Rotor Source, Nove-
lAire, Siegle + Epple GmbH & Co. KG [132]. It should be
clarified here that the mentioned equipment is what has been
obtained from companies or webpage, as an example and
according to what is available to the authors. Noting that there
is no guarantee that it is only in production and the market.
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 389

Table 8 Overview of the commercially available dissociative evaporative cooling system.

Ref. Device Type Dimensions Volume Load (m3/h) Cooling Capacity (kW) Electrical Capacity (kW) Regeneration Capacity (kW)
[133] Resolair 62 1200–3600 2.0–6.1 0.75–1.96 0.9–3.0
Resolair 64 3900–23100 6.6–38.8 2.25–16.44 3.2–18.3
Resolair 65 10000–40000 16.3–66.1 7.65–25.36 7.3–139.5
Resolair 66 1800–3600 3.0–6.1 3.8–7.6 1.3–2.9
Resolair 66 3900–23100 (51000) 6.6–38.7 8.12–43.06 3.1–18.1
[134] RM-Line 09/12 3000 16 7.2 31.4
RM-Line 09/12 4500 24 8.8 47.1
RM-Line 09/15 7900 42 14 81.9
RM-Line 09/18 11,900 63 17.4 123.3
RL-Line 12/21 16,600 89 26.8 172
RL-Line 15/27 27,500 147 40 285
RL-Line 15/30 34,500 184 51 357
RL-Line 21/39 57,600 307 86.5 597

5.5. Summary of the case study of solar DEC system
A summary of the case study of the solar DEC system is intro-
duced in this section. Table 9 describes the significant compo-
nent specification for some solar DEC systems studied from
the available literature concerning the desiccant material,
regeneration temperature, total air volume rate, air inlet condi-
tions, COP, type of solar collectors, and the aperture area.
6. Hybrid solar cooling systems (HSCSs)
This section deals with hybrid cooling systems. Most solar
energy systems are hybrids because solar systems cannot pro-
vide adequate energy from the economic side. If we examine
most of the systems described above, there is often a conven-
tional energy source to secure the required load. Note that
there are hybrid systems that use different solar energy tech-
nologies, hence the term SF is being used. Hybrid solar cooling
systems consist of more than one energy source, or different
technology is utilized to generate a cooling effect in the system,
provided that it is a source or technology that depends on solar
energy. In general, HSCSs integrate the benefits and reduce the
complications of integrated cooling methods. It is noted from
studies that most of the hybrid systems adopt the DEC system
as a basic system and use solar and traditional auxiliary sys-
tems. Rayegan et al. [139] studied a solar-assisted desiccant
cooling system integrated with a ground source heat exchanger
(SDCS-GSHE) in a very hot and humid area, Bandar Abbas,
Iran. They applied the study to a 60 m2 commercial building.
They concluded that SDCS-GSHE has excellent potential, the
payback time increases with regeneration temperature and
drops with the rising solar field area. Xu et al. [140] evaluated
energetic and economic solar absorption-subcooled compres-
sion hybrid cooling system (SASCHCS) for cold storage. They
compared the performance of the SASCHCS with the cascade
system and found that energy-saving using SASCHCS was 7
times more than the other one. The performance of the
SASCHCS has a quadratic correlation with the absorption
subsystem size and cooling storage tank volume and econom-
ically with a payback time of 4.96 years. Lo Basso et al. [141]
studied solar cooling Heating, Ventilation, and Air Condition-
ing hybrid system (DEC + CO2 heat pump + PV array) using
MATLAB-SIMULINK under different conditions in Italy.
They informed that the best results if it is utilized in the hot cli-
mate. This system leads to energy saving, of 66.6% for Rome
and 64% for Milan, and seems to be a promising alternative
solution for the nearly zero energy building. Mahmudul
et al. [142] reviewed a solar-assisted biodigester system and
waste to energy technology. They found that the performance
of the Anaerobic Digestion (AD) system is affected by a vari-
ety of factors and methods that can be utilized to enhance per-

Table 9 Summary of the case study of solar DEC system studied by previous work.
