Semicond. Sci. Technol. 11 (1996) 139–154.

Printed in the UK

TOPICAL REVIEW

Micro-Raman spectroscopy to study

local mechanical stress in silicon
integrated circuits
Ingrid De Wolf
Interuniversity Micro-Electronics Center (IMEC), Kapeldreef 75, B-3001 Leuven,
Belgium

Received 19 July 1995, accepted for publication 2 October 1995

Abstract. Local mechanical stress is currently an important topic of concern in

microelectronics processing. A technique that has become increasingly popular for
local mechanical stress measurements is micro-Raman spectroscopy. In this
paper, the theoretical background of Raman spectroscopy, with special attention to
its sensitivity for mechanical stress, is discussed, and practical information is given
for the application of this technique to stress measurements in silicon integrated
circuits. An overview is given of some important applications of the technique,
illustrated with examples from the literature: the first studies of the influence of
external stress on the Si Raman modes are reviewed; the application of this
technique to measure stress in silicon-on-insulator films is discussed; results of
measurements of local stress in isolation structures and trenches are reviewed;
and the use of micro-Raman spectroscopy to obtain more information on stress in
metals, by measuring the stress in the surrounding Si substrate is explained.

1. Introduction
Silicon integrated circuits constitute a complex mosaic,
where materials with different characteristics, grown or
deposited in different ways and at different temperatures,
are linked together in various geometries. It is well
known that during and after processing of these devices,
mechanical stresses develop in the films and in the
substrate. These stresses may be due to thermal steps, for
example when there is a difference in thermal expansion
coefficient or when the temperature distribution across the
wafer is non-uniform; due to intrinsic stresses which are
inherent in the formation process of the film, for example
in chemical vapour deposited silicon nitride; or due to the
geometry of the material, for example high stresses are
present in the substrate at film edges. Large stresses can
also be induced in the substrate near embedded structures
such as trenches; and also the non-planar growth of
materials, as for example the field oxide in local oxidation,
induces large stresses in the surrounding substrate.
The problems associated with these stresses are very
divergent. Stress may directly trigger the nucleation and
propagation of dislocations and the formation of voids
and cracks [1]. For example, poly-Si grain regrowth
during annealling of thin nitride films, used as dielectric
of megabit DRAM capacitors, results in high stress and
causes cracking of the nitride [2]. Dislocation generation
is observed at places where the local stress is very high,
for example at the edge of nitride films and at the bird’s
beak tip in local oxidation structures (LOCOS) [1]. Stress
has an important effect on dopant diffusion: Park et al
[3] showed that stress results in boron segregation into
the region of dislocation loops and phosphorus-retarded
diffusion under oxide-padded nitride films. Mechanical
stress also has an influence on hot carrier degradation [4].
Indeed, it was shown [5] that externally applied stress
influences hot-carrier degradation through an effect on the
carrier mobility. Several failure mechanisms associated
with mechanical stress are very important in thin lines used
as interconnections in integrated circuits. Metal cracking
and voiding, hillock formation or stress migration may
result in open or short circuit failures. Many of these
problems can be expected to become more acute with
the ever-increasing complexity and miniaturization of the
devices.
The number of techniques used for stress measurements
is very large; however, none of them is without
shortcomings when applied to materials encountered in
microelectronics. Either the resolution is too small, or
they are destructive, or they have to go hand in hand with
complex modelling, or they can be applied only to a certain
class of materials. For example, with x-ray diffraction
(XRD), values can be obtained for the different strain tensor
components [6], and the technique can be applied to a
wide class of materials of interest for microelectronics.
However, the spatial resolution is such that, when applied

0268-1242/96/020139+16$19.50 c 1996 IOP Publishing Ltd 139

I De Wolf
to for example a line with µm dimensions, only the
mean value of the stress components in that line can be
obtained [7]. The x-ray beam can be focused down to
a diameter of some µm [8, 9], but this is still large in
comparison with the line widths used in today’s silicon
integrated circuits, and it requires special instrumentation.
Furthermore, in order to obtain a significantly large signal,
in general an array of similar structures is necessary. Cross-
sectional transmission electron microscopy (XTEM) and
convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED) [10, 11], can
provide information on stress on a very high resolution
scale (nm), but they require destructive sample preparation,
thereby causing stress relaxation in certain directions,
and the interpretation of XTEM images needs extensive
modelling. Measuring the wafer curvature by laser beam
reflection methods [12] or capacitive methods can provide
information on film stress with a high sensitivity [13]. But
this technique also, although it can after some modifications
[14] provide information on the average normal stress
component in the direction of interconnect lines, is not
practical when information has to be obtained on local stress
in or surrounding devices. Furthermore, in order to have
a good reference the bending of the wafer also has to be
measured before deposition or after removal of the film.
A different approach that can be followed to obtain
information on local stress is theoretical modelling.
Analytical models were proposed for stress in a semi-
infinite film and in the underlying substrate [1, 15, 16], and
based on this work for stress in and near a line [17–
19]. Also for stress within and outside trench isolation
structures, numerical models were presented [20]. Finite
element analysis is an important computer simulation tool
that can be used to calculate the stresses in thin film
structures and underlying substrates. In theory, all kind
of materials and combinations of materials can be studied.
However, both for analytical models and for finite element
calculations, some assumptions have to be made on the
stress distribution (for example planar stress or strain) or
stress state (for example elastic or plastic deformation)
and it remains a ‘simulation’ of the stress. They need
experimental support in order to have enough scientific
validity.
A technique that was not mentioned in the above list is
Raman spectroscopy. Until a few years ago, this technique
was mostly applied in chemical studies as a complementary
technique to infrared spectroscopy, giving information on
the chemical composition and crystallinity of the sample.
However, since the first reports of Anastassakis et al on
the sensitivity of the Raman peak for mechanical stress
[21], the technique has been applied more and more as
a stress sensor. In particular micro-Raman spectroscopy
(µRS), where a spatial resolution of less than 1 µm can
be obtained, is very useful for local stress studies. In this
paper, we discuss the application of this technique for stress
measurements in Si integrated circuit (IC) technology. The
review is restricted to silicon-based devices, for other
materials and other applications of Raman spectroscopy in
semiconductors, we refer to [22–25] and references therein.
The outline of this paper is as follows. In section 2, the
basic theory underlying Raman spectroscopy is reviewed
140
(section 2.1), the theory on the effect of mechanical
stress on the Raman modes is discussed (section 2.2),
the instrumentation for Raman spectroscopy is explained
(section 2.3) and some practical information about the
use of this technique for stress measurements is given
(section 2.4). Section 3 is the experimental counterpart of
section 2.2. The first experimental study on the influence of
externally applied stress on the Raman modes of silicon is
discussed. Section 4 is devoted to studies of internal stress,
present in structures important for silicon IC technology. In
section 4.1 measurements of stress in silicon-on-insulator
(SOI) films are discussed. Section 4.2 gives results
of investigations on LOCOS (section 4.2.1) and trench
structures (section 4.2.2). Micro-Raman spectroscopy
turned out to be a very interesting tool for the study of local
stress in these isolation structures. A disadvantage is that it
cannot be used to measure stress in metals. However, it can
provide indirect information on this stress by looking at the
stress surrounding the metal structures. This is discussed
in section 4.3.
2. Theory underlying Raman spectroscopy
2.1. General theory
The vibrations of a crystal are described not in terms of the
vibrations of individual atoms but in terms of collective
motions in the form of waves, called lattice vibrations.
Each possible vibration j of the lattice is characterized
by a wavevector qj and a frequency ωj . The vibration
amplitude, at position r, is given by
Qj = Aj exp[±i(qj · r − ωj t)] (1)
where Qj is the normal coordinate of the vibration [26, 27]
and Aj is a constant. Such a quantized lattice vibration is
called a normal mode or a phonon. These lattice vibrations
may cause a variation in the electrical susceptibility of
the crystal, which can give rise to ‘Raman scattering’. A
classical way to explain Raman scattering is the following.
When monochromatic light of frequency ωi is incident on
a crystal in a direction ki , the associated electric field E
will induce at position r an electric moment P , which is
related to E through
P = ε0 χE = ε0 χ · E0 exp[i(ki · r − ωi t)] (2)
where χ is the susceptibility tensor, which describes the
response of the crystal to the electric field. If the atoms of
the sample are vibrating, the susceptibility may change as
a function of these vibrations. This can be expressed by
expanding χ, for each normal mode of vibration j , in a
Taylor series with respect to the normal coordinate of this
vibration Qj :
   
