MODULE 1: Communication System and Noise

This module aims to explain the fundamentals of the

basic electronics communication system and its
application. It also includes the different electronic
spectrum and applications used in the communication
system and electronic noise that interfere in the
communication systems.

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

SYSTEM

Communication is the knowledge and operation of

exchanging and dealing with information.

Information: Intelligence, signal, data, or any measurable

physical quantity

Evolution and Progression Communication Terms

Communication Theory between human like The signal is whatever physical process that
intercommunicate information.
Kind of hand motion and facial expressions
Communicative grunts and groans The Systems act to signals and create brand-new
signals. Excitation signals are practical at system inputs
Long Spacing Communications and response signals are produced at system outputs.
Smoking and Vaporization signals
Telegraphy
Telephony

Radio-Communication Signals

Triode Vacuum Tube

Commercial Radio Broadcasting
Electronic Communication System
Transmission, reception, and processing of
information between two or more locations using
electronic circuits.
Information Reference Analog / Digital Format
Essential for Communication
Importance of communication:
Transaction of information between two parties
spaced in distances in a more quick and time -tested
manner.
Information: The commodity is produced b y the source
for transportation to some individual at the destination.
Message: The physical demonstration of information is
produced by the information source.
Signals: A physical concrete representation of
information – voltage signal or current signal.
Basic Requirements of Communication System
Purity Rate of information transfer: How fast the
information can be transferred
Signal received: whether the signal received is the
same as the signal being transmitted
The simplicity of the system: the simpler the system,
the better
Reliability
Transmitter The transmitter is a building block and
collection of an electronic component part and circuits
that converts the electrical energy into a signal
appropriate for transmission over a presented media.
Communication Channel

The communication channel is the medium by which the

electronic information and data is transmitted from one
place to another. Form of media consider

Electrical conductors
Optical media
Free space
System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for
sonar).

Receivers A receiver is a building block of electronic

elements, segments, and circuits that take on the
transmittable message from the channel and converts it
back into a structure comprehensible by human race.

Receivers includes amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned

circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that
recovers the original intelligence information signal from
the modulated carrier.

Transceivers A transceiver is an electronic portion that

incorporates circuits that both transferral and have
signals. Examples are:

-Handheld Continuous Broadcast Radios

-Cellular Phones
-Telephones Devices (Rotary and Tone Dialing)
-Computer modems (Modulator and -
Demodulator)
-Facsimile Machines

Attenuation

Signal attenuation, or degradation, subsist in totally

medium of wireless transmission. It is proportion-able
to the square of the distance between the transmitter
channel and receiver elements. Noise

Noise is random, unsuitable electronic energy signals

that get along into the communication scheme via the
communicating medium and block with the transmitted
message or communication process.
Lesson 2: THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic Spectrum : Scientific discipline have
established that numerous types of wave can be
arranged and organized jointly like written record on a
piano keyboard, to pattern a standard. The name calling
of the waves, which ones have higher or low -level
frequencies the order they suited into the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Wholly of these are "electromagnetic waves". This way
that although they seem to be very different, in fact they
are all made of the same kind of vibrations - but at
different.
All electromagnetic waves movement at the same pace -
300,000,000 meters per second, which is the speed of
light.
What does "frequency" mean?
The frequency of a wave is the definite quantity of waves
per second.
What does "wavelength" mean?
The wavelength is the distance from th e peak of one
wave to the next one.
Categories of Frequency Spectrum
How they are made : Gamma rays are given off by stars,
and by whatever radioactive component part These are
extremely high frequency waves, and carry a larger
quantity of energy.
Usage: Because Gamma rays can kill off living cells. These
are used to kill cancer cells without having to recourse to
challenging surgery. This is called "Radiotherapy", and
works because cancer cells cannot fix themselves like
healthy cells when damaged by gamma rays. Getting the
medication right is very all-important.
Dangers: Gamma rays cause cell damage an d can cause
a variety of cancers. Theycausemutations in growing
tissues, so unborn babies are especially vulnerable.
X-RAYS
How they are made : X-rays are very high frequency
waves, and carry a lot of energy. They will passthrough
most substances, and this makes them useful in medicine
and industry to see inside things.
Uses: X -rays are used by doctors to see inside people.
They pass easily through soft tissues, but not so easily
through bones. We send a beam of X -Rays through the
patient and onto a piece of film, which goes dark where
X-Rays hit it. This leaves white patches on the film where
the bones were in the way. Lower energy X -Rays don't
pass thr ough tissues as easily, and can be used to scan
soft areas such as the brain
Dangers: X-Rays can cause cell damage and cancers. This
is why Radiographersinhospitals stand behind a shield
when they X-ray their patients
 ULTRA VIOLET RAY Uses: We use light to see things! As the Sun sends so
much light towards our planet, we've evolved to make
use of those particular wavelengths in order to sense our
environment. Light waves can also be made using a laser.
This works differently to a light bulb, and produces
"coherent" light.