Ref. Desiccant material Reg. Airflow Air inlet conditions COP(-) Solar collector
temperature (°C) rate (m3/h) type and area (m2)
Temp. (°C) Humidity (gw/kgair)
[128] LiCl 55–60 12,000 32 17.0 0.90–1.28 ETC 136.1
[135] Composite silica-gel 60–90 9000 35 14.3 0.83–1.1 ETC 530
[117] Solid desiccant – 580, 1450 28.0–36.0 17.0–32.0 0.7–1.2 FPC 5, 10, 20, 50
[129] MgCl – 85–95 34.7–35.2 10.0 = 27.0 – FPC 0.61
[136] LiCl – 947–993 19.7–28.5 1.5 ± 0.19 – FPC 20
[137] Silica gel 71, 81, 85 800–1000 32.8 23.4 0.8–1.6 ETC, PVT, PV
[138] Silica gel 50–90 1000–2600 34.0 22.0 0.85–1.24 FPC 72
[120] * 55–69 80–120 31.5–39.8 19.7–24.9 – ETC 4.44
[121] Silica gel 50–80 – 24.0–36.0 16.0–24.0 – ETC 4.44
[124] Silica gel and LiCl2 55, 85 36,600 32–34 14–22 0.9–1.28 ETC 550
* Silica gel, activated alumina, and activated charcoal.
390
formance. The authors reveal that solar energy efficiently
raises the biogas digester temperature and maximizes the bio-
gas yield. Khalid et al. [143] conducted experimental and sim-
ulation research on a solar-assisted pre-cooled hybrid
desiccant cooling system (PH-DCS) for high humidity AC uses
in Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan. Authentication of the
TRYNSIS model of the same cooling system was conducted
via a gas-fired, pre-cooled, hybrid desiccant cooling test rig.
Four configurations of the cooling system were simulated.
Lahore’s simulation outcomes showed that better COP can
be attained by applying the indirect evaporative cooler for
pre-cooling and direct evaporative cooler for post-cooling of
air. A solar air collector life cycle evaluation was conducted
with energy and environmental PBP equivalent to 1 and
1.5 years. An economic evaluation of the solar collector
reported a PBP of around 14 years.
Dai et al. [135] theoretically studied hybrid solar systems of
desiccant air cooling systems and heat pumps with a ground
heat exchanger in China. The hybrid system consists of a
two-stage desiccant cooling system with a cooling potential of
80 kW and two heat pumps with 75 kW. They used a simulation
model based on TRNSYS. The average thermal COP is about
0.83 of desiccant composite silica-gel DEC system with a max-
imum flow rate of process air 9000 m3/hour. An ETC array of
530 m2 is used for cooling and heating 2000 m2 office building
under Shanghai weather conditions. The results showed that
the solar-directed desiccant cooling system could attain an
average cooling capacity of 70 kW, which supplies 31.4% of
the hybrid system’s cooling capacity, decreasing the total elec-
tric energy consumption by about 39.5% as compared to a tra-
ditional approach. Yadav and Kaushik [144] introduced a
Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of a hybrid solar desiccant cooling system with vapor-compression chiller [137].
R.A. Almasri et al.
hybrid vapor compression (VC) and solid/fluid desiccant sun-
oriented cooling framework. By utilizing the desiccants, the
inert warmth burden can be changed over into a reasonable
warmth burden, and afterward, this heap can be connected with
a customary VC framework. This framework will utilize the
dismissed warmth from the VC cycle’s condenser to restore
the desiccants to upgrade the COP of the frameworks. It was
exhibited that a half-breed framework with a desiccant cycle
was more proficient under high territory sodden states, and sig-
nificant energy can be saved over conventional cooling frame-
works. Every one of the three setups was extensively massive
than the standard VC. Fong et al. [137] analyzed a solar-
based desiccative evaporative cooling framework with the cus-
tomary cooling framework for various arrangements and aver-
age office applications under distinctive climate and stacking
states. All arrangement framework substitutes were exhibited
as basically feasible, with a limit of 35.2% sparing of essential
energy utilization contrasted with the customary cooling frame-
works. The two-mixture frameworks utilized cleared cylinders;
a more efficient kind of sunlight-based gatherer against the PV
boards. Fig. 11 depicts the schematic graph of the solar ori-
ented desiccant cooling framework - fume pressure chiller.
Evacuated tubes were used as sunlight based gatherers to sup-
ply the necessary warmth, supplemented by the helper gas radi-
ator. An evaporative cooler was fixed in the fumes air stream,
which aided decreasing capacity required, without generously
raising the desiccant wheel’s dehumidification obligation. Most
extreme assistant electrical force supply from the network was
expected to run the fume pressure chiller, a desiccant wheel,
turning heat exchanger, evaporative cooler, cooling pinnacle,
siphons, and fans.
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
Baniyounes et al. [145] reviewed a hybrid solar desiccant
cooling system theoretically and experimentally which is
located at the Rockhampton campus of Central Queensland
University, Queensland, Australia. The cooling system com-
prises a DEC system and a vapor compression cooling system.