∂χ ∂χ
χ = χ0 + Qj + Qj Qk + · · · (3)
∂Qj 0 ∂Qj ∂Qk 0
which can be redefined as
χj = χ0 + χj1 Qj + χj2 Qj Qk + · · · . (4)
 Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs

Figure 1. Feynman diagram and related energy levels for a first-order Stokes scattering process.

Figure 2. Experimental set-up of a micro-Raman spectrometer.

The first term will give rise to Rayleigh scattering, the z = [001] they are given by
second to first-order Raman scattering, and the third to
0 0 0 0 0 d
second-order Raman scattering (two phonons are involved).
Rx = 0 0 d Ry = 0 0 0
For simplicity, we neglect the third and higher-order terms.
0 d 0 d 0 0
Combining equations (1) to (3) results in 0 d 0
  Rz = d 0 0 . (7)
∂χ
P = ε0 χ0 · E0 exp[i(ki · r − ωi t)] + ε0 E0 Aj 0 0 0
∂Qj 0
× exp[−i(ωi ± ωj )t] exp[i(ki ± qj ) · r]. (5) For back scattering from a (001) surface, Rx and Ry
correspond to scattering by transverse optical phonons
From this it follows that the induced moment will re- (TO), polarized along x and y respectively, and Rz
radiate light which has three distinct frequency components: corresponds to scattering by longitudinal optical phonons
ωi , which is called Rayleigh scattering, and ωi + ωj and (LO), polarized along z. Of course, the characterization of a
ωi − ωj , which are called anti-Stokes and Stokes Raman phonon as longitudinal or transverse depends on the surface
scattering respectively. This will only be observed if χj1 from which scattering is observed. For back scattering
differs from zero. The scattering efficiency, I , depends on from a (100) surface, Rx corresponds to the LO phonon.
the polarization vector of the incident (ei ) and scattered Table 1 shows which of the three modes can be observed
(es ) light, and is given by for different polarization directions (from equation (6)). It
X follows from this table that for back scattering from a (001)
I =C |ei · Rj · es |2 (6) surface only the z-polarized phonon can be observed (Rz
j matrix), while for back scattering from (110) (for example
on a cleaved wafer), either the Rz or the Rx and Ry
where C is a constant and Rj is the Raman tensor of the matrices can be involved. In the absence of stress, the
phonon j . The Rj are obtained from group theoretical corresponding three optical Raman modes of silicon have
considerations [27, 28]. They are second-rank tensors the same frequency of about ωj 0 = 520 Rcm−1 (j =
which are proportional to χj1 , and they are used to calculate 1, 2, 3). They are degenerate. (Rcm−1 = relative cm−1 ,
the polarization selection rules. Loudon [28] derived the see section 2.4.)
Raman tensors for each of the 32 crystal classes (symmetry From a quantum physical point of view, Raman
point groups). For silicon, there are three Raman tensors. scattering involves the destruction of a photon with
In the crystal coordinate system x = [100], y = [010] and frequency ωi , incident from a light source, and the creation

141
I De Wolf

Table 1. Polarization selection rules for back scattering

from a (001) surface or a (110) surface.

Polarization Visible
ei es Rx Ry Rz
Back scattering from (001)
(100) (100) — — —
(100) (010) — — x
(1-10) (1-10) — — x
(110) (1-10) — — —
Back scattering from (110) — — x
(1-10) (001) x x —
(1-10) (1-10) — — x
(001) (001) — — —