Dangers: Too much light can damage the retina in your

eye. This can happen when you look at something ve ry
bright, such as the Sun.

INFRARED
How they are mad e: Ultra-Violet light is made by special
lamps, for example, on sun beds. It is also given off by the
Sun in large quantities. We called it “UV” in short.

Uses: For UV light include getting a sun tan, detecting

forged bank notes in shops, and hardening some types of
dental filling.

When you mark your possessions with a security marker

pen, the ink is invisible unless you shine a UV lamp at it.

Ultraviolet rays can be used to kill microbes. Hospitals

use UV lamps to sterilize surgical equipment and the air
in operating theatres. Suitable doses of Ultraviolet rays
cause the body to produce vitamin D, and this is used by
doctors to treat vitamin D deficiency and some skin How they are made : Infra -red waves are just below
disorders. visible red light in the electromagnetic spectrum ("Infra"
means "below"). You probably think of Infra -red waves
Dangers: Large doses of UV can damage the retinas in
as heat, because they're given off by hot objects,and you
your eyes, so it's important to check that your sunglasses
can feel them as warmth on your skin. Infra -Red waves
will block UV light.
are also given off by stars, lamps, flames and anything
Large doses of UV cause sunburn and even skin cancer else that's warm-including you.

Uses: Infra -red waves are called "IR" for short. They are
used for many tasks, for example, remote control s for
VISIBLE LIGHT TVs and video recorders, and physiotherapists use heat
lamps to help heal sports injuries.

Dangers: The danger from too much Infra -Red radiation

is very simple - it makes you hot.

How they are made: Our eyes can detect only a tiny part
of the electromagnetic spectrum, called visible light. This
means that there's a great deal happening around us that
we're simply not aware of, unless we have instruments
to detect it.
 MICROWAVE Uses: Radio waves are the lowest frequencies in the
electromagnetic spectrum, and are used mainly for
communications.

They are divided into: Long Wave, around 1~2 km in

wavelength. The radio station "Atlantic 252" broadcasts
here.

Medium Wave, around 100m in wavelength, used by

BBC Radio 5 and other "AM" stations.

Dangers: Large doses of radio waves are believed to

cause cancer, leukemia and other disorders. Some
people claim that the very low frequency field from
How they are made: Microwaves are basically overhead power cables near their homes has affected
extremely high frequency radio waves, and are made by their health
various types of transmitter. In a mobile phone, they're
made by a transmitter chip and an antenna, in a
microwave oven they're made by a "magnetron".

Uses: Microwaves cause water and fat molecules to

vibrate, which makes the substances hot.

Dangers: Prolonged exposure to microwaves is known

to cause "cataracts" in your eyes, which is a clouding of
the cornea.

RADIO WAVES

How they are made: Radio waves are made by various

types of transmitter, depending on the wavelength.
They are also given off by stars, sparks and lightning,
which is why you hear interference on your radio in a
thunderstorm.
Elements of Electronic Communications System
Basic Elements of Electronic Communications System
Electronic communications is the transmission,
reception, and processing of information between
two or more locations with the use of electronic
circuits. The basic components of electronic
communications system are the transmitter,
communications channel or medium, receiver, and
noise. Analog signals (such human voice) or digital
signals (binary data) are inputted to the system,
processed in the electronic circuits for
transmission, and then decoded by the receiver.
The system is said to be reliable and effective only
when errors are minimized in the process.
Transmitter
Transmitter is defined as a collection of one or more
electronic devices or circuits that converts the original
source information - also called as baseband signal - to a
form suitable for transmission.
Functions of a Radio Transmitter
A radio transmitter is an electronic unit that accepts the
information signal to be transmitted and converts it into
a radio frequency (RF) signal capable of being
transmitted over long distances.
Communications channel
The channel is the medium by which the electronic
signal is sent or propagated from one place to another.
It provides a means of transporting signals between a
transmitter and a receiver. The channel can be as simple
as copper wire or as complex as the optical fiber and
satellite systems. Signals can also be propagated
through radio waves or free space depending upon the
type of modulation and frequency being used.
Receiver
The receiver is a collection of electronic devices and
circuits that accepts the transmitted signals from the
transmission medium and then converts those signals
back to their original form which is understandable by
humans. Good examples of receivers are radio devices
and television sets.
Primary requirements for any communications receiver:
Selectivity
The ability of a receiver to select a signal of a desired
frequency while rejecting those on closely adjacent
frequencies. With good selectivity, the receiver can
select the desired signal and eliminate all other RF
signals. Tuned circuits or LC circuits are used to obtain
selectivity.
Sensitivity
It is the ability of a receiver to pick up weak signals.
Sensitivity is directly related to receiver's gain. By the
way, gain is the factor by which an input signal is
multiplied to produce the output. This can be increased
by having a series of amplification. Better sensitivity is
attained with higher gain.
This is how noise degrades the quality of a signal
System noise
Noise is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere
with the information signal. It is a random electrical
energy that enters the system via the medium.
However, noise can also be generated in the receiver
which causes some errors in demodulation process.
Noise may come from different sources such as the
atmosphere, particularly lightning and thunderstorms. It
may also come from the outer space where the sun and
billions of stars emit radiation which interferes with the
signal.
Lesson 3: NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Noise Effect

Shannon's model Degrade system performance for both analog

and digital system.
Claude E. Shannon conceptualized the
The receiver cannot understand the sender.
communication theory model in the late 1940s. It
The receiver cannot function as it should be.
remains central to communication study today.
Reduce the efficiency of the communication
system.

