Computer Fundamentals

F.L. VARGAS COLLEGE INC.
Tuguegarao City
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
TOPIC 1
• Computer Fundamentals
• What is Computer?
• History of Computer
• Types of Computers
Computer Fundamentals
Computer is an electronic device i.e., used to work with information or compute. It is derived
from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.
Computer Fundamentals Index

Computer Fundamentals
o Computer Fundamentals o Secondary Memory

o What is Computer o Memory Units
o History of Computer
Computer Network
o Types of Computers
o Computer Network
Computer Components
Computer Virus
o Computer Components
o Computer Virus
o Input Devices
o Output Devices Number Systems
o Central Processing Unit o Number Systems
o Hardware Internet
o Software o Internet
Computer Memory o Intranet
o Computer Memory o Extranet
o Register Memory o Website
o Cache Memory
o Primary Memory
What is Computer?
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and
processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It renders
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 1
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output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output
for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term
"computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.
A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through
integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and
represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that
stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The components of a computer such as
machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the
programs and data are called software.
The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:
o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a
keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.
Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on the size, a
computer can be divided into five types:
1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Workstations
1. Micro Computer:
It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other types. It
uses a microprocessor as a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-bit microprocessor
chips. The common examples of microcomputers include laptops, desktop computers,
personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, and smartphones. Microcomputers are generally
designed and developed for general usage like browsing, searching for information, internet,
MS Office, social media, etc.
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2. Mini Computer:
Mini-computers are also known as "Midrange Computers." They are not designed for a single.
They are multi-user computers designed to support multiple users simultaneously. So, they are
generally used by small businesses and firms. Individual departments of a company use these
computers for specific purposes. For example, the admission department of a University can
use a Mini-computer for monitoring the admission process.
3. Mainframe Computer:
It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users simultaneously. They

are used by large firms and government organizations to run their business operations as they
can store and process large amounts of data. For example, Banks, universities, and insurance
companies use mainframe computers to store the data of their customers, students, and
policyholders, respectively.
4. Super Computer:
Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of
computers. They have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can perform
millions of instructions per second. The super-computers are task-specific and thus used for
specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines including applications in electronics, petroleum engineering, weather forecasting,
medicine, space research and more. For example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching
space satellites and monitoring and controlling them for space exploration.
5. Work stations:
It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more powerful

microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In terms of storage
capacity and speed, it comes between a personal computer and minicomputer. Work
stations are generally used for specialized applications such as desktop publishing, software
development, and engineering designs.
Benefits of Using a computer:

o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For example, after
having a basic understanding of a word processor, you can create, edit, store, and print
the documents easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to send emails,
browse content, gain information, use social media platforms, and more. By connecting
to the internet, you can also connect to your long-distance friends and family members.
o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g., you can
store your projects, eBooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but also enables
you to organize your data. For example, you can create different folders to store
different data and information and thus can search for information easily and quickly.
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o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at spelling and
grammar. Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a great memory, you
can use a computer to perform calculations and store the results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically challenged, e.g.,
Stephen Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer to speak. It also can be
used to help blind people by installing special software to read what is on the screen.
o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch movies, play
games and more.
The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in a day
are dependent on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:
1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that enables the
ATM to take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance in your
account and the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored as a digital
record or digital currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day-to-day trading. There are many
advanced algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving
humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling, texting,
browsing is itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by computers.
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History of Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones
as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing
devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with the first to
recent ones are described below;
Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were
moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations.
Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is
shown below;
Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-
1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked
with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also
the first machine to use the decimal point.
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Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was
the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform
addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a
wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given
on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;
Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673.
He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical
calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted
drums. See the following image;
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Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.
Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.
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Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical
tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s
Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine (IBM) in
1924.
Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog
device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals
to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.
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Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned
to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark
I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable
digital computer.
Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with
time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It
replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines.
In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;
First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic
tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;
Some of the popular first-generation computers are;
o ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI (Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650
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Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers
used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor
computers faster than the first-generation computers.
In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages
like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems
were used in these computers.
Some of the popular second-generation computers are;
o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108
Third Generation Computers

The third-generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC
can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced
the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These
generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating
system. Also, the high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL
PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;
o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP (Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316
Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits;
a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this
generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation
computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The programming
languages like C, C++, DBASE was also used in this generation.
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Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;
o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer)
Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra
Large-Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten
million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing hardware
and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this generation
were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;
o Desktop
o Laptop
o Notebook
o Ultrabook
o Chromebook
Types of Computers
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer
1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous
data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue
computers are used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical
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quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or

scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.
Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To
perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another
rod.
o Differential Analyzers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs
integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions.
Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac,
and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the
day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals
flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the
mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the
electrical signal generates the appropriate displays.
2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes
it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops,
desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process
both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital
form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue
and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts
the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes,
hospitals, and scientific applications.
On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:
1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge
amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.
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Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as

weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first
supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can
run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can
execute any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centers or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market
and bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analyzing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other
pollutants in the atmosphere.
2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high
volume of data.
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.

They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high
volume of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g., millions of transactions in a second in the
banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
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o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.

o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If
any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information
and data.
Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in
order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates
or disease updates.
o In the field of defense, it allows the defense departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defense.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data
related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools
and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches
use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.
3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can
support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments
for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies
between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a
microcomputer.
Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.
Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
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o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in
the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.
4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications.
It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high-speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be
used as a workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors
before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives to
store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple
drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other
starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work
while processing the screen output.
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5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that
is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory,
storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of
microcomputers. They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.
TOPIC 2
• Computer Components
• Input Devices
• Output Devices
• Central Processing Unit
• Hardware
• Software
• Operating System
Computer Components
There are 5 main computer components that are given below:
o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory
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The operations of computer components are given below:
1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information into the
computer. It is performed with the help of input devices.
2) Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store data and
instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing and also stores the
processed data before displaying it as output.
3) Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful information. This process
is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes the raw data from storage, processes it and
then sends back the processed data to storage.
4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output devices like
monitor, printer and speakers.
5) Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of CPU. The control
unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right manner and sequence.
Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a computer. The
Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input and processes it to produce
the output.
Some of the popular input devices are:
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
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4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices
1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other
electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters,
and functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device
for wireless communication.
Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the region and
language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as follows:
i) QWERTY Keyboard:
It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is named after the
first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in countries that do not use Latin-
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based alphabet. It is so popular that some people think that it is the only type of keyboard to
use with computers as an input device.
ii) AZERTY Keyboard:
It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an alternative

layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other European countries. Some
countries have manufactured their own versions of AZERTY.
Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the keyboard. The
Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z keys in QWERTY keyboard.
Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to the left of the L key.
AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of letters but also
in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is required for writing European
languages like French.
iii) DVORAK Keyboard:
This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by reducing the
finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are kept in a home row to
improve typing.
2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the
screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and
a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a
mouse. It lets you control the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the
touchpad. Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform
different buttons.
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The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a roller ball
integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern mouse devices come with
optical technology that controls cursor movements by a visible or invisible light beam. A mouse
is connected to a computer through different ports depending on the type of computer and
type of a mouse.
Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:
It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or cursor on the
screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily rolled with finger, thumb or the
palm to move the pointer on the screen. The device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball.
It remains stationary; you don't need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal
device if you have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.
ii) Mechanical Mouse:
It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded type of
mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The drawback is that they
tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require regular cleaning.
iii) Optical Mouse:
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An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more reliable than a
mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However, its performance is affected
by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best
results. The rough surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the
glossy surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.
iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:
As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless technology such as
IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the movement of the cursor. It is used to
improve the experience of using a mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.
3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document.
The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed
on the screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to convert images
into digital ones. Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:
Types of Scanners:
i) Flatbed Scanner:
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It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates the pane, and
then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across the glass pane and scans
the document and thus produces its digital copy. You will need a transparency adapter while
scanning transparent slides.
ii) Handheld Scanner:
It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a flat image that
is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the hand should be steady while
scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One of the commonly used handheld scanners
is the barcode scanner which you would have seen in shopping stores.
iii) Sheetfed Scanner:
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In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner. The main
components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module, and calibration
sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the document moves through the
scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page documents, not for thick objects like books,
magazines, etc.
iv) Drum Scanner:
Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have a charge-
coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is extremely sensitive to light.
The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light moves across the image, which produces
a reflection of the image which is captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have
high resolution and are suitable for detailed scans.
v) Photo Scanner:
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It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners
come with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.
4) Joystick
A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical
base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of
stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.
The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A joystick
can be of different types such as displacement joysticks, finger-operated joysticks, hand
operated, isometric joystick, and more. In joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of
the joystick unless it is upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse
moves.
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Second Semester
5) Light Pen
A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a
light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen.
Its light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals to
the CPU. It is not compatible with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw
on the screen if needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind
project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
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A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
6) Digitizer
Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It
enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a
pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or
display screen. The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert
handwritten text to typewritten words.
It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped papers.
Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of drawings and send output to
a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you
to convert hand-drawn images into a format suitable for computer processing.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
7) Microphone
The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives the
sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording medium. The
audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in the computer. The microphone
also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is also used to add sound to
presentations and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can capture audio
waves in different ways; accordingly, the three most common types are described below:
i) Dynamic:
It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet which is
wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet. The sheet transfers
vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to electric wires which transmit the sound
like an electrical signal.
ii) Condenser:
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It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency response. It has
a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the front plate. When sound hits
the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters the distance between the two plates. The
changes in distance are transmitted as electric signals.
iii) Ribbon:
It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum, duralumin, or nanofilm
suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause vibrations in the ribbon, which
generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of the vibration. The voltage is transmitted as
an electrical signal. Early ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase the output
voltage, but modern ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a strong
signal.
8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive
to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations
where security is a major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with
hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written
with magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic ink.
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The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document printed in
magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes the ink, and the
magnetic information is then translated into characters.
9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed
or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents
and books into electronic files.
It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After copying the
documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-color (black and white),
version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and dark areas, where the dark areas are
selected as characters, and the light area is identified as background. It is widely used to
convert hard copy legal or historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be
edited if required like we edit documents created in ms word.
10) Digital camera:
It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then stores them on
a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to capture images, as opposed to
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film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a camera that is connected to your computer
can also be called a digital camera.
It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens. When the light
strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical current, which is used to
create the images.
11) Paddle:
It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held by hand and
looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or decrease the volume. Paddle
moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the game in a back-and-forth motion. It is
widely used as an alternative to the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many
handheld devices designed to control a function in an electronic device, computer, etc.
12) Steering wheel:
It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in driving
programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real steering wheel by allowing
you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may be provided with acceleration and brake
pedal devices and a mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games more
adventurous and entertaining.
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13) Gesture recognition devices:
These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that respond to
gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the movement of a player's
body and interprets these movements as inputs to video games. This feature is also available
in certain tablets and smartphones where you can perform certain tasks such as taking
pictures using finger gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.
14) Light Gun:
As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at and shoot the
targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light gun was used for the first time
on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is pointed at the target on the screen and the
trigger is pulled, the screen goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the
photodiode, which is present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example,
shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.
15) Touchpad:
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It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move or control the
cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also has two buttons for right and
left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as
selecting an object on the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder, and more.
16) Remote:
It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV remote that
can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume, from a distance without
leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956.
The remote sends the electromagnetic waves to communicate with the device. These waves
can be infrared rays, radio waves, etc.
17) Touch screen:
It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows users to
interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today, most of the electronic
devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a mouse for navigating a graphical user
interface. For example, by touching, you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play
videos, etc. Besides this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine,
etc.
The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A. Johnson in 1965.
The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the 1970s by CERN engineers Frank
Beck and Bent Stumpe.
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18) VR:
VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is generated by

computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this artificial environment using some
input devices such as headsets, gloves, headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find
himself or herself walking on a beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky, etc.,
without actually doing all this.
19) Webcam:
Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built camera
provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input device as it can
take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The pictures and videos are stored
in the computer memory and can be displayed on the screen if required. Although it works
almost the same as the digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to
take compact digital photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with
others through the internet.
20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her biological
features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done by using biometric
devices, which can be of different types based on their scanning features and abilities, such
as:
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i) Face Scanner:
It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face measurements
of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and mouth, etc., accordingly, it
confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is smart enough to differentiate between a
person's picture and the real person.
ii) Hand Scanner:
The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every person has a unique
pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This device takes advantage of this feature; it
identifies a person by scanning the palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns
and blood flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.
iii) Fingerprint Scanner:
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It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This device is
developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world can have the same
fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint attendance system to mark the
attendance of employees. This type of scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges
found on a finger and store it in the memory or database. When you press your finger on the
given space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.
iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:
It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is more secure
than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It works by mapping the retina's
blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels of retina absorb light more easily as well as
can be identified with appropriate lighting.
In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the scanner's
eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in the retina and uses it to
verify a person's identity.
v) Voice Scanner:
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It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print or template.
The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify the voice of a person to
confirm his or her identity. The person is required to speak in the normal or same voice that was
used to create a voice template. It is not much reliable as it can be misused using a tape
recording.
Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the
computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display output
in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video.
Some of the popular output devices are:
1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
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B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector
1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that
displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.
The types of monitors are given below.
i) CRT Monitor
CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce
images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of electrons through
electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images
on the screen. The monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color.
These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.
The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection plate
assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front (outer surface) of the screen
onto which images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.
There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So, the colors
which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green lights.The magnetic field
guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT
monitors are still used by graphics professionals because of their color quality.
ii) LCD Monitor
The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT
monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops,
tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid
crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric current
aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass through
the second layer to create images on the screen.
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The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old LCDs had
passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by sending a charge. A few
electrical charges could be sent each second that made screens appear blurry when the
images moved quickly on the screen.
Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors (TFTs) with
capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So, they don?t make screen
blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as are more efficient than passive-matrix
displays.
iii) LED monitor
The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and
uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference between them lies
in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each
panel has several LEDsto backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode
fluorescent light to backlight the display.Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones,
LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only produces more
brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less power.
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iv) Plasma Monitor
The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It
has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and
a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma
and emits ultraviolet light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by
a tiny bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays
(LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.
Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent contrast ratios, wide
viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they offer a unique viewing experience
while watching action movies, sports games, and more.
2) Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text
or any other information onto the paper.
Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and Non-
impact Printers.
o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
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A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the
paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print
characters and images.
Impact printers are further divided into two types.
B. Line printers
A) Character Printers
Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print head or
hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are
character printers. Today, these printers are not in much use due to their low speed and
because only the text can be printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as
follows:
i) Dot Matrix Printer
Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns
of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with
a print head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form
the individual characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin
dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which results in better printing of characters. To
produce color output, the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot
Matrix printers is around 200-500 characters per second.
ii) Daisy Wheel Printer
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Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems.It consists of a wheel
or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer.
At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a character the
printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer
hits disk and the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. It
cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is very low around
25-50 characters per second. Due to these drawbacks,these printers have become obsolete.
B) Line Printers:
Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact
printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples
of line printers.
i) Drum Printer:
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Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has
circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of
characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes under
the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum
rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate
hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very high
speed. Furthermore, it can print only a predefined style as it has a specific set of characters.
These printers are known to be very noisy due to the use of hammering techniques.
ii) Chain Printer:
Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are
embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers,
for each print location one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to
the total number of print positions.
The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes at the print
location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the ribbon and character on
the chain.They can type 500 to 3000 lines per minute. They are also noisy due to the
hammering action.
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Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer on the
ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without direct physical
contact between the paper and the printing machinery. These printers can print a complete
page at a time, so they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-impact
printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:
i) Laser Printer:
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The laser
beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering
electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the
drum picks the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once
the document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining toner is
collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce
quality print objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.
ii) Inkjet Printer:
The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying
fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head moves
back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through the printer.
These drops pass through an electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct
images and characters.
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Second Semester
An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color printers that
have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is
capable of printing high-quality images with different colors. It can produce print objects with
a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch (dpi).
3) Projector
A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface
such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices to project
their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and
videos. So, it is an ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large number of
people.
Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as HDMI ports for
newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some projectors are designed
to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand,
and more and are frequently used for classroom teaching, giving presentations, home
cinemas, etc.
A digital projector can be of two types:
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors are very popular as
they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD projector uses transmissive technology
to produce output. It allows the light source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the
three colored liquid crystal light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are
blocked by the panels and thus images are on the screen.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors, a separate mirror for
each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality images. These projectors are mostly
used in theatres as they fulfill the requirement of high-quality video output.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or microprocessor. It
carries out all the important functions of a computer. It receives instructions from both the
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hardware and active software and produces output accordingly. It stores all important
programs like operating systems and application software. CPU also helps Input and output
devices to communicate with each other. Owing to these features of CPU, it is often referred
to as the brain of the computer.
CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard. Furthermore, it is
provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep the CPU cool and functioning
smoothly.
Generally, a CPU has three components:
o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit
Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical signals to
instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions. It takes instructions
from memory and then decodes and executes these instructions. So, it controls and
coordinates the functioning of all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's main task is to
maintain and regulate the flow of information across the processor. It does not take part in
processing and storing data.
ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical functions. Arithmetic
functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication division, and comparisons. Logical
functions mainly include selecting, comparing, and merging the data. A CPU may contain
more than one ALU. Furthermore, ALUs can be used for maintaining timers that help run the
computer.
Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory (RAM). It temporarily
stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of processing. So, it acts as a
temporary storage area that holds the data temporarily, which is used to run the computer.
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What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it can process in
a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a clock speed of 4.0 GHz
means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.
Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its own types
of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market. Some of the basic types of
CPUs are described below:
Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was used in the 1970s.
It has only one core to process different operations. It can start only one operation at a time;
the CPU switches back and forth between different sets of data streams when more than one
program runs. So, it is not suitable for multitasking as the performance will be reduced if more
than one application runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly dependent on the clock
speed. It is still used in various devices, such as smartphones.
Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a single Integrated
Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and cache, they are linked together to
work as a single unit and thus can perform faster than the single-core processors and can
handle multitasking more efficiently than Single Core processors.
Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one integrated
circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains four independent units
called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple
instructions simultaneously, thereby increases the overall speed for programs that are
compatible with parallel processing.
Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units (cores) to
run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a single CPU, higher
performance can be generated without boosting the clock speed. However, the
performance increases only when the computer's software supports multiprocessing. The
software which supports multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple
processors instead of using one processor at a time.
History of CPU:
Some of the important events in the development of CPU since its invention till date are as
follows:
o In 1823, Baron Jons Jackob Berzelius discovered silicon that is the main component of CPU till
date.
o In 1903, Nikola Tesla got gates or switches patented, which are electrical logic circuits.
o In December 1947, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain invented the first
transistor at the Bell Laboratories and got it patented in 1948.
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o In 1958, the first working integrated circuit was developed by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby.
o In 1960, IBM established the first mass-production facility for transistors in New York.
o In 1968, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore founded Intel Corporation.
o AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) was founded in May 1969.
o In 1971, Intel introduced the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, with the help of Ted Hoff.
o In 1972, Intel introduced the 8008 processor; in 1976, Intel 8086 was introduced, and in June 1979,
Intel 8088 was released.
o In 1979, a 16/32-bit processor, the Motorola 68000, was released. Later, it was used as a
processor for the Apple Macintosh and Amiga computers.
o In 1987, Sun introduced the SPARC processor.
o In March 1991, AMD introduced the AM386 microprocessor family.
o In March 1993, Intel released the Pentium processor. In 1995, Cyrix introduced the Cx5x86
processor to give competition to Intel Pentium processors.
o In January 1999, Intel introduced the Celeron 366 MHz and 400 MHz processors.
o In April 2005, AMD introduced its first dual-core processor.
o In 2006, Intel introduced the Core 2 Duo processor.
o In 2007, Intel introduced different types of Core 2 Quad processors.
o In April 2008, Intel introduced the first series of Intel Atom processors, the Z5xx series. They were
single-core processors with a 200 MHz GPU.
o In September 2009, Intel released the first Core i5 desktop processor with four cores.
o In January 2010, Intel released many processors such as Core 2 Quad processor Q9500, first Core
i3 and i5 mobile processors, first Core i3 and i5 desktop processors. In the same year in July, it
released the first Core i7 desktop processor with six cores.
o In June 2017, Intel introduced the first Core i9 desktop processor.
o In April 2018, Intel released the first Core i9 mobile processor.
What is Computer Hardware?

Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a computer
system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a computer or use software
without using hardware. The screen on which you are reading this information is also a
hardware.
What is a hardware upgrade?

A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one, or additional hardware
developed to improve the performance of the existing hardware. A common example of a hardware
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upgrade is a RAM upgrade that increases the computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where
the old video card is removed and replaced with the new one.
Computer Hardware Parts

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:
1. Motherboard
2. Monitor
3. Keyboard
4. Mouse
1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all parts of a computer
except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input
and output devices are located on the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.
It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate with each other. It is meant to
hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let other components connect to it. Each component that runs the
computer or improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or connected to it through a slot or port.
There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the computers. So, a specific
motherboard can work only with specific types of processors and memory.
Components of a Motherboard:
CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor and a motherboard. It
facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it is installed or removed. Furthermore, it is provided
with a lock to prevent CPU movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.
RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or install the RAM (Random
Access Memory). There can be two or more memory slots in a computer.
Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection or port on the motherboard,
which provides an installation point to connect a hardware expansion card, for example, you can purchase a
video expansion card and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new video card in the computer.
Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR, CNR, PCI, etc.
Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched between them. These parts are
wrapped in a plastic container.
Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped around an iron core. It acts
as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic energy.
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Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the CPU interface, AGP,
and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU,
and graphics controller.
USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to your computer.
PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to connect the PCI devices
like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.
AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect graphics cards.
Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer processor.
Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.
CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a memory that stores the
BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.
2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as text, images, etc., is
displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which encloses this circuity. The monitor is also
known as a visual display unit (VDU).
Types of Monitors:
1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of video signals. Its main
components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, glass envelope, fluorescent screen,
and base.
2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to produce images on the
screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with capacitors and use active-matrix technology, which
allows pixels to retain their charge.
3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD monitor, which uses cold
cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs to
display the backlight.
4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce high resolutions of up to
1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate, outstanding contrast ration, and more.
3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you input text, characters,
and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc. It comes with different sets of keys to enter
numbers, characters, and perform various other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.
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A keyboards is an input device through which users can input text, numbers, and special characters. It
is an input device with a typical QWERTY keyset. It is an external hardware device that is connected to
the computer. It serves as the user's most fundamental interface with a system. It has numerous buttons
that can be used to generate letters, numbers, and symbols as well as unique keys like the Windows
and Alt keys that can also accomplish other tasks.
Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards
4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer screen's cursor) in a
GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or select objects on a computer's display screen.
It is generally placed on a flat surface as we need to move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of
Mouse: Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.
A mouse can be wireless or wired. It is a portable pointing device that is used to interact with objects
on computer screens with the help of moving the cursor around the screen. On the display screen, the
cursor moves in the same direction as the users' mouse movements. The term "mouse" refers to a
compact, wired, elliptical-shaped gadget that somewhat resembles a mouse.
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Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on the screen.
o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and execute a program. You
are required to take the cursor on the folder and double click it to open it.
o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object. During hovering over
an object, it displays information about the object without pressing any button of the mouse.
o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or document.
Parts of a mouse:
o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used to scroll up and down
and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like AutoCAD.
o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor to provide signals to the
computer about the motion and location of the mouse.
What are external hardware components?

The items that are frequently attached to the computer from outside in order to control input or output
functions are known as external hardware components, sometimes known as peripheral components.
These hardware components either serve as input devices for the software or output devices for the
output of the software's operations (output).
The following are examples of common input hardware components:
o Microphone: A microphone is an input device that converts sound waves into electrical impulses in order
to allow computer-based audio communications. It was developed by Emile Berliner in 1877. It is used to
enter audio into computers or transform sound waves into electric waves. It captures audio with the help
of converting sound waves into an electrical signal that could be a digital or analog signal. This process
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can be implemented by a computer as well as other digital audio devices.
o Camera: Visual pictures are captured by a camera, which then transmits them to a computer or a network
device. A camera is a piece of equipment that takes photographs with the help of using photosensitive
film or a plate inside of a light-proof housing. The photosensitive film is exposed to light via the camera's
shutter, which opens and closes as the image is imprinted onto the film.
o Touchpad: A touchpad is an input device that is also known as a glide pad, glide point, pressure-sensitive
tablet, or trackpad. It enables finger cursor movement for the user. It can take the place of a regular
mouse. To control the pointer on a display screen, a touchpad can be either external or incorporated into
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a laptop. Usually, it serves as a substitute for an external mouse.
o USB flash drive: A USB flash drive is a type of storage device for data that connects to a computer via a
USB port and uses flash memory. It is an external, removable storage device that has a built-in Universal
Serial Bus (USB) interface. Many USB flash drives can be removed and written to. They have a compact,
reliable, and small physical design. They often operate more quickly the more storage space they have.
Because there are no moving parts, USB flash drives are extremely mechanically durable.
o Memory card: A memory card is a kind of portable external storage device; video, photo, and other data
files can be stored on it. A form of storage medium, which is additionally known as a flash memory. Also,
it provides a volatile and non-volatile medium. It is frequently found in gadgets, including phones,
laptops, digital cameras, camcorders, gaming consoles, MP3 players, printers, and more.
Joysticks, styluses, and scanners are examples of additional input hardware components.
The following are a few examples of output hardware components:
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o Printer: A printer is a hardware output device used to produce hard copies of documents or print them.
It converts computer-generated electronic data into printed form. Text files, pictures, or a combination
of the two can all be considered documents. It receives input commands from users so that computers
or other devices may print the sheets. You must create a soft copy of your report and print it using a
printer, for example, if your institution needs you to submit a project report.
o Speaker: One of the most popular output devices is a speaker that connects to a computer to generate
a sound output. While some speakers can only be connected to computers, others can be used with any
type of sound system.
o Headphones, earphones, earbuds: These are also output devices much like speakers, which offer audio
that can only be heard by one listener.
Hardware vs. software

Hardware describes the physical parts of the computer or its delivery mechanisms that hold and execute
the software's written instructions. The intangible component of the system software enables the user
to communicate with the hardware and give commands to perform specific tasks. Computer software
includes:
o OS and associated tools;

o Applications that regulate particular computer operations
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o Programs that generally operate on data provided by the user
Virtual keyboards are not physical keyboards; therefore, they are also considered software on mobile
devices and laptop computers.
The software must be developed to function properly with the hardware because they both are
necessary for a computer to create usable output. Also, they depend on each other.
If any system has malware or malicious software, such as worms, spyware, viruses, and Trojan horses, they can
have a significant impact on software and the operating system of a system. Malware, however, has no effect on
hardware.
On the other hand, malware can impact the system in additional ways. For example, it can use up a lot of
memory of the system or even reproduce itself to take up the entire hard drive. This can stop reliable programs
from working and causes the computer to run slowly. Furthermore, users may not be able to access the files
stored on the computer's hardware due to malware.
What is hardware virtualization?

The abstraction of physical computing resources from the software that utilizes those resources is known as
hardware virtualization. Put on another way; hardware virtualization is the process of creating virtual
representations of hardware by using software rather than physical, tangible hardware components for various
computing functions.
A particular hardware platform by host software is used to execute hardware virtualization, and it is sometimes
referred to as platform or server virtualization. It needs a hypervisor, a virtual machine manager that turns
internal hardware into virtual forms. As a result, among OSes and applications, the hardware resources of one
physical machine can be shared easily and used more efficiently.
In cloud computing, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), a delivery model that offers hardware resources over
high-speed internet, is frequently associated with hardware virtualization. All of the hardware elements that are
typically found in an on-premises data center, including servers, storage, and networking hardware, as well as
the software that enables virtualization, are hosted by a cloud service provider (CSP), such as Amazon Web
Services or Microsoft Azure.
IaaS and CSPs differ from hardware as a service (HaaS) providers in that they don't host software but only host
hardware. A typical IaaS provider also offers a variety of services to go along with infrastructure parts, like the
following:
o billing
o clustering
o log access
o monitoring
o security
o load balancing
Other storage resilience services are also provided by some CSPs, including disaster recovery, automated
backup, and replication.
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What is hardware as a service?