Figure 3. Typical Raman spectrum obtained in back

scattering from a (100) silicon wafer with the 457.9 nm
of a photon with frequency ωs . Figure 1 shows a typical laser line as excitation source. The silicon Raman peak is
Feynman diagram and the related energy levels for a first- indicated by ‘Si’. The sharp peaks are plasma lines from
order Stokes scattering process. The scattering cross section the laser.
can be calculated by treating this three-step process using
third-order perturbation theory [28]. An electron–hole
The polarization direction of each mode, in the presence
pair is created through interaction of the incident photon
of stress, is described by the corresponding eigenvectors of
(frequency ωi ), with an electron. By this interaction, the
the secular equation.
electron goes from the ground state |0i to a state |li. By
For example, for uniaxial stress σ along the [100]
electron–phonon interaction, where a phonon of frequency
direction, one first calculates the strain tensor components,
ωj is created (or annihilated in anti-Stokes), the electron
using Hooke’s law. This gives ε11 = S11 σ , ε22 = S12 σ and
goes from state |li to state |mi. By recombination of
ε33 = S12 σ , where the Sij are the elastic compliance tensor
the electron–hole pair, a photon with frequency ωs is
elements of silicon. Solving equations (8) and (9) leads to
emitted, where ωs = ωi − ωj (for anti-Stokes it would be
ωi + ωj ). Because conservation of momentum is required λ1 1
for each intermediate step, whereas conservation of energy 1ω1 = = (pS11 + 2qS12 )σ
2ω0 2ω0
is required only for the overall process, both real and virtual
intermediate states are allowed. Further, the three steps λ2 1
described above are taking place instantaneously, so the 1ω2 = = [pS12 + q(S11 + S12 )]σ
2ω0 2ω0
order in which they occur is not important. This results in
six types of this kind of process. λ3 1
1ω3 = = [pS12 + q(S11 + S12 )]σ. (10)
2ω0 2ω0
2.2. Effect of stress on the Raman modes of silicon The Raman tensors and mode polarization vectors are not
changed. So, for back scattering from a (001) surface, only
Mechanical strain or stress may affect the frequencies of the third Raman mode is observed (table 1, equation (6)),
the Raman modes, and lift their degeneracy. One of the and the relation between the shift of this mode and the
first papers addressing theoretically the effect of stress on stress is given by the third relation in equation (10). Using
the Raman modes was that by Ganesan et al [29]. They S11 = 7.68 × 10−2 Pa−1 , S12 = −2.14 × 10−12 Pa−1 ,
showed that the frequencies of the three optical modes in S44 = 12.7 × 10−12 Pa−1 , and p = −1.43ω02 , q = −1.89ω02
the presence of strain, to terms linear in the strain, can be and r = −0.59ω02 [21], we find
obtained by solving the following secular equation [21, 29]:
pε11 + q(ε22 + ε33 ) − λ 2rε12 1ω3 (cm−1 ) = −2 × 10−9 σ (Pa). (11)
2rε12 pε22 + q(ε33 + ε11 ) − λ
2rε13 2rε23 In the case of biaxial stress in the x–y plane, with stress
2rε13 components σxx and σyy , this becomes
2rε23 = 0. (8)
pε33 + q(ε11 + ε22 ) − λ 1
1ω3 = [pS12 + q(S11 + S12 )](σxx + σyy )
Here p, q and r are material constants, the so-called 2ω0
phonon deformation potentials, and εij are the strain tensor or
components. The difference between the Raman frequency  
of each mode in the presence of stress, ωj (j = 1, 2, 3), σxx + σyy
1ω3 (cm−1 ) = −4 × 10−9 (Pa). (12)
and in the absence of stress, ωj 0 , can be calculated from 2
the eigenvalues λj :
From this it follows that compressive uniaxial or biaxial
λj stress will result in an increase of the Raman frequency,
λj = ωj2 − ωj20 or 1ωj = ωj − ωj 0 ≈ . (9)
2ωj 0 while tensile stress will cause a decrease.

142

Figure 4. (a ) Si Raman shift (circles) and plasma line shift (squares) measured during a scan towards a tungsten line for two
different samples (open symbols: 1 and filled symbols: 2). The left edge of the tungsten line is indicated by the vertical
broken line. (Experiment from [18].) (b ) Si Raman shifts for samples 1 and 2 after correction for instabilities of the laser
using the plasma line frequencies.
2.3. Experiment
Raman scattering is a second-order inelastic scattering
process, and therefore, its intensity is very weak compared
with first-order effects such as elastic Rayleigh scattering.
Typically about one photon out of 1012 is inelastically
scattered. For this reason, very sensitive detectors are
required, and the monochromator should have a high
rejection ratio of the Rayleigh-scattered light (double
monochromator). Figure 2 shows a typical experimental
set-up of a Raman spectroscopy system. The incident
light is provided by a laser. This light is focused on the
sample, either directly through a cylindrical lens (often a
50 mm lens, this is called macro-Raman spectroscopy), or
through a microscope (as shown in the figure), in which
case one speaks about micro-Raman spectroscopy (µRS).
The microscope, often confocal, allows one to change the
analysed surface from about 1 µm to a few µm (100×
to 10× objective). For reliable local mechanical stress
measurements, the basis of the microscope should be an
automatic XY stage, allowing the sample to be moved in
small steps in a well controlled manner. The scattered light
of the sample is collected, either in back scattering (micro-
mode) through the same microscope, or in back scattering,
near back scattering or 90◦ scattering for the macro-mode,
and directed into the double pre-monochromator through
the entrance slit (S1) and into the spectrograph through the
exit slit (S3). The double pre-monochromator consists, in
general, of two identical units which are separated by the
intermediate slit (S2). Each unit has two spherical mirrors
and one grating. These gratings are typically blazed at
600 or 1800 grooves/mm. The spectrograph is composed
of two spherical mirrors and a grating, in general with
1800 grooves/mm. The position of the gratings of the
pre-monochromator and spectrometer, and the width of the
slits is controlled through a computer. The aperture of the
entrance and exit slits determines the resolution, i.e. the
width at half maximum height of the spectral peak. The
smaller the slit, the better the resolution, but the weaker the
Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs
signal. The main role of the intermediate slit is to reduce
scattered light. At the exit plane of the spectrograph, a
photomultiplier, multichannel detector or CCD detector is
mounted.
2.4. Practical: stress measurements with micro-Raman
spectroscopy
A first requirement for a study of local mechanical stress
with µRS, is that the material exhibits Raman active modes,
i.e. there is a well defined Raman peak in the spectrum.
Figure 3 shows a typical Raman signal obtained in back
scattering from a (100) silicon wafer. The Si Raman peak
is very strong, and has, in the absence of stress, a frequency
of about ω0 = 520 Rcm−1 . This value may change
somewhat from experiment to experiment, depending on
the calibration of the spectrometer and pre-monochromator.
(The unit ‘Rcm−1 ’ denotes ‘relative cm−1 ’, the frequency
is always measured relative to the frequency of the laser
light.) The sensitivity of the frequency of this Raman
peak for strain should be large enough, so that it can be
measured. This depends on the material characteristics (p,
q and r for silicon), and on the strain or stress geometry
(equation (8)). For example, for silicon under uniaxial
stress in the [100] direction, a peak shift of 1 Rcm−1
corresponds to a stress of about 500 MPa (equation (11)).
With a very sensitive and stable instrument, it is possible
to detect peak shifts of about 0.05 Rcm−1 , from which it
follows that the minimal detectable stress level in silicon is
about 25 MPa and the strain level is about 10−4 . In addition
to the Si Raman line, some other peaks are also visible in
figure 3. These are plasma lines from the laser. These
lines are Rayleigh scattered, and insensitive to stress in the
material. For this reason, they can be used as a reference
in stress measurements.
A typical ‘stress measurement’ experiment proceeds as
follows. Suppose one wants to study the local stress in the
silicon substrate near a tungsten line grown on its surface.
The smallest wavelength of the argon laser, 457.9 nm, is
143
I De Wolf
Figure 5. Raman spectrum of Si under a uniaxial stress of −1.15 GPa along [111]. The triangles give the control spectrum
without stress (from [21]).
chosen, because it gives the smallest penetration depth in
silicon and the smallest spot size. The former is interesting
because stress is expected to be higher closer to the silicon
surface, and the latter because it gives a better spatial
resolution. The laser is first focused on a spot far from
the tungsten line, where the stress can be assumed to be
zero; a Raman spectrum, like the one shown in figure 3, is
measured and saved. Next the sample is moved, using
the XY stage, such that the spot moves closer to the
line, and again a spectrum is measured. This is repeated
until the spot crosses the tungsten line. On the metal
line, no signal is observed because the laser light cannot
penetrate through the metal. Next a Lorentz function is
fitted to the Si Raman peak for all these spectra, in order
to determine its frequency as accurately as possible, and,
in this experiment, also to a plasma line, to obtain a
reference value. Figure 4(a) [18] shows the result of such
an experiment on two different tungsten-line samples. The
open circles give the frequency of the Si Raman peak for
sample 1, the full circles for sample 2. The experiment
started about 12 µm from the tungsten line (at position
0 µm) and stopped when the line was reached (at about
12 µm, broken line). At the position 0 µm it can be
assumed that the stress is zero, since this is far from the
line. The frequency of the Raman peak at that position
is about 520.7 Rcm−1 . This value is not so important
in this experiment, and depends on the calibration of the
system. The change of this value when approaching the line
is important, because it gives information on the local stress
in the silicon. It can be seen that the frequency of the Si
Raman peak decreases when approaching the line, which
indicates the presence of tensile stress close to the line.
From this experiment, one could conclude that this tensile
stress is larger in sample 2 than in sample 1. However, this
is not the case. The open and full squares in figure 4(a)
denote the frequency of a plasma line for samples 1 and
144
2 respectively, obtained during the same experiment. As
can be seen, the frequency of the plasma line peak of
sample 1 stays approximately constant as a function of the
position. However, in sample 2 the frequency decreases.
This indicates that during the experiment the laser or the
Raman instrument was not stable, and one has to correct for
this instability. The result after correction, using the plasma
line positions as reference, is shown in figure 4(b). From
this it is clear that the difference between the two samples
is much smaller than originally thought. This experiment
shows that one has to be very careful when interpreting the
µRS data. Instability of the laser, or of the spectrometer,
or changes of the focusing of the laser on the sample may
result in a shift of the Si Raman peak which has nothing to
do with stress. For this reason, the plasma line references
are very useful in practice. Another critical point is the laser
power. When this is too high, the sample will be heated
locally, resulting in a down-shift of the Raman peak.
The Raman signal originates from a volume defined
by the wavelength and the diameter of the laser beam.
As already mentioned above, a shorter laser wavelength
gives information on the stress closer to the surface. Some
information on the change of the stress with depth can be
obtained by using different wavelengths. The total scattered
light intensity integrated from the surface to a depth d, Is ,
is given by [30]
Z d
I0 D
Is = I0 D e−2αx dx = (1 − e−2αd ) (13)
0 2α
while that from the depth d to infinity is given by
Z ∞
I0 D −2αd
Id = I0 D e−2αx dx = e (14)
d 2α
I0 , D and α are the incident light intensity, the Raman
scattering cross section and the photoabsorption coefficient