Noise Vs. Interference

➢ Noise is a general term which is used to
describe an unwanted signal which affects a
wanted signal.
➢ Interference arises for example, from other
communication systems (cross talk), 50 Hz
Noise
supplies (hum) and harmonics, ignition (car
Any unwanted form of energy which tends to spark plugs) motors … etc.
interfere with proper reception and reproduction of
Classification of Noise
unwanted signal.
Noise may be put into following two categories:
Noise is random, undesirable electrical signal
that enter in the communication system via the 1. External Noise – noise whose sources are
communicating medium and interferes with the external.
transmitted message. However, noise is also produced
External Noise may be classified into the following three
in the receiver.
types:
Noise in Communication Systems
➢ Atmospheric Noise – Or static is caused by
Channel is the main source of noise in lighting discharge in the thunderstorm and
communication systems. Transmitter or Receiver may other electrical disturbances occurring in the
also induce noise in the system. There are mainly 2- atmosphere.
types of noise sources, internal noise source (are mainly
These electrical impulses are random in nature. Hence,
internal to the communication system) and external
the energy is spread over the complete frequency
noise source
spectrum used for radio communication.
External Noise Sources
a. Extra-Terrestrial Noise – There are numerous
Natural types of extra-terrestrial noise or
Man-made space noises depending on their sources.
However, these may be put into following two
Need of noise characterization subgroups:
For: b. Solar Noise – This is the electrical noise
Monitoring the instrument behaviour emanating from the sun. Under quite
Provide an estimate of the noise level conditions, there is a steady radiation of noise
Detect deviations from the gaussianity or stationarity from the sun. This results because sun is a large
body at a very high temperature (exceeding
6000°C on the surface), and radiates electrical
energy in the form of noise over a very wide
frequency spectrum including the spectrum
used for radio communication.
Cosmic Noise - Distant stars are also suns and have high
temperatures. These stars, therefore, radiate noise in
the same way as our sun. The noise received from these
distant stars is thermal noise (or black body noise) and is
distributing almost uniformly over the entire sky. We
also receive noise from the center of our own galaxy
(The Milky Way) from other distant galaxies and from
other virtual point sources such as quasars and pulsars.
c. Man-Made Noise (Industrial Noise) - By
manmade noise or industrial- noise is meant the
electrical noise produced by such sources as
automobiles and aircraft ignition, electrical
motors and switch gears, leakage from high
voltage lines, fluorescent lights, and numerous
other heavy electrical machines. Such noises are
produced by the arc discharge taking place
during operation of these machines.
2. Internal Noise – Noise which get, generated
within the receiver or communication system.
Internal noise may be classified into the following types:
a. Thermal noise or White noise or Johnson noise or
Gaussian noise - This type of noise is generated by
all resistances (e.g. a resistor, semiconductor, the
resistance of a resonant circuit, etc.).
Experimental results (by Johnson) and theoretical
studies (by Nyquist) give the mean square noise voltage
as
Vn = √4kTBR
Where:
Vn = Noise Voltage (v)
K = Boltzmann’s constant
= 1.3 x 10 -23 J/K (Joules/Kelvin)
T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (K) = 273 + 0C
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
b. Shot noise - The most common type of noise is
referred to as shot noise which is produced by the
random arrival of electrons or holes at the output
element, at the plate in a tube, or at the collector or
drain in a transistor or amplifying device and
appears as a randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output.
Random fluctuations in electron emission from
cathodes in vacuum tubes (called shot noise by analogy
with lead shot).
Where:
I s = √ 2E I d B
Is = Shot noise current (a) E = Electronic Charge
(1.6021765 × 10 −19
coulomb)
Id = Dark leakage current (a)
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral
density as for thermal noise.
c. Transit Time Noise – is a similar phenomenon to
shot noise in that it affects systems more as they get
smaller due to the quantize nature of electricity.
Transit-time noise results when a signal frequency's
period is the same as the time an electron takes to
travel from sender to receiver.
Transit time is the duration of time that it takes for a
current carrier such as a hole or current to move
from the input to the output. The devices
themselves are very tiny, so the distances involved
are minimal. Yet the time it takes for the current
carriers to move even a short distance is finite.
d. Miscellaneous Internal Noise –
Flicker Noise – Pink power or 1⁄f noise is a signal or
process with a frequency spectrum such that the power
spectral density (power per frequency interval) is
inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal.
It occurs in almost all electronic devices, and can
show up with a variety of other effects, such as
impurities in a conductive channel, generation and
recombination noise in a transistor due to base current,
and so on. 1/f noise in current or voltage is always
related to a direct current because it is a resistance
fluctuation, which is transformed to voltage or current
fluctuations via Ohm's law.
Inter-modulation Noise – Inter-modulation or
InterModulation Distortion (IMD) is the amplitude
modulation of signals containing two or more different