The experimental results were analyzed based on energy sav-
ings, SF, primary energy used, COP, and desiccant system effi-
ciency. It was concluded that the installed cooling system
attained 18% energy savings with a maximum COP of 0.83
and 48% desiccant effectiveness. Speerforck and Schmitz
[136] studied the coupled operation of a solar desiccant-
assisted AC system experimentally for an office with 54 m2
with borehole HEs at Hamburg University of Technology,
Germany. The result shows that a significant decrease in elec-
tricity demand and an electric energy efficiency ratio of 6.63
could be attained. Compared to a conventional system, elec-
tricity savings of more than 70% can be reached. If borehole
heat exchangers were utilized in integration with a heat pump
during winter, the system provides an enticing prospect for a
full AC system that cools, heats, regenerates, and dehumidifies.
Fong et al. [146] investigated the joint solar-based DECs with
Fig. 12 Schematic diagram of a solar HCS using radiant cooling by absorption refrigeration and desiccant dehumidification. (Remark:
The SAF, RAF, and related SAD were involved only for the system using the active chilled beams, not for the passive chilled beams) [146].
391
solar-based absorption chiller fueled radiant roof cooling in an
office territory. Radiant cooling and desiccant dehumidifica-
tion observed the touchy zones and dormative loads individu-
ally, and an absorption chiller was applied to convey cold
water straightforwardly to the radiant roof and the desiccant
cooling framework supply air loop. FPC was liable for the
recovery of the desiccant haggle chiller frameworks (Fig. 12).
The framework was examined based on the yearly powerful
reproduction model in TRNSYS under the Hong Kong cli-
mate. The significant results accomplished were as per the fol-
lowing: capability of the sun based HCS could meet the
prerequisite of cooling, the primary energy sparing capacity
of the framework could arrive at a most significant of 36.5%
against conventional brought together cooling framework,
and latent chilled bar shed is preferable general exhibitions
over that utilizing of dynamic ones.
La et al. [138] analyzed a solar hybrid solar desiccative
evaporative cooling AC system that combines two-stage desic-
cant cooling and conventional AC in Jiangsu, China, experi-
mentally and theoretically using TRNSYS. An FPC array
for 72 m2 was used for an office building, which covers an area
392
of about 160 m2. The experimental results exhibit that, under
typical climatic states, the solar-directed desiccant cooling unit
can obtain an average thermal COP between 0.85 and 1.24.
They emphasized that for a variety of operating forms, the
solar hybrid system is feasible. Hürdoğan et al. [147] studied
the solar desiccative evaporative cooling AC systems theoreti-
cally and experimentally. In the model, the temperatures
attained from the experiments in Cukurova University, Adana,
Turkey, were utilized. They reported that solar energy in the
system could increase the COP from 50% to 120%.
Yong et al. [148] carried out experimental tests of hybrid
desiccant dehumidification and AC systems using LiCl desic-
cant for places with greater humidity in Hong Kong. They
evaluated the system using the COP, primary energy usage,
and electrical energy usage. Experiments have exhibited a con-
tinuous decrease in dampness ratio satisfying through a respec-
tive subsystem, resulting in a higher COP based on primary
energy utilization. The results also demonstrate that the regen-
eration temperature and the process airflow rate play a vital
part in the system’s functioning and the hybrid system can
obtain higher part-load conduct, and thereby ensure an effica-
cious operation throughout the year in hot and damp zones.
Martı́nez et al. [149] compared an absorption chiller with
direct fire activated and a hybrid solar-gas absorption chiller,
cooling capacity of 17.6 kW in residential buildings in Mexi-
cali, BC Mexico. Simulations were carried out during the sum-
mer of the town, applying dynamic simulation using TRNSYS
mainly attained LPG consumption and decreased its consump-
tion to utilize solar energy as a heat source in the generator.
Eight PTCs were used which decrease in consumption of
LPG of around 24% during the period was noted.