Table 2. Absorption coefficient (α) and penetration depth
(dp ) in crystalline silicon for different wavelengths (λ) of the
argon laser.
λ (nm) λ (eV) 10−3 α (cm−1 ) dp (nm)
514.5 2.410 14.96 770
488.0 2.541 20.18 570
457.9 2.708 36.43 320
of silicon respectively. If one assumes that the penetration
depth, dp , is given by the depth that satisfies the relationship
Id /(Is + Id ) = 0.1, then this depth is given by
− ln 0.1 2.3
dp = = . (15)
2α 2α
The absorption coefficient of silicon for the 514.5 nm
(2.41 eV), 488 nm (2.54 eV) and 457.9 nm (2.71 eV)
wavelength of the argon laser is obtained, using a third-
degree interpolation, from [31] and, using equation (15),
the penetration depth in crystalline silicon is found to be
770 nm, 570 nm and 320 nm respectively. These results
are summarized in table 2.
The relation between the measured Raman shift, as
for example shown in figure 4 for the tungsten line,
and the mechanical stress present in the sample is not
straightforward. If one can assume that the stress in the
sample is uniaxial or biaxial, the relation between Raman
shift and stress is simply linear (equations (10)–(12)).
Although this assumption is usually wrong, it is often used
for a first rough estimation of the magnitude of the stress in
the sample. If more detailed information on the magnitude
of the different stress components is required, it is necessary
to adapt a model describing the stress distribution in the
sample, and to fit this model, using equation (8), to the
Raman data. This was done for example in [18, 32–34].
3. Effect of externally applied forces on the
Raman modes
Raman scattering measurements in the presence of
externally applied stress have been performed by a large
number of investigators on different kinds of samples. The
main underlying objectives of these studies were to obtain
insight in various aspects of lattice vibrational modes. The
first experimental investigation of the effect of external
stress on the Si Raman modes was done by Anastassakis
et al [21]. The experiments were carried out in back
scattering, with a 25 mW He–Ne laser (632.8 nm) as
excitation source, on rectangular Si samples (2 cm×1 mm×
1 mm). Negative uniaxial stress was applied along the
long axis of the sample for two orientations of this axis,
either [001] or [111]. For a uniaxial stress, σ , applied
along either the [001] or the [111] direction, it can be
calculated from equation (8) that the threefold degeneracy
of the optical phonons of silicon is split into a singlet
(ω3 = s ) with eigenvector parallel to the stress and a
doublet (ω1 = ω2 = d ) with eigenvectors perpendicular
to the stress. For observation of the splitting of the optical
phonons, the polarization selection rules were used [28,
Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs
Figure 6. Frequency shift of the singlet and doublet Raman
components measured as a function of the uniaxial stress
along [111]. The broken line shows the calculated shift
corresponding to the hydrostatic component (from [35]).
equation (6)]. The polarization of the incident light was
switched back and forth such that either the singlet or the
doublet could be observed. Typical spectra for the case of
uniaxial stress along [111] are shown in figure 5. In the
absence of stress, a single Raman peak is observed at a
frequency ω0 of about 523 cm−1 (triangles). An externally
applied compressive stress of −11.5×109 dyn cm−2 results
in a splitting into the singlet (full circles) and the doublet
(open circles), and both are shifted towards higher Raman
frequencies. From the slope of the shift of the frequency
of these peaks as a function of the applied stress, as shown
in figure 6, values for p, q, r and for the mode Grüneisen
parameter γ (= −∂ ln ω0 /∂ ln V , where V is the volume
of the crystal) can be calculated. Figure 6 was taken
from a later work of Anastassakis et al [35], where similar
experiments as in [21] were repeated, but this time using
a laser frequency in the region of transparency of silicon
(Nd-YAG laser, 1.165 eV). This was necessary because
several previous studies, for example on GaAs and InP (see
references in [35]), showed that there is some relaxation
of the stress near the surface, so that the phonon shifts
measured in the bulk may differ by 10 to 30% from those
observed near the surface. These experiments resulted
in values for the phonon deformation potentials p/ω02 =
−1.85 ± 0.06, q/ω02 = −2.31 ± 0.06, r/ω02 = −0.71 ± 0.02
and the Grüneisen parameter γ = 1.08 ± 0.06, which are
somewhat larger than the ones obtained in [21], p/ω02 =
−1.25, q/ω02 = −1.87, r/ω02 = −0.66 and γ = 0.92, but
which are in closer agreement with theory [35].
In later papers from the same group, calculations of the
effects of external stresses and strains (uniaxial, biaxial,
as well as bisotropic [36]) on the Raman spectrum of
optical phonons of different materials (Si, Ge, GaAs,
GaSb, InAs, ZnSe, diamond, heterostructures) as well
as experimental results were presented and extensively
discussed [21, 22, 35–44].
4. Stress in silicon integrated circuits
4.1. Stress in SOI films
One of the first fields where Raman spectroscopy proved its
usefulness as a stress measuring technique was in the SOS
145
I De Wolf
Figure 7. Raman spectrum of bulk silicon and silicon on
sapphire (from [44]).
(silicon-on-sapphire) field. It is known that a large built-in
stress, of the order of 108 –109 Pa exists in the silicon film
in SOS devices. Englert et al [45] compared the Raman
peak, measured in back scattering from the (001) surface
of the film, with the Raman signal from a stress-free bulk
reference wafer. The result is shown in figure 7. The
peak obtained on SOS is up-shifted by 1ω = 2.8 cm−1 .
The relation between Raman shift and stress was calculated
assuming biaxial compressive stress in the film σxx = σyy =
σ , (x = [100], y = [010]) and is given by equation (12).
It was concluded that the stress in the SOS film was
700 MPa. A shift of 2.8 cm−1 is very large, and can easily
be observed with all Raman spectroscopy instruments. In
general, stress in Si semiconductor devices is smaller, and
very dedicated Raman instruments are necessary to observe
it. The first paper on Raman spectroscopy on SOS films
was followed by a large number of publications discussing
the annealing process of SOS films [46–50]. Later, micro-
Raman spectroscopy results were also published, showing
the local variation of the stress in SOS device structures
[51].
Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) films have been studied
extensively by Raman spectroscopy, not only to study the
stress in these films but also the crystallinity and the effect
of annealing [52–60]. The stress was measured near the
seed/SOI boundary in a laser-recrystallized, seeded SOI
film [52] and it was found that this stress increases over
a distance of about 20 µm from the seed/SOI boundary.
Campbell et al [53] studied changes in crystallinity, stress
and homogeneity on thin films of SOI irradiated by a single
laser pulse. Raman spectroscopy was also often used to
study the effect of implantation temperature [54] and lamp
or furnace annealing [54–56] on SIMOX (separation by
implantation of oxygen). Further, there were reports on
the dependence of the stress in laser-recrystallized SOI
on the substrate, and on the insulator material used [57];
on the stress in the top silicon film of an SOI structure
recrystallized by a graphite strip heater or an argon laser
[58]; on the variation of this stress in depth [59] and on
the influence of a local buried insulating layer on the stress
in the top silicon layer at the boundary region between the
local SOI and the unimplanted region [60].
146
A difficulty that arises in some of these studies is
that the crystallinity may also affect the position of the
Raman peak. It is therefore not always straightforward
in this kind of experiment to distinguish between both
effects. However, Raman spectroscopy proved to be a very
useful technique to study these films. It provides not only
information on the stress, but also on crystal quality of the
SOI film.
4.2. Isolation
4.2.1. Local oxidation: LOCOS, PBLOCOS. The local
oxidation of silicon (LOCOS) technique [61] is widely used
as an effective and relatively simple isolation technique
for silicon integrated circuits. In this technique, Si3 N4 is
used as a mask against oxidation of the areas where the
active device will be formed. The different steps involved
in LOCOS isolation are as follows. In the first step, a
thin layer of SiO2 , the pad oxide (PO), is grown on the
substrate. On top of this a Si3 N4 film is deposited and
patterned. This defines the oxidation mask. Next the
wafer is subjected to a thermal oxidation process, giving
rise to the field oxide (FO). However, since oxidation of
silicon also takes place laterally, through the pad oxide,
the growing oxide penetrates under the edges of the nitride
mask, lifting them up. This gives rise to the formation
of a specific geometrical feature, the so-called bird’s beak
(BB). An undesired result of this is that the active area
of the device becomes smaller than the size of the initial
nitride mask. At the end of the process the nitride film is
removed and the wafer is planarized.
There are some technological problems which arise
during the application of LOCOS technology, and it was
very soon understood that mechanical stress plays an
important role in them. For this reason, large efforts have
been made to obtain information on this stress, and its
dependence on processing parameters.
Micro-Raman spectroscopy has proved to be a very
interesting technique for the study of local mechanical
stress in LOCOS structures, and the effect of processing
parameters on this stress. Kobayashi et al [62, 63] studied
the stress in the active area of LOCOS samples after
the nitride film and the pad oxide were removed. They
performed µRS experiments on samples with different
widths, w, of the active area (from 9.2 to 1.2 µm). Figure 8
shows the shift of the Raman frequency from the zero-
stress value as a function of the position on the sample.
It was found that there is tensile stress (negative shift) in
the isolation area with a maximum at the field edges, and
compressive stress (positive shift) within the active area
with a maximum at the active area edges. Furthermore,
they showed that this compressive stress in the active area
increases with decreasing width. They compared their
experiments with theoretical simulations, using a thermal
stress model and assuming a linear relation between Raman
shift and stress. A similar study was reported by Brunner
et al [64]; however, they focused on stress in the silicon
substrate under the field oxide. Planar as well as cross-
sectional data were reported.
From the point of view of dislocation formation, the
stress before and after field oxidation, with the nitride