frequencies in a system with nonlinearities.
The intermodulation between each frequency
component will form additional signals at frequencies
that are not just at harmonic frequencies (integer
multiples) of either, but also at the sum and difference
frequencies of the original frequencies and at multiples
of those sum and difference frequencies.
Crosstalk – Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone
who, while using the telephone, has been able to hear
another conversation; it is an unwanted coupling
between signal paths. It can occur by electrical coupling
between nearby twisted pair or, rarely, coax cable lines
carrying multiple signals.
Impulse Noise – Impulse noise is generally only a minor
annoyance for analog data. For example, voice
transmission may be corrupted by short clicks and
crackles with no loss of intelligibility. However, impulse
noise is the primary source of error in digital data
communication. For example, a sharp spike of energy of
0.01-second duration would not destroy any voice data,
but would wash out about 50 bits of data being
transmitted at 4800 bps.
Interference – The superposition of two or more waves
propagating through a given region. Depending on how
the peaks and troughs of the interacting waves coincide
with the resulting wave amplitude can be higher or
smaller than the amplitudes of the individual waves.
When two waves interact so that they rise and fall to get
more than half the time, the amplitude of the resulting
wave is greater than that of the larger wave. This is
called constructive interference.
Burst Noise – is a type of electronic noise that occurs in
semiconductors. It is also called popcorn noise, impulse
noise, bi-stable noise, or random telegraph signal (RTS)
noise. It consists of sudden step-like transitions between
two or more discrete voltage or current levels, as high as
several hundred microvolts, at random and
unpredictable times.
Avalanche Noise – is the noise produced when a
junction diode is operated at the onset of avalanche
breakdown, a semiconductor junction phenomenon in
which carriers in a high voltage gradient develop
sufficient energy to dislodge additional carriers through
physical impact, creating ragged current flows.
Signal-To-Noise Ratio (S/N)
Noise is usually expressed as a power because the
received signal is also expressed in terms of power. By
knowing the signal to noise powers the signal to noise
ratio can be computed. Rather than express the signal to
noise ratio as simply a number, it can be expressed in
terms of decibels.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) =
Noise Figure (F)
Noise figure is designed as the ratio of the
signal-to-noise power supplied to the input terminals of
a receiver or amplifier to the signal-to-noise power to
the output or load resistor. The noise figure F also called
the noise factor can be computed with the expression
In a practical receiver, the output signal-to-noise power
will be lower than the input value, and so the noise
figure will exceed 1. However, the noise figure will be 1
for an ideal receiver, which introduces no noise of its
own. The noise figure may be expressed as an actual
ratio or in decibels.
Noise Temperature
Noise temperature is employed extensively for antennas
and low-noise microwave amplifiers. Not the least
reason for its use is convenience, in that it is an additive
like noise power. Another advantage of the use of noise
temperature for low noise levels is that it shows a
greater variation for any given noise-level change than
does the noise figure, so changes are easier to grasp in
their true perspective. The relation between noise figure
and equivalent noise temperature is as follows:
F = 1 + (Teq /T0)
Where:
F = Noise Figure
Teq = Equivalent Noise Temperature in receiver or amplifier
To = Absolute Temperature (293 K) or 230 Degree Celsius
Lesson 2: MODULATION Signals in the Modulation Process
For a signal to be communicated to a distance, without Following are the three types of signals in the
the effect of any external interferences or noise addition modulation process.
and wit hout getting faded away, it has to undergo a
• Message or Modulating Signal
process called as Modulation. It develops the strength of The signal which holds a message to be
the signal without distressing the bounds of the original
transmitted, is called as a message signal . It is a
signal.
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process
What is Modulation? of modulation, to get transmitted. Hence, it is also
A message carrying a signal has to get called as the modulating signal.
transferred over a distance and for it to form a reliable
communication, it essenti als to take the help of a high • Carrier Signal
frequency signal which must not distress the original The high fr equency signal, which has a certain
characteristics of the message signal. amplitude, frequency and phase but has no
The characteristics of the message signal, if information is called as a carrier signal . It is an
transformed, the message enclo sed in it also changes. unfilled signal and is used to transfer the signal to the
Hence, it is a must to take caution of the message signal. receiver after modulation.
A high frequency signal can travel up to an extended
distance, without getting exaggerated by ext ernal • Modulated Signal
disturbances. We take the help of such high frequency The resultant signal after the process of
signal which is called as a carrier signal to transmit our modulation is called as a modulated signal . This
message signal . Such a process is simply called as signal is a merging of modulating signal and carrier
Modulation. signal.
Modulation is the development of altering the
parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