While buying computer hardware and occasionally replacing or upgrading it is common for individuals or
businesses. People and businesses can also rent physical and virtual hardware from a service provider. The
maintenance of the hardware, including all of its numerous physical parts and the software that runs on them,
becomes the responsibility of the service provider. It is also called the HaaS model.
The most significant advantage of HaaS is it decreases the price of purchasing and maintaining hardware,
allowing businesses to switch from a capital expenditure budget to a typically cheaper operational expense
budget. Additionally, the majority of HaaS options are based on a pay-as-you-go model, which makes it simpler
for businesses in order to manage expenditures while still having access to the hardware they require for their
operational and business continuity.
HaaS involves installing physical parts that belong to a managed service provider (MSP) at a client's location.
The responsibilities of both parties are defined by an SLA (service-level agreement).
For using the MSP's hardware, the customer may either pay a monthly cost or have it included in the MSP's fee
schedule for setting up, maintaining, and monitoring the hardware. In either case, the MSP is in charge of fixing
or replacing the hardware if it breaks down or becomes outdated.
Decommissioning hardware may involve physically destroying hard drives, deleting confidential data, and
verifying that used equipment has been recycled legally on the basis of the SLA's requirements.
Computer hardware problems and diagnostics methods

In modern times, troubleshooting computer hardware issues has become more convenient, faster, and easier as
well. You can quickly determine which equipment is having problems if you have the correct IT inventory
management tool.
The effectiveness of management procedures is greatly improved by automated IT inventory management

software. You can deliver the best services by correlating, analyzing, and tracking changes with the help of
these tools for asset management. They enable you to produce detailed records and define maintenance
timeframes, which make it simpler to track the performance of each asset and reduce the need for manual
updates.
The software has the ability to monitor hardware warranty, and expiration dates in addition to tracking and
identifying hardware faults. These functions assist you in service level agreements, organizing upcoming
purchases, and procurement plans in accordance with corporate requirements. The asset automatically updates
the inventory as necessary if it finds configuration changes and performance issues. Software for managing
hardware inventories can perform the following things, for example:
o Immediately gather IT inventory data and auto-discover assets.

o Send immediate warnings regarding CPU and motherboard hardware problems or when your operating
system, firmware, and software upgrades are available.
o Keep track of any server operating system upgrades.
o Track and manage the maintenance requirements and life cycles of the hardware inventory
o Also, with powerful IT inventory management software, you can identify and monitor configuration
changes.
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FAQs on Computer Hardware

1. What is the Hardware of a Computer?
All of a computer's tangible and physical parts are referred to as its hardware, which is abbreviated as HW. This
implies that hardware can refer to any component that can be viewed or touched. Hardware is required to build
a computer and run the software. This information is displayed on a screen, which is hardware.
2. What are the Five Types of Hardware?
Below is a list of the five different types of hardware.
o Keyboard
o Motherboard
o Mouse
o CPU (Central Processing Unit)
o Monitor
3. How is computer hardware dependent on software?
Consider the hardware of a computer as a human body that contains numerous visible and touchable body parts.
But the body cannot move or carry out its role if there is no soul inside of it. And it would be seen as having
expired or will be considered dead.
Similar to this, a structure is provided by the computer hardware; it includes input and output devices, such as a
keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc. But software is also very necessary for the system because it will not work if it
has not had the necessary software to carry out its intended tasks. Consequently, they are both dependent on one
another.
4. Why do we need to study computer hardware?
Hardware topics for the computer are covered as early as classes 5 and 7. Students gradually start studying more
in-depth information about the subject as they go to higher standards. The primary objective of learning this
material is to teach students the fundamentals of building, maintaining, and repairing computer systems. They
ought to be able to recognize and differentiate between hardware and software.
5. Is RAM a part of a computer hardware system?
You will learn about RAM or random-access memory when you study the inside parts of computer
hardware, which is a memory socket fitted into the computer's motherboard. These slots for memory
are external; in order to store additional data, we can even place two memory slots. As a result, RAM
is now a physical component of computer hardware.
6. How is RAM different from ROM?
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In a computer system, memory slots for both RAM and ROM are present. Random access memory, or
RAM, is a type of volatile memory that is used to store data momentarily. On the other hand, ROM is
non-volatile memory storage and a form of permanent, which stands for real only memory.
Read the complete article on the Javatpoint website for a thorough explanation of RAM and ROM from
the subject matter specialists.
7. Is the topic of computer hardware difficult to remember?
If you study with more attention and clarity, no subject is challenging to learn. When you start reading
about computer hardware, you can easily learn the subject of computer hardware because it is quite
straightforward and simple to learn. The subject matter specialists at Javatpoint break down complex
concepts into manageable chunks, which makes it straightforward for students to understand even
when they are going to learn it for the first time. The main objective we have in common at Javatpoint
is that studying should not be a burden and learning should be enjoyable. Therefore, learn any subject
with us that you find challenging and see how simple it becomes after learning.
Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables the hardware to perform
a specific task. All the programs that run the computer are software. The software can be of three types:
system software, application software, and programming software.
1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the computer, it
activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The application programs are
also controlled by system software. An operating system is an example of system software.
i) Operating System:
An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable the user to
communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the functioning of hardware and software
of the computer. The commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac
OS X.
Some other examples of system software include:
o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software, which is stored in Read Only
Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard. However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash
memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It loads
the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating system to load itself into the
memory.
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o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the computer, the commands
in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot program into memory and execute its
instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set of commands that enables the computer to perform the
basic input/output instructions to start the computer.
o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer instructions and converts
them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these bits to perform basic operations.
o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a computer. It enables the
computer to use the hardware by providing an appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU
communicates with different hardware through this software. Operating systems generally come with
most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver for hardware, you have
to install the device driver before using that hardware device.
2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control the
working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A computer can run without application software.
Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a
collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software like
payroll software or income tax software are application software. As we know, they are designed to
perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:
o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format, and manipulate the text
and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents, creating images, and more. For example, MS
Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data, create charts, etc. It has rows
and columns, and the data is entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row and column, e.g.,
Microsoft Excel.
o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of video, audio, and text. It
allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text document by adding
photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window
Media Player, etc.
o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational functions. It is used in large
organizations where the quantum of business is too large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order
processing and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence),
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer support system, and
more.
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3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or programs. It assists
them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or programs or applications. We can say that
these are facilitator software that helps translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python,
etc., into machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers, linkers,
debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a programming tool or software
development tool.
Some examples of programming software include:
o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.
Operating System Tutorial
Operating System Tutorial provides the basic and advanced concepts of operating system . Our
Operating system tutorial is designed for beginners, professionals and GATE aspirants. We have
designed this tutorial after the completion of a deep research about every concept.
The content is described in detailed manner and has the ability to answer most of your queries. The
tutorial also contains the numerical examples based on previous year GATE questions which will help
you to address the problems in a practical manner.
Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and the hardware. It provides an
environment to the user so that, the user can perform its task in convenient and efficient way.
The Operating System Tutorial is divided into various parts based on its functions such as Process
Management, Process Synchronization, Deadlocks and File Management.
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Operating System Definition and Function

In the Computer System (comprises of Hardware and software), Hardware can only understand machine
code (in the form of 0 and 1) which doesn't make any sense to a naive user.
We need a system which can act as an intermediary and manage all the processes and resources present
in the system.
An Operating System can be defined as an interface between user and hardware. It is responsible
for the execution of all the processes, Resource Allocation, CPU management, File Management and
many other tasks.
The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment in which a user can execute programs
in convenient and efficient manner.
Structure of a Computer System

A Computer System consists of:
o Users (people who are using the computer)

o Application Programs (Compilers, Databases, Games, Video player, Browsers, etc.)
o System Programs (Shells, Editors, Compilers, etc.)
o Operating System ( A special program which acts as an interface between user and hardware )
o Hardware ( CPU, Disks, Memory, etc)
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What does an Operating system do?

1. Process Management
2. Process Synchronization
3. Memory Management
4. CPU Scheduling
5. File Management
6. Security
TOPIC 3
• Computer Memory
• Register Memory
• Cache memory
• Primary Memory
• Secondary Memory
Computer Memory
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and produce output.
The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a unique
address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one.
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Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The secondary memory (hard
disk) is referred as storage not memory.
But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:
o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory
Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a part of the main memory
and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the smallest data holding elements. A
register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions, and memory address that are to be used
by CPU. They hold instructions that are currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass
through registers before it can be processed. So, they are used by CPU to process the data entered by
the users.
Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of a CPU depends on the
number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built into the CPU. Registers can be of different types
based on their uses. Some of the widely used Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or
DR, the Address Register or AR, Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and more.
Types and Functions of Computer Registers:

o Data Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store operands (variables) to be operated by the
processor. It temporarily stores data, which is being transmitted to or received from a peripheral device.
o Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory location of the next instruction, which is to
be fetched after the current instruction is completed. So, it is used to maintain the path of execution of
the different programs and thus executes the programs one by one, when the previous instruction gets
completed.
o Instructor Register: It is a 16-bit register. It stores the instruction which is fetched from the main memory.
So, it is used to hold instruction codes, which are to be executed. The Control Unit takes instruction from
Instructor Register, then decodes and executes it.
o Accumulator Register: It is a 16-bit register, which is used to store the results produced by the system.
For example, the results generated by CPU after the processing are stored in the AC register.
o Address Register: It is a 12-bit register that stores the address of a memory location where instructions
or data is stored in the memory.
o I/O Address Register: Its job is to specify the address of a particular I/O device.
o I/O Buffer Register: Its job is to exchange the data between an I/O module and the CPU.
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Cache Memory
Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than the main memory (RAM).
The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-
speed CPU and to improve its performance.
Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main memory or a storage
device outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it
makes sure that the data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other words,
if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to access the
primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system
performance.
Types of Cache Memory:

L1: It is the first level of cache memory, which is called Level 1 cache or L1 cache. In this type of cache
memory, a small amount of memory is present inside the CPU itself. If a CPU has four cores (quad core
cpu), then each core will have its own level 1 cache. As this memory is present in the CPU, it can work
at the same speed as of the CPU. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB to 64 KB. The L1 cache
further has two types of caches: Instruction cache, which stores instructions required by the CPU, and
the data cache that stores the data required by the CPU.
L2: This cache is known as Level 2 cache or L2 cache. This level 2 cache may be inside the CPU or outside
the CPU. All the cores of a CPU can have their own separate level 2 cache, or they can share one L2
cache among themselves. In case it is outside the CPU, it is connected with the CPU with a very high-
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speed bus. The memory size of this cache is in the range of 256 KB to the 512 KB. In terms of speed,
they are slower than the L1 cache.
L3: It is known as Level 3 cache or L3 cache. This cache is not present in all the processors; some high-
end processors may have this type of cache. This cache is used to enhance the performance of Level 1
and Level 2 cache. It is located outside the CPU and is shared by all the cores of a CPU. Its memory size
ranges from 1 MB to 8 MB. Although it is slower than L1 and L2 cache, it is faster than Random Access
Memory (RAM).
How does cache memory work with CPU?