Figure 8. Raman frequency shift from stress-free value for
LOCOS structures (after removal of the nitride film) with
various active area widths (w ). Excitation source: 488 nm
line of argon laser (from [62]).
mask still present, is of more importance. In particular
the stress at the tip of the BB is an important source
of dislocation generation [1]. The variation of the stress
in LOCOS and alternative LOCOS structures during the
different processing steps was studied by µRS in [32, 65–
67]. Alternative isolation schemes, such as PBLOCOS
(poly-buffered LOCOS), were introduced to reduce the field
oxide encroachment under the nitride mask. PBLOCOS
utilizes an Si3 N4 /poly-Si/SiO2 sandwich to block the field
oxidation in the active regions. The formation of the
BB is limited by the poly-Si film, and its presence also
absorbs stress from the nitride, allowing the pad oxide to
be thinned and the nitride to be thickened, to minimize
the BB. Figures 9–11 show the evolution of the local
stress in PBLOCOS during three subsequent processing
steps: before field oxidation, after field oxidation, and after
removal of the nitride mask. Figure 9 shows the result
of a µRS scan across a 10 µm wide line of a PBLOCOS
sample that was taken out of the processing before field
oxidation. The 457.9 nm line of the argon laser was used
for excitation of the spectra. The difference, 1ω, between
the measured frequency of the silicon Raman peak and the
stress-free value is plotted as a function of the position
across the sample (open circles). The schematic drawing
on top of the figure can be used to make a direct correlation
between the measured Raman frequency and the position
on the structure where the signal is obtained. It can be seen
in the figure that, upon approaching the line, 1ω becomes
negative. This indicates tensile stress in the silicon just
outside the mask. Under the Si3 N4 mask, 1ω becomes
positive, indicating compressive stress. This experiment
was repeated for different thicknesses of the nitride film and
Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs
Figure 9. Raman frequency shift from stress-free value for
a long 240 nm Si3 N4 /50 nm poly-Si/10 nm PO line, width
9.4 µm, as shown at the top of the figure. Open
circles, experiment; full line, fit of the edge-force model to
the experiment. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm (from [32]).
the pad oxide, and for different widths of the line [66, 67].
In order to relate the measured Raman shift with mechanical
stress present in the sample, the secular equation has to be
solved. This was done for this experiment [32], assuming
that the stress in the substrate, due to the line, could be
described by the simple analytical edge-force model of Hu
[15]. In this model, it is assumed that this stress can be
described by edge forces, f , as indicated in figure 9. The
strain tensor components were calculated, using this model,
at different positions and at different depths in the substrate.
Next the secular equation (equation (8)) was solved for all
these positions, and the Raman shift was calculated, taking
into account the penetration depth of the laser light and the
dimensions of the beam spot. The result of the fit of this
model to the data is given by the full curve in figure 9.
Although the fit was found not to be so good for smaller
lines (2.5 µm), it could be concluded that this simple model
is already adequate to describe the stress in the silicon for
these structures.
After field oxidation, the stress picture changes
drastically. This is shown in figure 10, where the Raman
shift 1ω, measured before and after field oxidation, is
plotted as a function of the position on the sample [66].
A schematic drawing of the sample is shown on top of
the figure. After field oxidation, 1ω becomes negative
at the tip of the bird’s beak, indicating that tensile stress
is present in the underlying substrate at that point. In
samples with thinner field oxides, this downward shift is
observed to be much larger [65, 67]. Further, 1ω under
the nitride line is larger after FO than before FO. This
is due to compressive stress exerted by the FO on the
active area. Because of the volume expansion during
oxidation of silicon and because of the difference in thermal
expansion coefficients of SiO2 and Si, the silicon regions
lying between the FO regions will be compressed by the
147
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Figure 10. Raman frequency shift from the stress-free
value for a PBLOCOS sample with 10 nm PO, 50 nm
poly-Si and 150 nm Si3 N4 , before field oxidation (open
circles) and after field oxidation at 950 ◦ C (full circles). The
vertical lines denote the borders of the 5 µm wide nitride
film. The sample after FO is shown schematically at the
top. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm (from [65]).
latter. This compressive stress acts also at the bird’s beak
tip. So, at that position there is a combination of tensile
stress, mainly in the vertical direction, and compressive
stress, mainly acting horizontally. Also the bent nitride
film edge will introduce compressive stress in the silicon.
The frequency of the silicon Raman peak is influenced by
all the stress components.
The main effect of removal of the nitride mask and the
underlying poly-Si film is a relaxation of the tensile stress
region at the bird’s beak. As can be seen in figure 11,
the negative shift of 1ω at the bird’s beak tip completely
disappears, and the only forces which are still present are
the compressive forces from the FO.
Similar studies were performed on samples with
different thicknesses of the pad oxide, the field oxide and
the Si3 N4 . Also stress surrounding LOCOS structures on
SIMOX wafers was studied, and it was found that the stress
in the Si film is highly influenced by the field oxidation time
[68]. It was also shown that the tensile stress at the bird’s
beak tip is much larger in PBLOCOS structures than in
LOCOS structures, and that, in general, a reduction of the
bird’s beak length gives rise to an increase in stress. As a
result, the risk for defect generation will also increase.
Although extraction of stress values from the Raman
experiments was done in these studies only for the simple
line structures (figure 9), the experiments did provide
information on the origin of the stress, the sign of the stress,
and the influence of processing steps on the magnitude
and on the stress distribution. Jones et al [33] went
one step further, they used finite element modelling to
calculate the field oxidation induced stress in the substrate
of PBLOCOS structures, and using these results, they
calculated the corresponding Raman shift. They obtained
a good agreement between the model and the experimental
148
Figure 11. Raman frequency shift from the stress-free
value for a sample with 14 nm PO, 50 nm poly-Si, 150 nm
Si3 N4 and 900 nm FO grown at 950 ◦ C before (full symbols)
and after (open symbols) removal of the Si3 N4 and poly-Si
film by dry etching. The vertical lines indicate the borders
of the 5 µm wide nitride film. The sample after the strip is
shown at the top. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm (from [65]).
results. A very interesting experiment on PBLOCOS
structures, after field oxidation, is shown in figure 12 [69].
In this experiment a µRS scan was performed across arrays
of PBLOCOS stripe structures (six stripes per array) with
widths varying from 4 µm down to 0.35 µm. ‘O’ denotes
the position of the FO, ‘N’ denotes the position of the
nitride line. The finite resolution of the Raman probe causes
increased blurring of the stress variations below the 1 µm
geometry, but it can clearly be seen that the average stress
becomes increasingly tensile for smaller lines, until a stress
relaxation occurs at the 0.5 µm PBLOCOS stripes and
below. The cause of this relaxation was revealed by XTEM
pictures: the nitride mask was found to be completely
lifted for the lines with width ≤ 0.5 µm, because for
these dimensions the 0.25 µm long bird’s beaks completely
encroach the active area. These results indicated that a
further down scaling of the devices will be difficult using
PBLOCOS isolation.
4.2.2. Trenches. The drive for increased density in
integrated circuits has led to ‘trench technology’, which
involves anisotropic etching of patterns into the substrate
to form trenches, and subsequently filling them with
SiO2 or poly-Si. These trenches are used as storage
capacitors in dynamic memory (DRAM) technologies (deep
storage trenches), or as isolation structures in CMOS,
bipolar and BiCMOS technologies. As discussed above,
LOCOS cannot be scaled down much further, and shallow
trenches offer an attractive solution. Although trenches
are advantageous from a density point of view, trench
structures have been shown to be a major contributing factor
in substrate defect generation during the processing [70–
76]. The defect generation is directly related to mechanical

