Section 2: What Philosophy Says about Self

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this section, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the different Philosophical standpoints about self;
2. Explain how philosophical models have transformed from classical to contemporary times;
3. Synthesize and evaluate the different perspectives of self; and
4. Analyze the relevance of various philosophical standpoints to your sense of self.

Diagnostics: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise, write disagree.
_______________1. Different Philosophers hold the same views about the self/
_______________2. Philosophers used empirical and rational lens in explaining the self.
_______________3. Philosophy of the self as explained by modern philosophers is more relevant than that of
ancient philosophers.
______________4. Philosophical views of the self are a useful guide to have a better life.
______________5. Philosophy of the self should only be studied by older individuals and not by younger
generations.

Philosophy of the Self

Philosophy is often called the mother of all discipline simply because all fields of study began as
philosophical discourses. Ancient philosophers attempted to explain natural and social phenomena,
coming up with their own definitions of how the world works and what factors contribute to such
phenomena. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various conceptions of what it means to be human,
and in so doing, the different definitions of the self.
The self has been defined as “a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness,
and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational choice).” Different philosophers introduced specific
characteristics and meaning of the self, which, over time, transformed from pure abstractions to
explanations that hold specific proofs.
Classical Antiquity
The ancient philosophy of the self can be traced back from one of 147 Greek aphorism
prominently inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi- know thysefl. This aphorism (or principle) was
Socrates’s guiding principle that he imparted to his students. Since Socrates as a guru preferred to engage
his students in endless discussion, it is said that he had never written down any of his ideas but instead
untiringly articulated concepts and principles with his students.
Socrates believed that the real self is not the physical body, but
rather the psyche (or soul). He further posited that the appearance
of the body is inferior to its functions.

https://www.wsj.com/articles/socrates-in-love-review-a-
vigorous-brilliant-young-man-11558101044
 It was Plato, Socrates’s prized
student, who thoroughly expounded on
Socrates’s idea of the Self. Plato’s
conceptualization of the self was
profoundly introduced in his dialogue,
Phaedrus, which has been a popular
text for many decades in the subject of
the philosophy. Metaphysic realm
(mind) and the Physical world (body)
are the main forms of his idea on his
dialogue. He also suggested that self is
fundamentally an intellectual entity
whose nature exists independent from
the physical world. He bifurcated the
truth or reality into two: the ontos
(ideal), which tends to be permanent
and spiritual, and the phenomena which refers to the manifestation of the ideal. Compared to ontos,
phenomena is imperfect. Impermanent, and inferior.
Plato’s idea of truth about the human self was even more expounded and formalized by his prized
student, Aristotle. While Plato emphasized the separation of ideal and phenomenal existence or being,
Aristotle called ideal as essence and the phenomena as matter. He emphasized that the two co-exist and
are co-dependent; essence provide meaning and purpose to the matter, and the matter provides substance
and solidity to essence.
Two (2) Distinct Lens of Philosophy of the Self:
1. Empiricism- there is no such things as innate knowledge; instead knowledge is derived from
experience—either perceived with five senses or processed with the brain.
2. Rationalism- there is innate knowledge; however, there are different sources of innate
knowledge. Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of what is “ideal” and “true,” and not
rooted in what is felt by the senses or body.
From classical antiquity to the contemporary era, philosophy of the self has evolved. From
teaching of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, renaissance and contemporary philosophers also defines the
self-according to personal and historical context. As stated by Fromm “You can only understand humans
in the context of their history.” This line is appropriate in understanding how philosophers have shaped
their own viewpoints of the self. The ancient Philosophers explained the self from their conceptual
understanding of the world since scientific evidence was hard to obtain due to the lack of measures.
Contemporary philosophers, meanwhile, have incorporated science to their theories in the light of the
technological advancement that they have been exposed to.