When CPU needs the data, first of all, it looks inside the L1 cache. If it does not find anything in L1, it
looks inside the L2 cache. If again, it does not find the data in L2 cache, it looks into the L3 cache. If
data is found in the cache memory, then it is known as a cache hit. On the contrary, if data is not found
inside the cache, it is called a cache miss.
If data is not available in any of the cache memories, it looks inside the Random Access Memory (RAM).
If RAM also does not have the data, then it will get that data from the Hard Disk Drive.
So, when a computer is started for the first time, or an application is opened for the first time, data is
not available in cache memory or in RAM. In this case, the CPU gets the data directly from the hard disk
drive. Thereafter, when you start your computer or open an application, CPU can get that data from
cache memory or RAM.
Primary Memory
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. When you switch
on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are stored in RAM.
CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer the RAM
loses all the data.
ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it at the
time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions
needed to perform important tasks like the boot process.
Secondary Memory
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The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the computer are
known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or auxiliary storage.
The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is non-volatile, so

permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned off or until this data is overwritten or
deleted. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is
transferred to primary memory then the CPU can access it.
Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:
1) Hard Disk:
It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data and is located within a
drive unit.
The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores data permanently, as
it is a non-volatile storage device. The hard disk is located within a drive unit on the computer's
motherboard and comprises one or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on
the platters by moving a magnetic head over the platters as they spin. The data stored on a computer's
hard drive generally includes the operating system, installed software, and the user's files and programs,
including pictures, music, videos, text documents, etc.
Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write actuator arm, read/write head,
platter, and spindle. A circuit board, which is called the disk controller or interface board, is present on
the back of a hard drive. It allows the hard drive to communicate with the computer.
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Second Semester
2) Solid-state Drive:
SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold and access data. Unlike
a hard drive, it does not have moving components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as
faster access time, noiseless operation, less power consumption, and more.
As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a standard hard drive in
desktop and laptop computers. It is also suitable for notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of
storage.
3) Pen drive:
Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive or
a jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB port. It is commonly used to store and transfer data
between computers. For example, you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it
in the pen drive. Later, you can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You can
also store your important documents and pictures, music, videos in the pen drive and keep it at a safe
place.
Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit memory chip that stores the
data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or aluminium casing. The data storage capacity of the pen drive
generally ranges from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't need
additional drives, software, or hardware to use it.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
4) SD Card:
SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and mobile devices such as
smartphones and digital cameras. You can remove it from your device and see the things stored in it
using a computer with a card reader.
There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does not have moving parts. SD
cards are not created equal, so they may differ from each other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and
capacity. For example, standard SD cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.
5) Compact Disk (CD):
Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round medium disk. It is made
of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first
CD was created on 17 August 1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.
In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it was used for various
purposes such as for storing documents, audio files, videos, and other data like software programs in a
CD.
Physical characteristics of a CD/ Structure of CD:
A standard CD is around 5 inches in diameter and 0.05 inches in thickness. It is made of a clear
polycarbonate plastic substrate, a reflective metallic layer, and a clear coating of acrylic plastic. These
thin circular layers are attached one on top of another as described below:
o A polycarbonate disc layer at the bottom has the data encoded by creating lands and pits.
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o The polycarbonate disc layer is coated with a thin aluminium layer that reflects the laser.
o The reflective aluminium layer is coated with a lacquer layer to prevent oxidation in order to protect the
below layers. It is generally spin coated directly on the top of the reflective layer.
o The label print is applied on the lacquer layer, or artwork is screen printed on the top of the disc on the
lacquer layer by offset printing or screen printing.
How Does a CD Work?

The data or information is stored or recorded or encoded in CD digitally using a laser beam that etches
tiny indentations or bumps on its surface. The bump is called a pit, which represents the number 0.
Space, where the bump is not created, is called land, and it represents the number 1. Thus, the data is
encoded into a compact disc by creating pits (0) and lands (1). The CD players use laser technology to
read the optically recorded data.
6) DVD:
DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical media used for storing
optical data. Although it has the same size as a CD, its storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it
is widely used for storing and viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large
to fit on a CD. DVD was co-developed by Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.
Types of DVDs:
DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:
o DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with media already recorded on them, such as movie
dvds. As the name suggests, data on these discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are known as
a read-only or non-writable DVD.
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o DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write information to the DVD. However, you can write
information only once as it becomes a read-only DVD once it is full.
o DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can be erased, written, or recorded multiple times.
Memory Units
Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the commonly used memory
units are:
1) Bit: The computer memory units start from bit. A bit is the smallest memory unit to measure data
stored in main memory and storage devices. A bit can have only one binary value out of 0 and 1.
2) Byte: It is the fundamental unit to measure data. It contains 8 bits or is equal to 8 bits. Thus a
byte can represent 2*8 or 256 values.
3) Kilobyte: A kilobyte contains 1024 bytes.
4) Megabyte: A megabyte contains 1024 kilobytes.
5) Gigabyte: A gigabyte contains 1024 megabyte.
6) Terabyte: A terabyte contains 1024 gigabytes.
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Second Semester
Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys

In modern times, there is no confusion in saying that computers have become a very useful part of daily
life. If you use the computer frequently, you must have knowledge about the computer shortcut keys.
Computer shortcut keys provide an easier way of navigating and performing commands in computer
software. The use of shortcut keys is beneficial for computer users, as it allows them to complete tasks
accurately and in less time. Furthermore, by using shortcut keys, you can increase your productivity and
reduce the strain caused by repetitive motions.
The computer shortcut keys are a set of one or more keys that generate a particular command to be
executed. Shortcut keys are generally executed by using the Alt or Ctrl key with some other keys.
o Basic Computer Shortcut Keys

o Microsoft Word Shortcut Keys
o Microsoft Excel shortcut keys
o Microsoft PowerPoint shortcut keys
o Window key Shortcuts
o F1 - F12 function keys shortcuts
o YouTube Shortcuts Keys
o Google Chrome Shortcut Keys
Basic Computer Shortcut Keys with Explanation

The table contains a list of some commonly used basic shortcut keys that work with IBM compatible
computers and software. It is highly recommended that all users should use these keys and try to
remember them.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
Shortcut Explanation
Keys
Alt+Tab It allows you to switch between open programs on a computer. You are required to
hold down the Alt key and keep pressing the Tab key to move from one program to
another and release the Tab key when it is on the program that you want to open.
Alt+E It is most often used to access Edit Option in the current program. There are some
more uses of ALT+E, which are given below:
o In Google Chrome, it allows you to open the File Menu option.

o In Winamp and KMPlayer, it brings up the Toggle playlist editor.
o In Blender, it enables you to open the Extrude menu.
Alt+F It enables you to access the File menu options in the current program.
F1
o F1 is the first Function key, and it is used to display help information on every
Windows program.
o For example, in Microsoft Windows, it allows you to open the Microsoft
Windows help and support screen by pressing F1 and Window key+F1.
o Furthermore, it is also used to access the Microsoft Office task pane by
pressing Ctrl+F1.
F2 It provides users the option to rename an icon or a file which user selects.
In MS word, if you press Ctrl+F2, the print preview option opens.
F5 It is mainly used to refresh the current window or contents of a file or a folder.

Additionally, if you press Ctrl + F5 or Shift + F5 in a web browser, it reloads that web
page irrespective of the cached content, and re-download the whole content of the web
page.
Ctrl+A It allows you to select the entire content of a page, including images and other objects.
Ctrl+B It offers users with the option to bold the selected text of a page. It also has the various
uses in different internet browsers, like in Firefox and Netscape, it is used to view the
bookmarks, and in Internet Explorer, used to display the favorites.
Ctrl+C It is used to copy the selected content, including other objects of a page.
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Ctrl+V It offers users with the option to paste the copied data. You need to copy data once,
and then you can paste it any number of times.
Ctrl+D It is mostly used in internet browsers to add the current site to

a bookmark or favorite.
Ctrl+F It provides users with the option to find or search text in the current document or
window.
Ctrl+I It allows the user to italicize and un-italicize the selected text.
Ctrl+N It allows the users to create a new or blank document in Microsoft applications and
some other software. It is also used in internet browsers to open a new tab.
Ctrl+O It is widely used to open a file in the current software.
Ctrl+K It has various uses, depending on the program. For example, in some applications, it is
used to insert a hyperlink, and in Internet browsers, it focuses on the search
bar. Such as:
o In Chrome, it opens Omnibox (search bar)