Figure 12. Raman scan across an array of PBLOCOS structures with geometry varying from 4 µm down to 0.35 µm
processed with 10 nm PO, 50 nm poly-Si, 150 nm nitride and 600 nm FO grown at 975 ◦ C. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm
(from [68]).
stress surrounding the trench, and for this reason a growing
body of literature is devoted to the study of this stress,
mostly by theoretical calculations (analytical models and
finite element calculations), and to the effect of processing
conditions (oxidation, deposition, annealing) and of trench
geometry on the stress magnitude [20, 72–81].
One of the first attempts to analyse the stress around
deep trenches, filled with poly-Si or SiO2 , experimentally,
was done by Nadahara et al [81]. The Raman shift was
measured at different depths in between two trenches, on
a cleaved sample. Although the Raman shift was only
studied at three points, and although it was assumed that
the stress could be calculated from the Raman shift using
equation (11), which is only valid for uniaxial stress,
the results were very promising. There was a good
correlation between the results and the predictions from
FE simulations. Furthermore, the authors showed that
information about the variation of the stress with depth can
be obtained by measuring on a cleaved sample.
Nowadays, µRS is often used to control mechanical
stress around trench isolation in order to optimize the
isolation structure with regard to stress [74–76, 82, 83].
An interesting paper comparing stress surrounding a
combination of shallow and deep trench structures for three
different processes was published by Itoh et al [76]. The
three processes are described in figure 13(a). The stress
measured by Raman spectroscopy for the three processes
is shown in figure 13(b). Here also the stress values were
calculated from the Raman shift assuming uniaxial stress
(equation (11)). The stress in processes A and C was
found to be high, while in process B it was low. This
was explained by temperature differences between the three
processes: in B, the filling occurred at a low temperature.
Deep trenches in combination with LOCOS isolation
are commonly used in bipolar transistors. These devices
often show high leakage current and low yield, which is
attributed to stress-induced defects. That the combination
Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs
of deep trenches and LOCOS gives rise to large stress
variations is shown in figure 14 [83], where the result of
a µRS scan across the first bipolar device of an array is
shown. The experiment was performed on devices from a
bulk 1.25 µm BiCMOS process, which were taken out of
the processing just after LOCOS oxidation. The trenches
(1.5 µm wide, 8 µm deep) had an SiO2 sidewall liner and
were filled with LPCVD poly-Si. At both collector window
(CW) and base-emitter window (BEW) a distorted image
of the stress in an isolated LOCOS (see figure 8) is found.
At the trench edges, a large upward shift of the Si Raman
peak is observed. Assuming uniaxial stress, this shift would
indicate a compressive stress of about −370 MPa. The
stress outside the array (at −5 µm) becomes zero, while in
between two devices (at 25 µm) it remains compressive.
µRS experiments were also performed at different depths
on a cleaved sample. The stress was found to be tensile
at the trench border deeper in the substrate and in the
poly-Si, and compressive closer to the surface and at the
BEW and CW. The µRS data of planar and cross-sectional
experiments were found to correlate very well, and the
observed variations in stress correspond with variations
predicted by simulations [80].
µRS was also used to study and compare process-
induced mechanical stresses in recessed oxide-isolated and
TEOS refilled trench-isolated SOI device islands [84].
Figure 15 shows the result of a scan across a 5 µm
wide island. The right-hand axis gives the stress values
calculated from the Raman shift, assuming uniaxial stress.
The edges of the islands are indicated by the vertical
broken lines. The experiments show that the SOI islands
isolated by recessed oxide are under high compressive
stress. Tensile stress is observed at the edges. On the
other hand, the islands isolated by TEOS oxide refilled
trenches show practically no stress, except for the edges
where tensile stress is also observed.
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Figure 13. (a ) Trench isolation structure and fabrication flow for three processes (from [75]). (b ) Mechanical stress
distribution maps for the three isolation structures as measured by Raman spectroscopy. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm
(from [75]).
4.3. Metal structures
One of the important issues of concern for submicrometre
integrated circuit technology is the large mechanical stress
in metal interconnect lines. These stresses are one of the
important driving forces for electromigration-induced void
formation and growth. They can even be large enough to
cause immediate failure of the lines. Stresses in metals
are in general measured by XRD. The disadvantage of this
technique is the large probed area and the large penetration
depth of the x-rays. As a result, only information about the
mean value of the stress components in the metal structures
can be obtained. µRS has a better spatial resolution and
a smaller penetration depth than XRD, but no Raman
signal can be obtained from the metal. However, µRS
can be used to provide information on the stress in the Si
substrate adjacent to the metal structures. This information
150
is important as such, but it can also be used to give feedback
to theoretical models and for comparison with the XRD
results.
Sakata et al [85] used µRS to study stress in silicon
near tungsten lines. A Raman spectrum was measured
at three points near the lines, separated by 0.1 µm.
The measurements were performed using two polarization
directions: the incident light was polarized either along
the width or along the length of the lines. They used the
514 nm argon laser line. The laser spot size was about
1 µm, but when the spot partly probes the metal, the area
actually probed is smaller. The authors did correct for this
effect by taking the differential spectrum from two spectra
obtained at adjacent points, including the effect of laser
power. They found that the Si Raman peak shifted towards
higher frequencies near the line, indicating compressive