Hepbasli [150] studied the energetic analysis and perfor-
mance evaluation of various renewable energy resources
(RERs) such as solar, wind, geothermal energy systems, bio-
mass, etc. Four equations are used such as mass, energy,
entropy, and exergy to measure work and heat interactions,
lower exergy rate, irreversibility rate, and the energy and
exergy deficiencies for the RERs. It is concluded that RERs
are very beneficial for sustainability. Zheng and Meng [151]
regarded the absorption/ compression hybrid cooling cycle as
an efficacious method to decrease mechanical work consump-
tion by utilizing low-grade heat, for instance, solar energy. The
significant specifications contain the concentration difference,
the flow ratio of the working fluid, etc. The study indicates that
the hybrid refrigeration cycle’s efficiency differs with the
change of compressor outlet pressure and relies on which
one obtains power in the hybrid refrigeration cycle, the
absorption sub-system, or the compression sub-system. The
conduct-turning point correlates with the highest value of the
heat-powered output coefficient during several criteria. In this
case, the hybrid cooling cycle efficiency is ideal, as the low-
grade thermal application is the most efficient one. Besides, a
solar hybrid cooling cycle with R134a–DMF as a working pair
was simulated to check the theoretical test. The results are in
concurrence with the academic examination. There were also
studies by Dai et al. [42] that analyzed the evaporatively cooled
adsorption machine combined with the desiccant cooling sys-
tem and the hybrid system depending upon the ejector- ADSC
system by Zhang and Wang [44] and Li et al. [46]. A summary
of hybrid solar cooling works is listed in Table 10.
R.A. Almasri et al.
7. Multi-use solar system for heating, cooling, and power
generation
This section deals with multi-use solar systems for heating,
cooling, and power generation. Wang et al. [160] reviewed var-
ious types of multi-use solar systems and reported that some
issues such as high cost and unstable operation, limit the wide
applications of solar technologies into these systems, which
necessarily requires solar energy researches on new cost-
effective technologies and new work for a longer duration.
The study is appropriate indicators to evaluate multi-use solar
systems. There are usually different sources and multiple in
hybrid systems. Each energy flow has various properties and
a suitable indicator to evaluate the performances or guide
the optimization of the hybrid systems. Zhai et al. [161]
claimed that some systems produce different types of energy.
They examined small-scale solar heating, cooling, and power
generation system, including a parabolic trough solar collec-
tor, a helical screw expander, silica gel water adsorption chil-
ler, etc., as shown in Fig. 13. A case study was conducted to
analyze the system’s yearly energy and exergy effectiveness
under the weather of the northwestern part of China. The prin-
cipal loss of energy and exergy was shown to be 36.2% and
70.4% in the PTC, respectively. They also demonstrated that
the system could better solar energy conversion efficacy than
the traditional solar thermal power generation system alone.
The energy effectiveness can be increased to 58.0%, and the
exergy effectiveness can be increased to 15.2%. They reported
that the PBP of the system suggested is around 18 years based
upon the current energy cost states. The sensitivity evaluation
reveals that if the interest rate reduces to 3% or the energy cost
increases by 50%, the PBP will be less than ten years. Reda
et al. [30] focused on two configurations of a solar ABSC sys-
tem applying TRNSYS software for an office building situated
in Finland. Indeed, the application of such cooling technology,
to decrease the energy used for both heating and cooling and
to cut-off summer electricity peaks, can permit some cogener-
ation heating plants to function in summer as well, managing
the future energy networks’ aims: being able to supply electric-
ity, heat and cooling energy.
Peng et al. [162] evaluated a novel combined cooling heat-
ing and power system. They used concentrating solar collec-
tor and double-effect absorption chiller in the system for
three different conditions in Iran. The authors reported that
the highest electrical efficiency of the proposed system was
37.33%, the highest overall efficiency was 73.99%, and the
highest exergy efficiency was 51.36%. Karim et al. [163]
designed, proposed, and assessed an absorption system using
evacuated tube solar collectors, for heating, cooling, and
power generation for residential applications. The authors
explained that by expanding the collector area, the specific
cost decreases but the total cost rate rises considerably.
Toghyani et al. [164] performed the energy and exergy anal-
yses of a nanofluid-based solar absorption cooling and
hydrogen production The results show that the rate of hydro-
gen production increases at higher solar radiation intensity
because of the Rankine cycle delivers more power to the pro-
ton exchange membrane electrolyzer. The efficiency of the
hybrid system increases approximately by 9% by an increase
of ambient temperature from 5 to 40 °C.
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 393

Table 10 Hybrid solar-assisted cooling systems.