Baseband signals are incompatible for direct
transmission. For a signal, to travel extended distances,
its strength has to be increased by modulating with a
high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the
parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation
The antenna used for transmission, had to be
very huge, if modulation was not presented. The range
of communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel
a distance without getting distorted.
Following are some o f the advantages for implementing
modulation in the communication systems.
• Reduction of antenna size
• No signal mixing
• Increased communication range
• Multiplexing of signals
• Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
Improved reception quality
Types of Modulation Pulse Modulation
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of
rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave. This is
further divided into analog and digital modulation.
In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude
or duration or position of a pulse is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the baseband
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse
Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse
Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation procedure
used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) where the analog
signal is transformed into digital method of 1s and 0s. As
the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM.
This is fu rther developed as Delta Modulation (DM).
The types of modulations are broadly classified into
These digital modulation techniques are discussed in our
continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation.
Digital Communications.
Continuous-wave Modulation

In continuous-wave modulation, a high

frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave . This is
further divided into amplitude and angle modulation.
 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier
wave is mixed in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as
Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is
further divided into frequency modulation and
phase modulation.
 If the f requency of the carrier wave is mixed, in
accordance with t he instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.
 If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is
varied in accordance with the instantane ous
value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Phase Modulation.
Envelope Detector

Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate)

high level AM wave. Following is the block diagram of the
envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low

pass filter. Here, the diode is the main detecting element.
Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode
detector. The low pass filter contains a parallel combination
of the resistor and the capacitor.

The AM wave S (t) is applied as an input to this detector.

We know the standard form of AM wave is

𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [ 1 + 𝑘𝛼 𝑚 (𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode

conducts and the capacitor charges to the peak value of AM
wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the
diode will be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will
discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of
AM wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the
capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be
repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way

that the capacitor charges very quickly and discharges very
slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform
same as that of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost
similar to the modulating signal.
 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

QUIZ NO.1

TEST III: PROBLEM SOLVING SOLUTION

The DZQC communication system produced a dark leakage

1. The DZQC communication system of QCU has encountered
current of 2.18x10-9a during the QCU University week. Find
noise voltage of 8.75v, that happened when the system reach
the value of the shot noise current. Use the computed
a temperature of 518 0F. Assume the resistance of the
bandwidth in no. 1 problem. (4 points)
system is 50Ω. Calculate the Bandwidth of the DZQC
communication
system. (6 points) Step 1: What is ask in the problem?
“Find the value of the shot noise current?”
Step 1: What is ask in the problem? “Calculate the
Bandwidth of the DZQC communication system.” Step 2: What are given?
Id (Dark Leakage Current) = 2.18x10-9a
B (Bandwidth) = 5.1089 𝑥 1019Hz
Step 2: What are given?
E (Electronic Charge) = 1.6021765 × 10 −19 coulomb
Is (shot noise Current) = X
Vn (Noise Voltage) = 8.75v
T (Absolute Temperature in Kelvin) = 518 0F = 543 0K
Step 3: Formula
5

Step 4: Solution

R (Resistance) = 50 Ω
K (Boltzmann’s Constant) = 1.38x10-23 J/0K
Step 5: Final Answer
B (Bandwidth) = X

Step 3: Formula

𝑉𝑛 = √4𝐾𝑇𝐵𝑅

Step 4: Solution

Square both side of the equation

Divide both side by 1.4986 x 10

1.

Step 5: Final Answer

3. A modulating signal 30cos(2Πx103t) is used to modulate a
carrier signal 40cos(2Πx104t). Determine the following: a.
Modulation Index,
b. Percent of modulation,
c. Frequencies (fmin or LSB, fmax or USB)
d. Bandwidth

Given:
* For m(t) = Am cos (2 Π fm t)
= 30 cos (2 Π x 103 t)
Am = 30
fm = 1 x 103 Hz or 1 KHz

* For c(t) = Ac cos (2 Π fc t)

= 40 cos (2 Π x104 t)
Ac = 40
fc = 1 x 104 Hz or 10 KHz

e. Bandwidth (BW) BW
a. Modulation Index (μ) = 2 fm
= (2)(1KHz)

BW = 2Khz

𝝁 = 0.75

b. Percent of modulation (%)

𝝁 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

𝟕𝟓 %

c. fmax or fUSB fUSB = fc + fm

=10KHz + 1KHz

fUSB = 11KHz

d. fmin or fLSB fLSB

= fc - fm
= 10KHz - 1KHz

fLSB = 9 KHz
MODULE 5
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Lesson 1: Angle Modulation