Figure 14. Raman frequency shift across the first device of
an array of bipolar structures, taken out of the processing
after field oxidation. T1 and T2 denote the trenches, BEW
is the base-emitter window and CW is the collector window.
The 8 µm deep trenches are filled with poly-Si. Exciting
wavelength 457.9 nm (experiment from [82]).
stress. In order to calculate the stress, uniaxial stress was
assumed.
It can be noted that the penetration depth of the 514 nm
line, used in these experiments, is rather large (see table 2).
The stress is expected to be larger closer to the surface,
and for this reason it is more interesting to use the shorter
457.9 nm laser line of the argon laser for this kind of
experiment, if available. Two additional advantages of
using this line are that the spot size is somewhat smaller
than the spot size of the 514 nm line, and that the plasma
lines can be used as reference. Indeed, for the 514 nm line
there is a plasma line located exactly at the position of the
Si Raman peak, at 520 Rcm−1 ; it is therefore necessary
to use filters or a monochromator to get rid of this line.
The plasma lines for the 457.9 nm line, however, do not
interfere with the Si Raman line.
Close to the edge of a metal line, the assumption of
‘uniaxial stress’ is certainly not valid, and more modelling
is required to obtain quantitative information on the stress
components from the measured Raman shift. A first step
in that direction was made by Graf [86], who studied
stress in the silicon substrate near TiSi2 films of different
thicknesses. A typical result of these experiments is shown
in figure 16, for a 100 nm thick TiSi2 film on 500 nm SiO2
on silicon. The Raman frequency (top), intensity (centre)
and full width at half maximum (bottom) are shown as a
function of the position on the sample. The left edge of the
line is indicated by the vertical broken line. Also for these
experiments, the 514 nm line of the laser was used. The
spot size was estimated, from the change of the intensity
of the Si signal when crossing the silicide film, to be about
1 µm. A negative shift of the Raman frequency was found
near the film edge, indicating tensile stress. This shift was
shown to increase with increasing thickness of the film,
from 0.03 cm−1 for the 30 nm film to 0.18 cm−1 for the
100 nm film. Graf compared the results with a concentrated
Local mechanical stress in silicon ICs
edge force model, similar to the one of Hu [15], and used
this model to calculate, using equation (8), the expected
Raman shift for different depths in the substrate, for the
three Raman modes. A special program was written for
these calculations. The model predicts a negative shift of
the frequency of the Raman line close to the metal line,
as was observed in the experiments. However, a fit of the
model to the experiments was not done.
More accurate information on stress in and near metal
lines, obtained by combining theoretical models with
Raman data, was obtained by Ma et al [34] and De Wolf
et al [18]. Ma et al used µRS to study stress near
passivated aluminium lines, and compared the results with
finite element calculations. They assumed a very small
absorption depth of the probing laser line (514 nm) of
200 nm, and therefore only the stresses calculated with
finite elements at the top row of points in the mesh
were taken into account for the Raman shift calculation.
They corrected for the probe size of the laser by taking
a convolution of the calculated stress variation and the
Gaussian intensity profile of the laser beam. The beam spot
diameter was experimentally determined to be about 1 µm,
but a size of 1.5 µm was used to fit the calculations to the
Raman data. It was concluded from these experiments that
the Raman shift in the silicon near the Al lines is principally
dependent on the hydrostatic stress in the interconnect.
This stress therefore probably provides the driving force
for voiding. They also studied the stress variations in
the silicon substrate along two Al lines, a control line
and a electromigration-tested line. Uniform stresses were
found along the line for the as-fabricated sample, while
stress variations were found for the electromigration-tested
sample.
The penetration depth of 200 nm for the 514 nm laser
line, as used in this study, is probably an underestimation
(see table 2). As a result, the stress values used to fit the
model to the data were too high. This may explain the
discrepancy between the measured spot diameter and the
fitted spot diameter. Indeed, using a larger spot size will
result in a reduction of the measured variations in stress.
µRS, XRD and analytical modelling were used in [18]
to study stresses in and surrounding highly tensile tungsten
lines of two different widths and spacing. The stress in
the lines and in the adjacent substrate was calculated using
two analytical models: a concentrated and a distributed
edge force model, and using finite element calculations.
The values obtained for the stress in the lines and in
the substrate, using the results from these models, were
compared with the experimental results from XRD and
µRS, and a very good agreement was found. Figure 17
shows the result of a scan across the first and the second
tungsten line of the wide-line array. The Raman shift
obtained far from the lines was taken as the stress-free
reference value (0 Rcm−1 in the figure). Upon approaching
the first line, the Raman frequency shifts downwards,
indicating tensile stress. Under the line, no Raman signal
can be obtained because the laser light cannot penetrate the
metal. In between the lines, a downward shift is measured,
with maximum near the edges of the lines, and minimum
at the centre (c) in between the lines.
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Figure 15. Comparison of the Raman frequency shift across a 5 µm wide SOI device island that was laterally trench isolated
by refilled TEOS oxide (full circles) or by recessed oxide (open circles). The borders of the islands are indicated by the
broken vertical lines. Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm (from [83]).