Ref. Technology used material Collector type and area Study method Applications Main Points
and Power of chiller (kW) (m2)
[45] Hybrid systems based on collector areas of 40 Examination of Office and  Investigation of the energy and economic
desiccant-photovoltaic/ and 50 m2 the energy and lecture room conduct of DEC systems
thermal cooling systems economic  Used solar cogeneration’ using PV/T
performance hybrid collectors that allow the generation
of electricity along with the heat
 It is possible to achieve a high ratio of
energy savings
 Three configurations of solar-aided air
handling units (AHU) were assessed
 Public motives of up to 30% of the invest-
ment cost
[152] Combined desiccant- NA Numerical Buildings  Numerical simulation of model validation
vapor compression HCS Simulation and optimization of a solar hybrid air con-
ditioner using TRNSYS and MATLAB
software
 The TRNSYS model was experimentally
validated before the optimization study
 The genetic algorithm was chosen to
resolve the single-objective development
issue
 The total cost of the improved solar AC
design is compared with the VCC
standard.
[153] Combined ejector-heat NA Experimental Small  Solar-assisted ejector cooling/heating sys-
pump cooling system Residential tem (SACH) which integrates the ejector
buildings cooling system (ECS) with a heat pump
 The ECS was driven by solar heat
 SACH system test run at outdoor temper-
ature 35 °C, indoor temperature 25 °C,
and compressor speed 20–80 Hz
 ECS working at 90 °C generator tempera-
ture and 37 °C condensing temperature.
[47] Combined DEC- NA Mathematical Office  A statistical model for anticipating the
Evaporative cooling Model buildings functioning of solar energy assisted hybrid
system AC system utilizing honeycombed silica
gel desiccant wheel
 The structural and operating specifications
of the desiccant wheel change with distin-
guishing weather states
 The temperature of regeneration air intake
varied from 65 to 140 °C, the area ratio of
process air to regeneration air shift from 1
to 3.57, regeneration air inlet velocity from
1.5 to 5.5 m/s
 The improvement of these specifications is
carried out
[74] HCS based on biomass- Absorber plate area Thermodynamic Domestic  Study on hybrid combined cooling heating
solar energy per tube 0.175 m2 model built and power (CCHP) system operated
andInsolation area per environment through biomass and solar energy
tube 0.19 m2 applications  CCHP comprises a sub-system for bio-
mass gassing, a solar collector, an internal
combustion engine, and an electronic
mixed-effect absorption chiller with dual-
source capacity.
 The system generated electricity, cold
water, and hot water.
(continued on next page)
394 R.A. Almasri et al.

Table 10 (continued)
Ref. Technology used material Collector type and area Study method Applications Main Points
and Power of chiller (kW) (m2)
[154] Hybrid systems based NA Numerical Study Heating and  Energy and exergy examination of a new
heat pump-absorption cooling two effects hybrid heat pump depending
refrigeration system applications upon NH3/H2O.
 A numerical study was conducted to antic-
ipate the functioning of a double effect
absorption/compression hybrid system.
 All energy and exergy outcomes were con-
trasted with those of the two effects
absorption heat pump.
 The loss of exergy of each part of the heat
pump was measured under several work-
ing conditions.
 The analyzed parameters were the COP,
irreversibility, and energetic efficiency.
[155] Hybrid system with NA design of Office  Examination of a hybrid renewable cool-
ground-source radiant renewable building air- ing system (HRCS) for an office building
cooling and the solar cooling conditioning in a hot and damp weather condition.
absorption cooling  The ground source radiant cooling,
depending on solar ABSC cooling, shared
a segment of the building’s substantial
cooling load.
 The conduct of the system through the
joint assistance of renewable energy
sources was examined.
 It was proven that the HRCS could save
primary energy from 43.8% to 68.0%.
[156] Hybrid solar-assisted AC NA Numerical AC  Developed the modeling and ideal control
system with refrigerant’s problem of a new hybrid solar-assisted AC
sub-cooling process system.
 A new discharge bypass line combined
with an inline solenoid valve, fixed after
the compressor.
 The system has been fully instrumented to
investigate its conduct.
 Substantial experimental studies then ver-
ify the system model.
[151] Absorption–vapor FPC Analysis Refrigeration  Investigated the interaction mechanism of
compression hybrid compressor pressure rising with other sig-
refrigeration cycle nificant aspects, for instance, the concen-
tration difference, the circulation ratio,
and the effect of compressor pressure
increasing on the cycle conduct.
 The absorption–compression hybrid
refrigeration cycle is a productive method
to decrease the mechanical work
consumption
 Two primary ideas have been put forward,
which are the ultimate refrigerating tem-
perature (or the ultimate temperature
increase) and the behavior turning.
[157] Hybrid solar-assisted NA Theoretical cooling unit  The elements of the cooling unit have been
adsorption-gas burner investigations for vaccine delineated.
system storage  Vaccine storage has been planned to use a
hybrid ADSC unit for solar power as the
primary power source and a gas fire sys-
tem for alternative power.