Towards Modern Philosophy

Socrates and Plato have explained the self from a theoretical and loigical orientation. Aristotle
was an empiricist, deriving views of the self from physical and scientific underpinnings. St. Augustine
incorporated the views of Plato to his religious philosophy, John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel
Kant were empiricist philosophers; while Rene Descartes was a dominant rational philosopher during
Middle Ages. Among contemporary philosophers, majority are empiricists: Gilbert Ryle, Patricia
Churchland, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty have incorporated biological and neuroscience in their
philosophies.
The varying philosophical standpoints can thus be summarized as follows:
Philosopher Orientation Philosophy Description
Classical Antiquity
Socrates Idealism Socratic Philosophy • Knowledge is the
personification of good
while ignorance is that of
evil.
• Self knowledge is the
ultimate virtue. As the
ultimate virtue, it will
lead to ultimate
happiness.
Plato Idealism Dualism and Idealism • Moral virtue is rooted in
the intellect and leads to
happiness.
• Wisdom and knowledge
lead to virtue which will
lead to happiness.

Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian Philosophy • Ideal is found inside the

phenomena and the
universals inside the
particulars.
• Ideals are ESSENCE and
Phenomena is MATTER.
• Matter has no form.
Essence has no mass.
• Matter and essence need
each other.
Middle Ages
St. Augustine Platonism Neoplatonism • All knowledge leads to
God.
• Only the pure in heart can
see God.
• Love of God, faith in
Him, and understanding
of His Gospel will
ultimately leads to
happiness

.
Renaissance
Rene Descartes Rationalist Mind-Body Dualism • “I think, therefore, I am”

• The mind and soul can

exist without the body.

• Establishing the
distinction of soul from
 the body can make people
believe in the afterlife and
the soul’s immortality.

John Locke Empiricist Theory of Personal • It is consciousness alone

Identity that identity exist, not in
the body and soul.

• There is a distinction
between man and person.

• The soul may change, but

consciousness remains
intact.

David Hume Empiricist Skeptical Philosophy • All knowledge passes

through the senses.

• Separate ideas can be

joined in the mind.

• There is no self, only a

bundle of perceptions.

Immanuel Kant Rationalist/Empiricist Metaphysics of the Self • Reasons is the final

authority of morality

• There is inner self and

outer self.

• The inner self includes

rational reasoning and
psychological state

• The outer self concludes

the body and physical
mind, where
representation occurs.

Modern Times
 Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The concept of Mind • “I act, therefore, I am”

• The mind is not the seat

of self. It is not a separate,
parallel thing to our
physical body.

• The mind is a category

mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only
way it can affect the other
is through the external
world.

Patricia Churchland Empiricist Neurophilosophy • All fully matured

neuroscience will
eliminate the need for
beliefs since “ they are
not real.”

• The physical brain gives

us a sense of self.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty Existentialist/Empiricist Phenomenology of • Both empiricism and

Perception intellectualism are flawed
in nature.

• “We are our bodies.”

• Our bodily experiences do

not detach the
subject/object,
mind/body,
rational/irrational.

The tables shows haw philosophers view the self from different standpoints. It must be
remembered that in studying the theories about the self, one should take into account the philosopher’s
orientation and historical backgrounds. Many other scholars study and explain the self. Through their
ideas, you may examine yourself and determine whether you fit into the given descriptions.

Exercise 1.2.1 How do I see Myself?

 Use separate sheet
Name: ________________________________________________ Section:__________________
Instructions: Read the different statements below and answer the succeeding questions. In answering,
take note of the three discerning points between empiricism and rationalism.

Rationalism
The primary and most superior source of knowledge
about reality is reason
Sense experience is an unreliable and inadequate
route to knowledge
The fundamental truths about the world can be
known a priori: either innate or self-evident to our
minds.
Empiricism
The only source of genuine knowledge about the
world is sense of experience
Reason is an unreliable and inadequate route to
knowledge unless it is grounded in the solid bedrock
of sense experience.
There is no such thing as innate knowledge because
knowledge is derived from experience. The mind
before experience is a Tabula Rasa a blank slate.

1. What you are studying or reviewing lessons, are you more likely to take the rationalist viewpoint
or empiricist viewpoint? Why?
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2. How do you apply empiricism and/or rationalism in studying your lessons? Be specific and
concrete. Try to remember your habits and how you make sense of the lessons.
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3. Is it possible to make use of both philosophical approaches? Why? or why not?

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