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation

is Angle Modulation. Angle Modulation is the process in which
the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies
according to the message signal.
The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is the amplitude of the modulating or message signal
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝒊 (𝒕) increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated
Where, wave decreases, when the amplitude of the modulating
Ac is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the
as the amplitude of the carrier signal
modulated wave remains constant and it is equal to the
θi (t) is the angle of the modulated wave
frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency
the modulating signal is zero.
modulation and phase modulation.
• Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the Mathematical Representation
frequency of the carrier signal linearly with the The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM
message signal. modulation is
• Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 (𝑡)
of the carrier signal linearly with the message signal.
Where,
Frequency Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency
varies. Whereas, in Frequency Modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the 𝑘𝑡 is the frequency sensitivity
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase
𝑚 (𝑡) is the message signal
of the carrier signal remains constant. This can be better
Relationship between angular frequency (𝜔𝑖 ) and angle
understood by observing the following figures.
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) as

𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
𝜔𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃𝑖 (𝑡)
➔2𝜋𝑓𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡

➔𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Substitute, fi value in the above equation. Wideband FM
Following are the features of Wideband FM.
𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋 ∫ (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚 (𝑡)) 𝑑𝑡

This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ∫ 𝑚(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
The modulation index β is large, i.e., higher than 1.
Substitute, θi (t) value in the standard equation of angle Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of
modulated wave. sidebands, which are located around it.

𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 ) ∫ 𝑚(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications

such as FM radio, TV, etc.
This is the equation of FM wave.
Phase Modulation
If the modulating signal is 𝑚(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), then In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies.
the equation of FM wave will be 𝑠(𝑡) = Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM), the phase of the carrier
signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude
𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
of the modulating signal.
Where, So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of
the carrier signal remains constant. This can be better
∆𝑓 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 understood by observing the following figures.
β = modulation index = 𝑓𝑚
= 𝑓𝑚

The difference between FM modulated frequency

(instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier frequency
is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf,
which is equal to the product of kf and Am.

FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband

FM based on the values of modulation index β.

Narrowband FM
Following are the features of Narrowband FM.

This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when

compared to wideband FM.

The modulation index β is small, i.e., less than 1.

Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband

and the lower sideband.

This is used in mobile communications such as police

wireless communication, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points,
where the phase shift in a wave can take place. The
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
changes the phase of the carrier signal. When the
amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction
and if the amplitude is negative, the phase changes in
the opposite direction.
Mathematical Representation
The equation for instantaneous phase ∅𝑖 in phase
modulation is
∅𝑖 = 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡)
Where,
• 𝑘𝑝 is the phase sensitivity
• 𝑚(𝑡) is the message signal
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + ∅𝑖 )
Substitute, ∅𝑖 value in the above equation.
𝑠 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚(𝑡))
This is the equation of PM wave.
If the modulating signal, 𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) , then the
equation of PM wave will be
𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡))
Where,
• 𝜷 = modulation index = ∆∅ =
𝑘𝑝 𝐴 𝑚
• ∆∅ = is the deviation
Phase modulation is used in mobile communication
systems, while frequency modulation is used mainly for
FM broadcasting.
Lesson 2: Frequency Modulator
In this lesson, it will discuss about the modulators which
generate Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM) and
Wide Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM) waves. First, let us
discuss about the generation of NBFM.
Generation of NBFM
We know that the standard equation of FM wave is
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
➔𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 ) −
𝑨𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕)𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎 (𝒕))𝒅𝒕
For NBFM,
| 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 | ≪ 𝟏
We know that cos 𝜃 ≈ 1 and sin 𝜃 ≈ 1 when Ɵ is very
small.
By using the above relations, we will get the NBFM equation
as
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕) − 𝑨𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕)
Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal
m(t). The carrier signal 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) is the phase shifted by -
900 to get 𝐴𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) with the help of -900 phase shifter.
The product modulator has two inputs ∫ 𝑚 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 and
𝐴𝑐 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡). It produces an output, which is the product of
this two.
This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block
2πkf in the forward path. The summer block has two inputs,
which are nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation.
Positive and negative signs are assigned for the carrier signal
and the other term at the input of the summer block. Finally,
the summer block produces NBFM wave.
Generation of WBFM

The following two methods generate WBFM wave.

• Direct method
• Indirect method

Direct Method - This method is called as the Direct

Method because we are generating a wide band FM
wave directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM. VCO
produces an output signal, whose frequency is
proportional to the input signal voltage. This is similar to
the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the
generation of WBFM wave is shown in the following
figure.
This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first
stage, the NBFM wave will be generated using NBFM
modulator. We have seen the block diagram of NBFM
modulator at the beginning of this chapter. We know that the
modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one. Hence, in
order to get the required modulation index (greater than one)
of FM wave, choose the frequency multiplier value properly.
Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an
output signal whose frequency is ‘n’ times the input signal
frequency. Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.

If NBFM wave whose modulation index β is less than 1 is

applied as the input of frequency multiplier, then the
frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose
modulation index is ‘n’ times β and the frequency also ‘n’ times
the frequency of WBFM wave.

Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency

Here, the modulating signal m(t) is applied as an input of multiplier and mixers in order to increase the frequency
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an output, deviation and modulation index of FM wave.
which is nothing but the WBFM.

𝒇𝒊 ∝ 𝒎(𝒕)

➔𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)

Where,
fi is the instantaneous frequency of WBFM wave.