o In Firefox, it opens search bar.
o In Internet Explorer, it duplicates a current tab
o In Opera, it checks e-mail.
Ctrl+P It is used to open the print preview window for the current page or document. For
example, if you press Ctrl+P when a browser or any other document window is open,
you will see a print preview window of this page.
Ctrl+S It is used to save the document or a file. You can also use Shift+F12 to save the file in
Microsoft Word.
Ctrl+Y Its use is to redo any undo text and other objects, and it is also used to repeat the last
performed action.
Ctrl+Z It is used to undo the content and other objects. For example, if you have deleted the
data by mistake, you can retrieve this data by pressing Ctrl+Z immediately.
Shift+Insert It is used to paste the copied item.
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Shift+Delete It is primarily used to delete the selected text, and it also provides the option
to delete any folders or a file permanently.
Home It is mainly used to bring the typing cursor to the starting of the line, which you are
currently typing. If you press Ctrl+home, it returns the cursor to the beginning of a
document, web page, or cell.
End It is used to move the typing cursor at the end of the line, and it is also used to move
the cursor to the end of the document by pressing Ctrl+End.
Alt+Enter It is widely used to access the properties of the selected item, such as file, folder, or
any other objects.
Alt+F4 It is used to close the currently open window. For example, if you press Alt+F4 when
the browser window is open, it will close the browser window and other open tabs.
Additionally, you can use this key to shut down the system, for that you need to
press Alt+F4 on desktop screen, and you will see a dialog box then click OK button,
the system will shut down.
Ctrl+Esc It will open the start menu. You can also use the Window Key to open the start menu.
Ctrl+Shift+Esc It provides users with the benefit to quickly open the Windows Task Manager in all
versions of Windows since Windows 95.
Shift+Home By pressing Shift and Home keys together, you can select all text from the current
position of the cursor to the beginning of a line.
Microsoft Word Shortcut Keys
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A.Y. 2022-2023
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A simple list of Microsoft Word shortcut keys is given below with explanation.
o Ctrl+A: It is used to select all content of a page, including images and other objects.
o Ctrl+B: It provides users with the option to bold the selected item of a page.
o Ctrl+C: Its use is to copy the selected text, including other objects of a file or page.
o Ctrl+D: It is used to access the font preferences window, which offers several options such as font size,
font style, font color, etc.
o Ctrl+E: It is used to align the selected item to the center of the screen.
o Ctrl+F: It helps users to find or search data in the current document or window.
o Ctrl+G: It is used to Go To or jump to any page. When you press Ctrl+G, a dialog box appears, which
offers you various options such as find, replace, and Go to. For example, you have 15 pages in your file,
and you want to visit page number 4, then enter number 4 in the given box and press the Go To It will
take you to the desired page. As shown in the below figure:
o Ctrl+H: It is used to replace the words or sentences in a file. For example, if by mistake you have written
spple instead of apple at many places in your file, you can replace it with the apple in one go.
o Ctrl+I: It offers an option to italicize and un-italicize the highlighted text.
o Ctrl+J: It is used to Justify (distribute your text evenly between the margins) the selected text.
o Ctrl+K: It allows you to insert the hyperlink. For example, http://www.javatpoint.com
o Ctrl+L: It is used to adjust (align) the selected content to the left of the screen.
o Ctrl+M: It provides users with the option to indent the As shown in the below picture:
o Ctrl+N: It is used to open a new or blank document in Microsoft applications and some other software.
o Ctrl+O: It is used to open the dialog box where you can choose a file that you want to open.
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o Ctrl+P: It is used to open the print preview window of a document or a file. It can also be done by
pressing Ctrl+F2 and Ctrl+Shift+F12.
o Ctrl+Q: Its use is to align the selected paragraph to the
o Ctrl+R: It offers users the option to align the line or selected content to the right of the screen.
o Ctrl+S: Its use is to save the document or a file.
o Ctrl+T: It gives users the benefit of creating a hanging indent for a paragraph. For better understanding,
see the below image:
o Ctrl+U: It is used to underline the selected text.

o Ctrl+V: It is used to paste the copied data. It allows you to copy data once, and then you can paste it any
number of times. You can also paste the data by using Shift+Insert.
o Ctrl+W: Its use is to close the currently open document or a file quickly.
o Ctrl+X: If you want to cut some text, you can use this key to cut the selected content. You can also paste
it by using Ctrl+V.
o Ctrl+Y: It allows the users to redo the last action performed in a file. For example, you have written a
word mango; you can repeat this word multiple times by pressing Ctrl+Y.
o Ctrl+Z: It is used to get back the deleted item. For example, if you have deleted the data by mistake, you
can press Ctrl+Z to retrieve (Undo) the deleted data. It can also be done by pressing Alt+Backspace.
o Alt+F, A: It allows users to use the Save As option, which means to save a file with a different name. For
that, you need to press Alt+F, which displays a dialog box or a page, then press A for Save As option. It
can also be done simply by pressing
o Ctrl+Shift+L: This key is used to create a bullet point in the file quickly.
o Ctrl+Shift+>: It increases the font size by +1pts up to 12pt thereafter increases by +2pts.
o Ctrl+Shift+<: It is used to decrease the font If the font size is 12pt or lower; it decreases the font by -
1pts, and if the font size is above 12, it decreases the font by +2pts.
o Ctrl+]: Its use is to increases the font size by +1pts.
o Ctrl+[: It is used to decreases the font size by -1pts.
o Ctrl+/+C: It offers users the option to insert a cent sign (¢).
o Ctrl + (Left arrow ←):I t allows users the benefit to move one word to the left in the line or a paragraph.
o Ctrl + (Right arrow →): It is used to move one word to the
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o Ctrl+Shift+*: It is used to show or hide non-printing characters.

o Ctrl + (Up arrow ↑): This key is used to move the typing cursor to the beginning of the line or paragraph.
o Ctrl + (Down arrow ↓): It enables you to move the typing cursor to the end of the paragraph.
o Ctrl+Delete: It allows users to delete a word to the right of the cursor.
o Ctrl+Backspace: It allows users to delete a word to the left of the cursor.
o Ctrl+End: Its use is to move the cursor to the last of the document.
o Ctrl+1: It is used to give a single line space. For example, to make the 1.0 space between the lines of a
paragraph.
o Ctrl+2: It is used to give the double line space. For example, to make the 2.0 space between the lines of
a paragraph.
o Ctrl+5: It is used to make the 5 space between the lines of a paragraph.
o Ctrl+Spacebar: It enables you to reset the selected text to the default font.
o Ctrl+Home: It allows you to move the cursor to the beginning of the document.
o Ctrl+Alt+1: It changes text format to heading 1.
o Alt+Ctrl+F2: It is used to open the new file or a document.
o Ctrl+F1:I ts use is to open the task pane in some Microsoft office versions, in word 2016, it is used to
hide and show the ribbon as shown in the below image:
o Ctrl+Shift+F6: It allows the users to switch between open documents in Microsoft Word.
o F1: The function key F1 is used to open the help and support
o F4: It enables you to repeat the last action performed. For example, when you want to retype the last
typed word multiple times, you can use this key.
o F5: It is used to access the find and replace dialog box, including Go to
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o F7: It provides users the advantage to check spelling and grammar of selected text or document.
o Shift+F3: It is used to use the change case option where you can change the text from uppercase to
lowercase or a capital letter at the beginning of every word.
o Shift+F7: It offers users the option to check the thesaurus of the selected word. You need to select the
word and press this key. As shown in the below picture:
o Shift+Alt+D: It is used to insert the current date.

o Shift+Alt+T: Its use is to insert the current time.
Microsoft Excel shortcut keys