 Zeolite-13X was selected for the first
adsorber to control a gas burner. Selective
water sorbent SWS-2L has been used for
the second adsorber to operate solar
energy.
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems 395

Table 10 (continued)
Ref. Technology used material Collector type and area Study method Applications Main Points
and Power of chiller (kW) (m2)
[158] A hybrid system based on collector area: 4.8 m2 residential  hybrid renewable energy system with
geothermal and solar heat buildings in geothermal and solar heat sources investi-
sources South Korea gated the economic feasibility.
 The system comprises a geothermal heat
pump and solar collectors.
 Determined whether the HRES will gener-
ate any economic gains for homeowners.
 The PBP of large-scale HRES above
400RT was 6 to 7 years.
[139] A solar-assisted desiccant ETC area 30 m2 Numerical 60 m2  The best setup, when the regeneration
cooling system with EnergyPlus- commercial temperature, number of ground source
geothermal MATLAB building heat exchanger boreholes, a solar fraction,
were 90 °C, 9, and 90%, that the simple
payback time was 5.7 years.
[149] Hybrid solar-gas PTC aperture area Numerical Residence  Comparison between an absorption chiller
absorption chiller and 2.84 m2 TRANSYS with direct fire activated and a hybrid
absorption chiller with solar-gas absorption chiller.
direct fire activated  The cooling capacity of 17.6 kW.
[143] Fire pre-cooled hybrid Total collector area Experimental air  Experimental and simulation research of
desiccant cooling system 12 m2 and numerical conditioning solar-assisted PH-DCS system for AC
simulation usage
 Tests were carried out on a gas-fired pre-
cooled hybrid desiccant cooling
 verification of TRYNSIS model with mea-
sured experimental data
[159] A hybrid system based on NA Numerical Buildings  The aim is to build, analyze, and improve
solar thermal and solar solar energy systems’ ideas to supply
electrical systems power to buildings and cities.
 Based on solar thermal and solar electrical
systems, highly creative solar hybrid ideas.
 Solar hybrid ideas will have about heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning- (HVAC)
systems.

8. Phase change materials (PCM) in solar systems
This section focuses on PCM used in solar thermal storage.
PCM solar thermal storages depend upon construction param-
eters such as fins, container geometry, orientations, and
nanoparticle addition. It also depends on operating parameters
such as working fluid temperature and flow rate, and the initial
temperature. The use of fins and nanoparticles in storages
improves the melting rate to 71 and 62.6% in the shell-and-
tube one as reported by Punniakodi and Senthil [165]. They
concluded that a suitable arrangement of construction and
operation parameters and the hybridization of sensible and
latent heat storage materials could be considered for further
research in the solar field. Table 11 shows the classification
and specifications of these materials. Further, the PCM could
be used for cooling and heating applications.
Teamah [166] performed a comprehensive review of the
application of PCM in domestic water heating systems by
enhancing PCM properties. The results show that potential
energy management opportunities can significantly reduce
our reliance on fossil fuels. Consequently, promoting a green
future and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. It is structured
to guide researchers and engineers working in the inclusion of
PCMs in residential heating applications. El Loubani et al.
[167] studied the hybrid cooling system that integrates PCM
thermal storage layer with a melting temperature of 25 °C to
cool the supply air and a personalized evaporative cooler to
achieve thermal comfort in a space. Moreover, it reduced the
total energy cost by 87% compared with a conventional AC
unit over the summer period. Brancato et al. [168] performed
a study on the identification and characterization of PCM
for solar thermal energy for AC applications. The result shows
that the most attractive commercial PCM operating in the
temperature range between 80 °C and 100 °C, which is suitable
for non concentrating solar cooling systems. Rao et al. [169]
prepared and investigated a new PCM, 70% EHS/EP2, for
passive solar energy purposes. Compared with the pure
expanded perlite2 insulation panel, the new insulation one
could surprisingly reduce the maximum temperature during
the melting process and lengthen the time of heat conservation
in the cooling process. The authors found that the time to get
the room temperature to reach 20 °C is about twice as long
with the new panel compare with pure expanded perlite 2
panel. Singh et al. [170] evaluated the dispersion of functional-
ized graphene nanoplatelets in phase change material (LiNO3-
KCl) experimentally. They stated that this mixture improved
396
Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of the solar heating, cooling, and power generation system [161].
Table 11 Types classification and specifications of PCMs [165].