Indirect Method
This method is called as Indirect Method because we are
generating a wide band FM wave indirectly. This means, first
we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of
frequency multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block
diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown in the
following figure.
Lesson 3: Frequency Demodulator Phase Discrimination Method

Let us discuss about the demodulators which

demodulate the FM wave. The following two methods
demodulate FM wave.

• Frequency discrimination method

• Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

We know that the equation of FM wave is
𝒔(𝒕) = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎(𝒕)𝒅𝒕

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 't'. This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass filter,
and the Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an
𝒅𝒔 (𝒕) output signal v(t), whose frequency is proportional to the input
= − 𝑨𝒄 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 signal voltage d(t). Initially, when the signal d(t) is zero, adjust
𝒅𝒕
the VCO to produce an output signal v(t), having a carrier
+ 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 )
frequency and −900 phase shift with respect to the carrier
signal.
We can write, −sin θ as sin(θ−1800)
FM wave s(t) and the VCO output v(t) are applied as inputs of
𝒅𝒔 (𝒕) the multiplier. The multiplier produces an output, having a high
➔ = 𝑨𝒄 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 𝒎(𝒕)) 𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 +
𝒅𝒕
frequency component and a low frequency component. Low
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 ) − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and
produces only the low frequency component as its output.
𝒅𝒔 (𝒕) 𝒌𝒇
➔ 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑨𝒄 (𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 ) [𝟏 + (𝒌 ) 𝒎(𝒕)] 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 +
𝒄
This low frequency component contains only the term-related
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 ∫ 𝒎 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎°) phase difference. Hence, we get the modulating signal m(t)
from this output of the low pass filter.
In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles
the envelope of AM wave and the angle term resembles
the angle of FM wave. Here, our requirement is the
modulating signal m(t). Hence, we can recover it from
the envelope of AM wave.

This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the

envelope detector. Differentiator is used to convert the FM
wave into a combination of AM wave and FM wave. This
means, it converts the frequency variations of FM wave into
the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of AM wave.
We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces
the demodulated output of AM wave, which is nothing but the
modulating signal.
MODULE 6 For AM radio, each station occupies a maximum bandwidth of
AM - FM TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER 10 kHz. Carrier spacing is 10 kHz. For FM radio, each station
occupies a bandwidth of 200 kHz, and therefore the carrier
spacing is 200 kHz.
Lesson 1: AM/FM Radio System
Transmission Bandwidth: BT is the bandwidth in use by a
Principles: message signal to the radio frequency spectrum. BT is also
the carrier spacing:
• Frequency Spectrum Sharing (many transmitters
using one medium). AM: BT = 2W
• Demodulating desired signal and rejecting other
signals transmitted at the same time. FM: BT = 2(D+1)W (For Carson’s Rule)

The source signal is in format of an audio. The designing of AM/FM radio receiver, The radio receiver
has to be monetary value effective. Requirements are:
Different sources have various spectrum, example of this are
the following: • Has to work with both AM and FM signals
• Tune to and amplify desirable radio station
• Voice (speech) • Filter out all other stations
• Music • Demodulator has to work with all radio stations
• Hybrid signals (music, voice, singing) thoughtless of carrier frequency

For the Demodulator to work with whatever radio signal, we

Contrary audio sources have got different bandwidth “B”: “convert” the carrier frequency of any radio signal to
Intermediate Frequency (IF), Radio receiver designing can be
• Speech- 4kHz optimized for that frequency. IF filter and a demodulator for
• High quality music- 15kHz IF frequency.
• AM radio limits “Base-band” bandwidth W to 5kHz
• FM radio uses “Base-band” bandwidth W to 15kHz Recall that AM and FM have different radio frequency (RF)
spectrum ranges:
Radio system should be susceptible to adopt whatsoever form
of audio source at the same period of time. Different stations AM: 540 kHz – 1600 kHz
with different sources conduct signals simultaneously.
Different listeners tune in to the different stations FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz
simultaneously.
Therefore, two IF frequencies
Different radio stations share the frequency array all over the
space through with AM and FM modulation. Each radio station, AM: 455 kHz
inside a definite geographic region, is selected a carrier
FM: 10.7 MHz
frequency just about which it has to transmit. Sharing the
AM/FM radio spectrum is achieved through Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM)

Different radio stations, different source signals:

Carrier spacing- 10kHz (AM)

Bandwidth (3-5kHz)
 AM/FM Receiver- PPT PRESENTATION

Communication Systems

We have studied the basic blocks of any communication

system

• Modulator
A radio receiver consists of the following: • Demodulator

• A Radio Frequency (RF) section Modulation Schemes:

• An RF-to-IF converter (mixer)
• An Intermediate Frequency (IF) section • Linear Modulation (DSB, AM, SSB, VSB)
• Demodulator • Angle Modulation (FM, PM)
• Audio amplifier
AM/FM Radio System
Principles:
• Frequency Spectrum Sharing (many transmitters using
one medium)
This is better-known as the “Superheterodyne” receiver. Two • Demodulating desired signal and rejecting other
stages: RF and IF (filtering and amplification). The receiver was signals transmitted at the same time
designed by Armstrong. • The source signal is audio
• Different sources have different spectrum
o Voice (speech)
o Music
o Hybrid signals (music, voice, singing)