Figure 17. Shift of the Si Raman peak from the stress-free

value as a function of the position on an Si wafer with
3.8 µm wide CVD tungsten lines (700 nm thick on 100 nm
SiO2 ). Exciting wavelength 457.9 nm (from [18]).

5. Conclusions

Micro-Raman spectroscopy is a very interesting technique

Figure 16. Raman frequency shift (top), intensity (centre)
and full width at half maximum (FWHM) (bottom) as a
function of the position on a silicon wafer near a 100 nm
TiSi2 on 60 nm SiO2 line. The left edge of the line is
indicated by the vertical broken line. Exciting wavelength
514 nm (from [85]).
Although µRS studies of stress surrounding metals are
still very scarce, they are very promising. In particular
the combination with data from XRD, and with predictions
from finite element or analytical modelling can be expected
to provide very interesting information.
for the study of local stress in silicon. It has the advantage
of being non-destructive, one can control the probed depth
by changing the wavelength of the exciting laser, and
the spatial resolution is fairly good. Several studies are
going on to improve this spatial resolution, for example by
near-field optics, using optical fibres, or by decreasing the
wavelength. One can measure on the sample surface, or, if
more information on the variation of the stress with depth is
required, on a cleaved surface, as for example near trench
structures. Although it takes a good instrument and some
knowledge about factors that may influence the Raman peak
position, such as temperature, laser stability and outlining,
the technique is relatively simple. One measures the silicon
Raman peak at different positions and one monitors the
position of this peak. This directly provides important
information on the local stress variations in the sample.

152

When one wants to compare stress due to different
materials or in samples with different geometry, it is not
really necessary to use extensive calculations to correlate
the Raman shift with the stress. Although the assumption
‘uniaxial stress’ is not always correct, it can be used
to provide a first indication on the sign and magnitude
of the stress, and on differences in local stress between
different investigated structures. For example, in the above-
discussed study on stress near tungsten lines [18], it could
be concluded immediately from the Raman experiments that
the stress surrounding the narrow tungsten lines is smaller
than the stress surrounding the wide tungsten lines, and
from this it could be predicted that the stress in the narrow
lines must be smaller than the stress in the wide lines, which
corresponds with XRD observations.
It is in general not so easy to obtain information on
the different stress tensor components from the Raman
spectroscopy measurements. New techniques, such as
polarized off-axis Raman spectroscopy [87], are under
development and promise to give more information on the
stress tensor. Also, comparison of the Raman shift with
predictions by models describing the stress is possible. In
that case, the measured Raman shift should be compared
with the Raman shift predicted by these models, including
effects of penetration depth, probing spot diameter and
effects of scanning across edges of films (i.e. metals) on
this spot size. This is elaborate work, involving a lot of
computer calculations, but, as some of the above-discussed
reports show, it is certainly worth the effort.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank E Anastassakis, whose extensive
work on the effects of mechanical stress on Raman
frequency modes introduced me to the subject, and was
indispensable for my work. Further, I would like to
thank all my colleagues at IMEC and at other places who
provided me with a lot of interesting samples and with
whom I have enjoyed many fruitful stimulating discussions:
Hans Norström, Jan Vanhellemont, Albert Romano, Rita
Rooyackers, Ludo Deferm, Guido Groeseneken, Herbert
Münder, Pepe Menéndez, Kevin Yallup, Helmut Baumgart,
Ann Witvrouw, Karen Maex, Steven Jones, Edouard Da
Silva and Michel Ignat. In particular I would like to thank
Herman E Maes who suggested this subject to me as an
interesting research topic and who supported it. This work
was partly supported by a NATO Collaborative Research
Grant, CRG 940198.
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