Types of PCM Melting temperature range (◦C) Thermal conductivity (W/ m. K)
Organic 50 to 200 0.1–0.3
Inorganic 10 to 900 0.3–1.0
Eutectic 10 to 600 0.3–0.7
the thermal performance of the storage system in different per-
centages according to the ratio of addition of nanoplatelets.
Sayed Hassan Abdallah [171] investigated the use of PCM in
a passive system with the solar chimney and solar water heater
experimentally for cooling/ heating in Assiut climate, Egypt.
He reported that the system achieves high performance for
the solar chimney after sunset on a hot day and water temper-
ature riched 58 °C at 3 PM, but only 40 °C after sunset. Also,
the system reaches a drop of room air temperature between 8
and 4 K and he emphasized the use of this system on the upper
floor. Gholamibozanjani and Farid [172] studied experimen-
tally the effect of use PCM and a price-based control on peak
load shifting on 2 semple huts in the University of Auckland,
New Zealand. They concluded that the system was successful
in shifting both heating and cooling loads to the off-peak peri-
ods, and informed that up to 47% and 23% of daily energy-
saving, in winter and summer seasons respectively. They
reported that the amount of PCM and melting temperature
must be adjusted based on the application and climate condi-
tions. Sezen et al. [173] reviewed the effects of the ambient con-
ditions on solar-assisted heat pump systems for heating modes.
The review is a valuable guide for more studies to find the suit-
able solar-assisted heat pump type for a specific site with actual
ambient conditions to increase the performance of the systems.
Hebat et al. [174] studied the dynamic performance of a ther-
R.A. Almasri et al.
Latent heat (kJ/kg) Density(kg/ m3)
80–400 600–1500
90–300 700–1600
120–375 600–1450
mal energy storage system containing PCMs and liquid water
by numerical investigation and non-dimensional analysis. The
performance of this system is compared to a sensible system
which was assessed based on the gain in energy and storage
capacity. By using a 50% packing ratio and 10 °C operating
temperature range in water tanks, the gains reached high as
179%. The choice of PCM module diameter highly affects
gains almost halved as diameter increases four times. Mehari
et al. [175] performed the study on multi-functional three-
phase sorption solar thermal energy storage cycles for cooling,
heating purpose. The result shows that a temperature lift of 65
°C and an energy storage density up to 1307 Wh/kg were
obtained, which is not possible to obtain in a conventional
three-phase cycle. Also, the discharging temperature greater
than 100 °C and combined cold and heat storages at 15 °C
and 60 °C are achieved. The three-phase sorption thermal
energy storage has a wider range of applications. Teamah
and Lightstone [176] studied a ground source heat pump sys-
tem for the electrical load shift capability with PCM storage
numerically. The results reveal that total a 2.5 m3 water tank
or a 1 m3 hybrid tank containing 50% PCM by volume pro-
duced electrical load shift to off-peak hours. This implies that
without compromising the space heating capability the storage
volume reduced around 65%. The hybrid system offered a
higher storage capacity when the operating temperature range
Thermal solar sorption cooling systems
is restricted by the operation of a heat pump. Hirmiz et al.
[177] studied the performance enhancement of solar absorp-
tion cooling systems using thermal energy storage with PCMs.
Predicted results are validated with simulated results. An engi-
neering approach for predicting the expected benefit from
PCM-based thermal storage and water for applications for
limited temperature ranges in this study. Jiang et al. [178]
reviewed the development of high-temperature PCM compos-
ites for solar thermal energy storage. They reviewed the cur-
rent trends and recent developments in the preparation and
classification of high temperature (greater than 300 °C) PCM
composites. The effect of developed PCM composites on their
melting point, latent heat of fusion, thermal stability, and heat
transfer performance were also discussed.
9. Numerical methods and simulation software
In this section, the programs used in the field of solar energy
and the determination of the optimum heating and cooling
load are presented. Various simulation software is available
for studying solar systems in general, thermal systems, electri-
cal systems, and including renewable energy systems are avail-
able. There are also programs for studying and determining
the thermal and electrical loads of buildings and applications,
ensuring the lowest possible energy intake and the best feasible
occupant comfort. Most of these are dynamic simulation pro-
grams for the design, optimization, and calculation of solar
electrical/thermal systems. A study of the effect of energy con-
servation measures and energy efficiency in buildings is also
present in several programs. Some of this simulation software
are devoted to scientific research and some are for designing,
saving energy, determining economic feasibility, and the emis-
sion impact. TRNSYS [179] is considered the most excellent
one to assess the performance of thermal energy systems for
researchers. Most of these programs and software are not
more than 20 years old. Table 12 shows the names of this sim-
ulation software distributed into various studies by applica-
tions. There are also many other programs for studying
specific cases or systems of solar systems. It must be mentioned
here but the Table 12 does not include all the existing pro-
grams, but rather that was obtained by the authors. These pro-
grams are an aid to the development and utilization of solar
energy systems, and they assist the decision-maker in making
an appropriate decision quickly. It should also be noted that
all these programs have input data that are set by the user,
which must be correct. Also, many engineers and scientists
use MATLAB, ANSYS, and CFD software to analyze data,
develop algorithms, and create models for solar systems.