If you work on Microsoft Excel, you can use the number of keyboard shortcut keys to speed up your
work and make it more convenient. We have tried to provide a simple list of shortcut keys.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
Second Semester
The following table contains the commonly used shortcut keys for Microsoft Excel with
description.
Shortcut Keys Description
Ctrl+Shift + ; It is used to insert the current time.
Ctrl+; It is used to enter the current date.
Shift + F3 Its use is to open the Excel formula's window.'
Shift + F5 It provides users the option to display the find and replace dialog box.
Ctrl + A Its use is to select or highlight all contents of a worksheet.
Ctrl + B It allows you to bold all selected items of an Excel sheet. It can also be done by
pressing Ctrl+2.
Ctrl + C It is used to copy the selected content of a worksheet.
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Ctrl + D It enables you to fill down the cells with the content of the selected cell. As
shown in the below picture:
Ctrl + F It offers the option to open find and replace dialog box quickly. You can also
use Shift + F5 for it.
Ctrl + G It is used to open the go-to option dialog box where you can go to the specific
cell. It can also be done by using F5.
Ctrl + H It allows you to find and replace the word or sentences in a file. For example, if
by mistake you have written a somputer instead of the computer at many places
in your sheet, you can replace it with the computer in one go.
Ctrl + I It is used to put italics on all cells in the selected section. It can also be done by
pressing Ctrl+3.
Ctrl + K It provides the option to insert a hyperlink in a file.
Ctrl + L It enables you to access the create table dialog box.
Ctrl + N Its use is to open the new document or a workbook.
Ctrl + O It offers users the option to open the dialog box where you can choose a file that
you want to open. You can also use Ctrl+F12 to open a file.
Ctrl + P It allows you to print a current sheet or a document quickly.
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Ctrl + Q It is used to display the quick analysis options for the selected cells with data.
As shown in the below image:
Ctrl + R It allows you to fill the cells to the right with the content of the selected cell. As
shown in the below screenshot:
Ctrl + S Its use is to save the document. It can also be done by using Alt+Shift+F2.
Ctrl + T It offers users the option to display the create table dialog box.
Ctrl + U It is used to underline all selected cells. You can also use the shortcut
key Ctrl+4 to underline the cells in the Excel sheet.
Ctrl + V It provides users the option to paste the copied data onto the Excel sheet. You
are required to copy the data once, and then you can paste it any number of
times.
Ctrl + W It is used to close the currently open document or a file quickly. It can also be
done by pressing Ctrl+F4 shortcut keys.
Ctrl + X It allows users the option to cut the entire data of the selected cells in an Excel
sheet.
Ctrl + Y It provides users the option to redo any undo contents.
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Ctrl + Z It is used to undo (get back) the deleted item. For example, if you have deleted
the data by mistake, you can press Ctrl+Z to retrieve the deleted data. It can also
be done by pressing Alt+Backspace.
Ctrl + Page up & It allows you to move from one worksheet to another worksheet in the same
Page Down Excel file.
Ctrl + F6 It enables the users to move from one document to another document in
Microsoft Excel. It can also be done by pressing Ctrl+Tab.
Ctrl + F9 It enables users the option to minimize the current window.
Ctrl + F10 It uses to maximize the currently selected window.
F1 It is used to open the help screen window.
F2 It allows you to edit the selected cell in the Excel sheet.
F4 It provides users the option to repeat the last action. For example, if you change
the red color of the text in a cell, by pressing F4, you can apply the same text
color in another cell.
F7 It is used to check the spelling of the selected text.
F10 The function key F10 is used to activate the menu bar. For example, if you want
to open the file menu, you need to press F10, then F.
F11 Its use is to create a chart in Excel.
F12 It enables you to use the Save As option, which allows you to save a file with a
different name. It can also be done by using Alt+F2.
Alt + = It allows you to use the formula to add the data of all the above cells.
Ctrl+Shift+" It allows you to copy the content of a cell and to paste it into a cell, which is just
below it. It can also be done by using Ctrl+" key. For example, if you have written
"Excel" in cell B1 and its below cell is B2, by pressing Ctrl+Shift+" or Ctrl+' the
word "Excel" will be copied in cell B2.
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Ctrl + Shift + ! It is used to apply comma format in numbers. For example, as shown in the
below image:
Ctrl + Shift + $ Its use is to apply currency format to numbers. As shown in the below
screenshot:
Ctrl + Shift +% It provides users the option to apply percentage sign to numbers. For example,
see the below picture:
Ctrl + Space It enables you to select the entire active columns.
Shift + Space It enables you to select the entire active rows.
Ctrl + (Right arrow It allows the users to move the cursor to the next cell, which contains the text.
→)
Ctrl + 1 It is used to open the format cells dialog box where you can change the text
format like text color, font size, font style, text alignment, etc. It can also be done
by pressing Ctrl+Shift+F or Ctrl+Shift+P.
Ctrl + 5 Its use is to put the strikethrough to all selected cells. As shown in the below
picture:
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Ctrl + 9 Its use is to hide the selected rows in the worksheet.
Ctrl + Shift + ( Its use is to show (unhide) the hidden rows.
Ctrl + 0 It is used to hide the selected columns.
Ctrl + - (Minus) It will open a delete dialog box where you can delete a selected row or column.
Ctrl + Shift + = It will open the insert dialog box where you can insert the new row or a column.
Ctrl + Shift + ^ It is used to make an exponential form of any number. For example, you have
written a number 12345 in the worksheet, and if you press Ctrl+shift+^, the
number will be changed 1.23E+05 in exponential form.
Ctrl + Shift + & It offers users the option to make a border around the selected cells.
Ctrl + Shift+ _ It offers users the option to remove a border around the selected cells in a
worksheet.
Ctrl+Shift+Spacebar It is used to select the entire worksheet.
Ctrl + Home It allows the users to move the cursor to the beginning (cell A1) of the
worksheet.
Ctrl + End It is used to move the cursor to the last cell with text on the worksheet.
Shift + Page Up It allows you to select all the cells located above the selected cell.
Shift + Home It enables you to select all cells to the left of the current active cell.
Shift + (Up Arrow ↑) It enables you to extend the selected area up by one cell.
Shift + (Down Arrow It enables you to extend the selected area down by one cell.
↑)
Alt + Enter It allows the users to write in multiple lines in one cell. For example, if you are
typing in a cell, it enables you to move on the next line in one cell by
pressing Alt+Enter.
Alt + ' It is used to access the style dialog box.
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Ctrl + F3 It is used to open the name manager in Microsoft excel.
Ctrl + F5 Its use is to restore the Window size.
Ctrl + F11 It is used to insert a macro sheet in Microsoft excel.
Alt + F8 It is used to display the macro dialog box.
Alt + F11 It provides users the option to open the Visual Basic editor.
Alt + Shift + F1 It enables you to create a new worksheet in Microsoft Excel.
Microsoft PowerPoint shortcut keys
Shortcut keys Explanation
(Slide number) + It is used to jump to the desired slide during a slide show. For example, during the
Enter slide show, if the 5th number slide is being viewed, and you want to jump to the
8th number slide, press the 8-number key and then the Enter key.
Shift+Alt+T or D It allows you to open the date and time window to insert the current date and time.
Ctrl+A It provides users the option to select all items like the text in a text box and objects
in a slide. In slide sorter view, it is used to select all slides. Furthermore, in slide
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show, its use is to display the various options as shown in the below mage:
Ctrl+B It enables you to add or remove bold to the selected content.
Ctrl+C Its use is to copy the selected text, including other objects in the slide. It can also be
done by pressing Ctrl+Insert.
Ctrl+D It is used to create a copy of the selected slide. For example, if you want to add a
copy of any slide, you need to select it, and press the Ctrl+D shortcut keys.
Ctrl+E It enables you to align the line or selected text to the center of the slide.
Ctrl+F It provides users the option to find or search content in the file.
Ctrl+H It is mostly used to replace a word or sentences in the file, and in slide show, it is
also used to hide the cursor or any activated tools, like the pen or a highlighter tool.
Ctrl+I It allows you to add or remove italicize to the selected text. Furthermore, in slide
show view, it is also used to change the cursor to the highlighter tool. You need to
hold the mouse button to use the highlighter on the screen.
Ctrl+J It enables you to Justify (align your text evenly across the slide) the selected text.
Ctrl+K It offers an option to insert a hyperlink.
Ctrl+L Its use is to align the content or selected line to the left side of the slide.
Ctrl+M It is used to insert the new or blank slide just below the selected slide.
Ctrl+N It enables you to create a new or blank file in another PowerPoint window.
Ctrl+O It is used to open the dialog box or page, where you can select a file that you want
to open. You can also use Alt+Ctrl+F2 to open a file.
Ctrl+P It provides users with the option to open the Print Preview page to print the file. It
can also be done by using Ctrl+Shift+F12 or Ctrl+F2 shortcut keys.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
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Additionally, in slide show view, it is also used to change the cursor to the
pen tool.
Ctrl+R It moves the text or selected paragraph to the right side of the slide.
Ctrl+S It allows you to save the open file. You can also use the Shift+F12 to save a file.
Ctrl+T It is used to open the font window, where you can adjust the font size, style, type,
etc. It can also be done by pressing Ctrl+Shift+F shortcut keys.
Ctrl+U It enables the users to add or remove an underline from the selected content.
Ctrl+V It is used to paste the copied text, slides, and other objects in the file. You need to
copy the data once, and then you can paste it multiple times. You can also paste the
data by using Shift+Insert.
Ctrl+W It enables you to close the currently open document.
Ctrl+X It allows you to cut the selected item.
Ctrl+Y Its use is to repeat the last performed action. It can also be done by pressing the
function key F4.
Ctrl+Z It is used to undo (get back) the deleted text, slide, and other objects. Suppose, by
mistake; you have deleted any slide, you can get back it by using this shortcut key.
Shift+F3 It allows the users to change the selected text into uppercase or lowercase and can
be used to change the first letter of a word into a capital letter. If the text is not
selected, only the first word after the cursor will be changed.
Shift+F5 It helps to start the slide show from the selected slide. For example, if you have 20
slides in your file and you want to start a slide show from the 5th slide, you need to
select the 5th slide, and press Shift+F5.
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Shift+F7 It is used to check the thesaurus of the selected word. As shown in the below image:
Shift+F9 Its use is to show or hide the grid on the slide in Microsoft PowerPoint.
B It is used to change the display to black during slide show, and again press B to get
back to the slide show.
F1 It is used to open the help menu, and in slide show view, its use is to display the
slide show help window that provides a list of shortcuts for use in a slide show.
F5 It allows the users to view the slide show of all the slides.
F7 It provides users the benefit of checking grammar and spelling to the selected
word.
F12 It allows you to use the Save As option, in which you can save a file with a new name.
Ctrl+F1 It is used to show or hide the Ribbon.
Ctrl+Shift+> It is used to increase the font size of the selected text. It can also be done by
pressing Ctrl+].
Ctrl+Shift+< It is used to decrease the font size of the selected text. It can also be done by
pressing Ctrl+[.
Ctrl + Shift + = It helps users to change the selected text into a subscript. For example, plain
(Equal sign) text subscript text, X2 → X2
Ctrl+Spacebar It allows you to change the selected text to the default font size and type.
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Ctrl+Home Its use is to move the cursor to the first slide. For example, if you have 50 slides in
your file, and the cursor is on 45th slide, by pressing Ctrl+Home, you can move the
cursor to the first slide.
Ctrl+End It is used to move the cursor to the last slide. For example, your PowerPoint file has
100 slides, and you want to move the cursor to the last slide, you can press Ctrl+End.
Ctrl+Backspace It will delete the word to the left of the cursor.
Ctrl+Delete It will delete the word to the right of the cursor
Alt+N, P It enables you to insert a picture in your file. You need to press Alt and N keys
together then press P.
Window key Shortcuts

The following table contains several Windows (Winkey) shortcuts keys:
Shortcu Explanation
t Keys
Window It provides users the option to open and close the start menu.
key
Winkey + It is used to minimize all opened windows and to restore the minimized windows. For example,
D if you have opened different programs such as Google Chrome, Microsoft Word, then you can
press window key and D together to minimize all opened windows.
Winkey + It helps users to open a computer window or hard disk drives.

E
Winkey + It allows users to minimize all opened program windows.

M
Winkey + It is used to restore all windows, which are minimized by using Winkey+M and Winkey+D.
Shift + M
Winkey + It offers users the option to switch between open programs by using Aero Flip 3-D on a
Tab computer. You are required to hold down the Window key and keep pressing the Tab key to
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move from one program to another, release the Tab key when it is on the program that you want
to open.
Winkey + It will show a window where you can search or find data available in your computer.
F
Winkey + It is used to lock the computer or switch users.

L
Winkey + Its use is to open the Run dialog box where users can open various programs. For example, if
R you want to open Microsoft Word, you are required to press Winkey + R, and type winword in
opened run window then press Enter key.
Winkey + It allows you to open the ease of access center window, which enables you to access various
U options like start magnifier, on-screen keyboard, start narrator, etc.
Winkey + Its use is to open the system properties dialog box.

Pause
/Break
Winkey + It provides users the option to open the programs pinned to the taskbar as per their position
Number on the taskbar. For example, as shown in the below image, the Internet Explorer is located on
1stposition on the taskbar; by pressing Winkey+1, the Internet Explorer will be opened. Thus,
if you press Winkey+6, the Excel will be opened as it is located on the 6th position on the
taskbar.
Shift + It allows you to open the new window of the program pinned to the taskbar according to their
Winkey + location on the taskbar. For example, as shown in the below image, the Internet Explorer is
Number located on 1st position on the taskbar; by pressing Shift+Winkey+1, the Internet Explorer will
be opened. If you press this shortcut key again while opening Internet Explorer, it will open a
new window of Internet Explorer again.
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Alt + It is used to open the jump list for the program pinned to the taskbar as per their position on the
Winkey + taskbar. For example, as shown in the below picture: It is done by pressing Alt + Winkey + 1.
Number
Winkey + Its use is to open the Clipboard app.