• Different audio sources have different bandwidth “W”

o Speech- 4kHz
o High quality music- 15kHz
o AM radio limits “baseband” bandwidth W to
5kHz
o FM radio uses “baseband” bandwidth W to
15kHz
• Radio system should be able to receive any type of
audio source simultaneously.
• Different stations with different sources transmit
signals simultaneously.
• Different listeners tune to different stations
simultaneously.
• The different radio stations share the frequency
spectrum over the air through AM and FM
modulation.
• Each radio station, within a certain geographical
region, is designated a carrier frequency around
which it has to transmit
• Sharing the AM/FM radio spectrum is achieved
through Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example of AM Radio Spectrum
• Different radio stations, different source signals
… – Includes RF bandpass filter centered around
…
Fc0 Fc1 Fc2
• Carrier spacing- 10kHz (AM)
• Bandwidth (3-5kHz)
AM/FM Radio System
• For AM radio, each station occupies a maximum
bandwidth of 10 kHz
• Carrier spacing is 10 kHz
• For FM radio, each station occupies a bandwidth of
200 kHz, and therefore the carrier spacing is 200 kHz
• Transmission Bandwidth:
• is the bandwidth occupied by a message
signal in the radio frequency spectrum
• is also the carrier spacing
• AM: BT = 2W
• FM: (Carson’s Rule)
AM/FM Radio Receiver
• Design of AM/FM radio receiver
• The radio receiver has to be cost effective
• Requirements:
– Has to work with both AM and FM signals
– Tune to and amplify desired radio station
– Filter out all other stations
– Demodulator has to work with all radio
stations regardless of carrier frequency
• For the demodulator to work with any radio signal,
we “convert” the carrier frequency of any radio
signal to
Intermediate Frequency (IF)
• Radio receiver design can be optimized for that
frequency
• IF filter and a demodulator for IF frequency
• A radio receiver consists of the following:
– A Radio Frequency (RF) section
– An RF-to-IF converter (mixer)
– An Intermediate Frequency (IF) section
– Demodulator
– Audio amplifier
R F Tuner IF Filter Aud io
Dem od ula tor
Amplifier
• This is known as the “Superheterodyne” receiver
• Two stages: RF and IF
(filtering and amplification)
• The receiver was designed by Armstrong
• RF Section
– Tunes to the desired RF frequency,
– The bandwidth
– Usually not narrowband, passes the desired
F radio station and adjacent stations
• The minimum bandwidth of RF filter: BRF  BT
• Passes the desired radio channel, and adjacent
channels
• RF-IF converter:
– Converts carrier frequency→IF frequency
• How can we convert signals with different RF
frequencies to the same IF frequency?
fLO
• Local oscillator with a center frequency
• fLO is a function of RF carrier frequency
fLO = fc + fIF
R F Tuner IF Filter Aud io
Dem od ula tor
Amplifier
• RF-to-IF receiver includes:
– An oscillator with a variable frequency
(varies with RF carrier frequency)
– By tuning to the channel, you are tuning the
local oscillator and RF tunable filter at the
same time.
• All stations are translated to a fixed carrier
frequency for adequate selectivity.
• Two frequencies are generated at the output of
product modulator: fLO + fc = 2 fc + fIF & fLO − fc = fIF
• The higher frequency component is eliminated
through filtering
• We are left with IF frequency
• One problem with this receiver:
“Image Signal”
• Image signal has a center frequency: fi = fc + 2 fIF
• If an “image signal” exists at the input of the “RF-to-
IF” converter, then the output of the converter will
include the desired signal + image signal
Fc
X FIF
FLO
fLO + fi = ( fc + fIF ) + ( fc + 2 fIF ) = 2 fc + 3 fIF
fLO − fi = ( fc + fIF ) − ( fc + 2 fIF ) = − fIF
• Example: Incoming carrier frequency
1000 kHz,
• Local oscillator = 1000+455=1455 kHz
• Consider another carrier at 1910 kHz
• If this is passed through the same oscillator, will have
a 1910-1455=455 kHz component
• Therefore, both carriers will be passed through RF-
to-IF converter
• Therefore, RF filter should be designed to eliminate
image signals
• The frequency difference between a carrier and its

image signal is:

2 fIF
• RF filter doesn’t have to be selective for adjacent
stations, have to be selective for image signals

• Therefore,
BT  BRF  2 fIF
• IF filter:

• Center frequency
fIF
• Bandwidth approximately same as transmission
bandwidth, B T
• For AM: BT = 2W
• For FM: BT = 2( D + 1)W
• Depending on the type of the received signal, the
output of “IF filter” is demodulated using AM or FM
demodulators.
• For AM: envelope detector
• For FM: frequency discriminator