Table 12 Simulation software in solar energy and the main
applications.
Ref. Main applications or systems
[180–183] Determining the thermal and electrical loads for
building and processes
[184–193] Electrical solar
[194–196] Thermal solar
[179,197,198] Electrical/thermal solar
[199–201] Renewable energy
397
10. Conclusion
The use of solar sorption cooling can reduce the load on the
electrical grid. The different solar cooling technologies and
applications were studied critically and found the critical
parameters which are available in Table 13. Three essential
parameters, technological, economic, and environmental, were
deeply analyzed in this study. The temperature, humidity, peak
load, installation cost, equipment needed, control system strat-
egy, available energy sources, and skilled operators have been
considered to select technology. Solar energy utilization for
various applications requires a high initial cost comparing to
conventional electricity. So the parameters such as manufac-
turing, installation, operation and maintenance costs, durabil-
ity, durability, the price change of energy and technology, and
tax were given importance in the economic aspects of solar
cooling. Further, the environmental effect of utilizing solar
energy is also crucial because many industries producing elec-
tricity using various energy resources which pollutes the atmo-
sphere tremendously. As per the study, parameters like
protection, water need, water availability, pollution-free, out-
door condition, and getting rid of the system were involved
in utilizing the solar cooling system. Comparing to the differ-
ent solar cooling technologies concerning various parameters
discussed above, the ABSC system was found to be more effi-
cient than all other cooling systems in various aspects.
It is observed that the application of solar energy is essen-
tial for refrigeration and AC systems. Various study methods,
technologies, hybrid and multi-use solar systems have been
reviewed concerning different applications in different coun-
tries. Also, studies have been conducted theoretically and
experimentally concerning the required performance and
applications in a particular location. Simulation software used
in energy efficiency and solar energy were presented. The final
results can also be summarized as follows:
 Three essential parameters, technological, economic, and
environmental, were deeply analyzed in this study for the
three different solar sorption cooling technologies.
 The DECs are most effective in warm and humid areas than
the traditional systems, their efficiency improves dramati-
cally in hybrid systems, and FPC runs these systems.
 Solar energy can be utilized in thermal cooling or the pho-
toelectric system to run conventional vapor compression
systems.
Table 13 Summary of studied parameters in solar sorption
cooling technologies.
Technology Economic Environment
Conditions needed Manufacturing cost Protection
Available capacity/ Installation cost Water need
technology
Peak load time and Operation and Water
condition maintenance cost availability
Equipment needed Lifelong of system Pollution-free
Control system Price change in energy Outside climatic
strategy and technology condition
Available energy Tax Getting rid of the
sources system
Skilled operators – –
398
 The research on desiccant materials that can be regenerated
under lower temperatures would augment the extent of
solar desiccant cooling application.
 It is significant to give a concluding comment that the eval-
uation focused on solar sorption cooling only. Solar ther-
mal technology can be used for heating and hot water
generation during the months when cooling is not
demanded. Hence a more comprehensive evaluation should
thoroughly evaluate the annual usage of the plant.
 There is no consensus in the references about hybrid sys-
tems. Some of them consider the systems that use different
energy sources to be hybrids, some consider the systems
that use different cooling technologies as hybrids, and some
of them consider the systems that produce energy for differ-
ent purposes also hybrids.
 Phase change materials (PCM) and storage systems used in
solar systems improve performance.
 TRNSYS software can be considered as the most one to
assess the performance of solar systems for researchers.
 This study is helpful to all those are interested in solar sorp-
tion refrigeration and air-conditioning engineering,
researchers, technicians, producers, and others.
Declaration of Competing conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest con-
cerning the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Qassim University, repre-
sented by the Deanship of Scientific Research, on the material
support for this research under the number (2214) during the
academic year 1438 AH/2017 AD.
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