V
Winkey+ This key is used to maximize the window.

up arrow
(↑)
Winkey+ It is used to minimize the window.

downarro
w (↓)
Winkey+ It helps users to maximize the window to the left side of the screen.
leftarrow
(←)
Winkey+ Its use is to maximize the window to the right side of the screen.
right
arrow (→)
Winkey + It allows users to choose a presentation display mode. As shown in the below image:
P
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Winkey + It provides users the option to open the windows mobility center where you can adjust volume,
X brightness, and more.
F1 - F12 function keys shortcuts

The function keys range from F1 to F12 on a computer keyboard. These keys perform a special function
defined by the operating system or by a currently running program. These keys can be used with Alt or
Ctrl keys to perform different functions.
The function keys may perform different tasks on different keyboards. As some laptop's and small
keyboards' function keys are used to change the screen brightness, volume, and perform other specific
functions. The common shortcut keys for Windows and macOS are given below:
F1
o It is used to open the help window in almost every program.
o It is also used to enter the BIOS or CMOS Some computers allow you to enter the BIOS setup by using
different keys such as F2, F10, Delete, Esc.
o If you press Window + F1, it will open the Microsoft Windows help and support center.
F2
o In Microsoft Windows, it is used to rename an icon, file, or folder which the user selects.
o In Microsoft Excel, the key F2 allows you to edit the selected cell in the Excel sheet.
o In Microsoft word, if you press Ctrl+F2, the print preview window will open, and Alt+Ctrl+F2 will open
the new file or a document.
o Furthermore, it is also used to enter the CMOS setup.
F3
o It is mostly used to open a search feature for many programs.
o In MS-DOS or Windows command line, it provides users the option to repeat the last command entered.
o In Microsoft Word, if you press Shift + F3, it allows you to change the selected text from uppercase to
lowercase or a capital letter at the beginning of every word.
o In Microsoft Outlook, if you press Windows Key + F3, it will open the advanced find window.
o Furthermore, it is also used to open the Mission Control on an Apple computer.
F4
o Its use is to open the find window in Windows 95 to XP.
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o It is used to open the address bar in Internet Explorer as well as Windows Explorer.
o In Microsoft Word, it allows you to repeat the last action performed. For example, if you want to retype
the last typed word or sentences multiple times, you can use this key.
o If you press Alt+F4, it will close the currently open window in Microsoft Windows. Furthermore, it is also
used to shut down the system, for that you need to press Alt+F4 on desktop screen, you will see a dialog
box then click OK button, and the system will be shut down.
F5
o It is mainly used to refresh or reload the page or document window.
o If you press Ctrl + F5 or Shift + F5 in a web browser, it completely refreshes the web page, clear the
cache, and re-download the whole content of the web page.
o It provides users the option to access find, replace, and Go To dialog box in Microsoft Word.
o Furthermore, it is also used to start the slideshow in PowerPoint.
F6
o It helps users to move the cursor to the address bar in Internet browsers such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, Google Chrome, etc.
o In Microsoft Word, if you press Ctrl+Shift+F6, it allows you to switch between other open Word
documents.
o Furthermore, it reduces laptop speaker volume (on some laptops).
F7
o It is commonly used to check spelling and grammar of a document in Microsoft programs such as
Microsoft Word, Outlook, etc.
o If you press Shift+F7, it allows you to check the thesaurus of the selected word in Microsoft Word,
PowerPoint.
o It provides users the option to turn on Caret Browsing in Mozilla Firefox.
o It is also used to increase the laptop speaker volume (on some laptops).
F8
o The F8 function key allows users to enter the Windows startup menu, generally used to access Windows
Safe Mode.
o It is also used to access the Windows recovery system by some computers but may require a Windows
installation CD.
o Furthermore, it displays a thumbnail image for all workspaces in macOS.
F9
o It is used to send and receive an email in Microsoft Outlook.
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o It is also used to refresh document in Microsoft Word.

o Its use is to access the Measurements toolbar in Quark 5.0.
o It helps to reduce screen brightness on some laptops.
o It offers users the option to display a thumbnail for each window in a single workspace on macOS 10.3
or later versions.
o On Apple computer, if you press Fn and F9 keys together, the mission control will open.
F10
o It allows you to activate the menu bar of an open application in Microsoft Windows.
o Shift+F10 is used to open the right-clicking options on a selected word, icon, file, or Internet link. As
shown in the below screenshot:
o It allows users to access the hidden recovery partition on Compaq, HP, and Sony computers.
o It provides users the option to enter CMOS setup on some computers.
o It is also used to increase the screen brightness on some laptops.
o On macOS 10.3 or later, it displays all open Windows for the active program.
F11
o It is used to enable and disable the full-screen mode in all modern internet browsers.
o It allows users the option to access the hidden recovery partition on eMachines, Gateway, and Lenovo
computers.
o On macOS 10.4 or later, it is used to hide all open windows and shows the desktop.
F12
o It is used to open the Save as option where you can save a file with a different name in Microsoft Word,
Excel, etc.
o By pressing Ctrl+F12, you can open a file or document in Word, Excel, etc.
o Shift+F12 is used to save a file in Microsoft Word like we do by using Ctrl+S.
o If you press Ctrl+Shift+F12 in Microsoft Word, it will open the print preview window of a document or
a file like we do by using Ctrl+P.
o F12 is also used to open a firebug or debug tool of browser.
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A.Y. 2022-2023
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o On Apple computer 10.4 or later, F12 is used to display or hide the dashboard.
o Furthermore, it provides a list of bootable devices on a computer at startup. You can choose that device
from the list, which you have connected to your PC to boot from, Such as hard drive, DVD drive or CD,
floppy drive, USB drive, and network.
YouTube Shortcuts Keys

Shortcut Description
Keys
Spacebar or K It is used to play and pause a video on YouTube.
Zero or Home If you press zero (0) key while watching a video on YouTube, it will start that video again
from the beginning.
End It provides users the option to jump to the end of the video. If you are watching a
playlist, it will play the next video in the playlist.
Right Arrow It is used to fast forward the video by five seconds each time you press the key.
(→)
Left Arrow (←) Its use is to fast backward the video by five seconds when you press the key.
J and L The J key is used to rewind the video with 10 seconds, and L is used to forward the
video with 10 seconds.
Numbers (1 to Any number of keys from 1 to 9 is used to jump the video in the form of a percentage.
9) For example, if you press 1 while watching a video, the video will forward 10%. If you
press 2, the video will forward 20%. Thus, if you press 8, the video will forward 80%.
F It allows you to switch the video to full-screen mode or theater mode.
T Its use is to switch between theater mode and normal mode.
Up Arrow (↑) It is used to increase the volume while watching video on full-screen mode. Whereas
during normal mode, you have to click on the video before pressing this key.
Down Arrow It is used to decrease the volume while watching video on full-screen mode. On normal
(↓) mode, you have to click on the video before using this key.
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M It enables you to mute the video on YouTube.
Google Chrome Shortcut Keys

The below list contains all widely used shortcut keys on the Google Chrome browser.
Key
Combination
Explanation
Alt + Home It is used to open the homepage in the Chrome browser.
F11 It offers users the option to show the current website in full-screen mode, and press
F11 again to exit this mode.
Alt + Left Arrow Its use is to return to the previous page.
Alt+Right Arrow It is used to goto the next page.
Ctrl + Plus (+) It provides users the option to zoom in a page.
Ctrl + Plus (-) It provides users the option to zoom out a page.
Ctrl + 0 It is used to reset browser zoom to the default size.
Ctrl+1 to 8 It offers users the option to switch to one of the opened tabs on the tab bar. For
example, if you press Ctrl+3, the third tab will appear.
Ctrl + 9 It allows you to switch to the opened last tab on the tab bar.
Ctrl + A It is used to select all content on a page.
Ctrl + D It is used to add the bookmark for the currently opened page.
Ctrl + F It enables you to open the find bar to search text on the current page.
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Ctrl+Enter It helps users to add.Com extension in web address quickly. For example, if you type
'javatpoint' in the address bar and press Ctrl+Enter, it will be completed
automatically, such as javatpoint.com.
Ctrl+Shift+Del It provides users the option to access the clear browsing data window to clear the
browsing history, cookies, and other private data.
Ctrl + O It allows you to open a file in the browser.
Ctrl + Shift + O It is used to open the bookmark manager in the Chrome browser.
Ctrl + H Its use is to open the history window where you can manage your browser history
as required.
Ctrl + J It enables users to open the downloads window in a new tab.
Ctrl+K or E It offers users the benefit of moving the text cursor to the searchbar, where you
can search any query.
Ctrl + L It takes the cursor to the browser address bar and selects all the text available in
the address bar
Ctrl + N Its use is to open the new browser window.
Ctrl + P It is used to open the print window and allows you to print the pages.
Ctrl + Shift + N It provides users the option to access a new window in incognito mode. Incognito
mode or private mode allows you to search query in a unique sandbox web session.
It provides you the option to temporary control your browser history, as when you
close your browser window, it forgets to store your history.
Ctrl + R or F5 It is used to refresh the current page on the browser.
Ctrl + S It allows you to open the save as window where you can save the currently opened
web page.
Ctrl + T It offers users the option to open a new tab on the browser quickly.
Ctrl + U It enables you to display the source code of the web pages.
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Ctrl + W It is used to close the current tab.
Ctrl+Tab It allows you to move to the right side of the browser from one tab to another tab.
Ctrl+ Shift + Tab It allows you to move from one tab to another tab to the left side of the browser.
Ctrl+Shift+W It provides users the option to close the currently selected window.
Ctrl + Left-click It allows users to open a search result link in the new tab without leaving the current
page.
Ctrl + Shift Left- It enables you to open a search result link in the new tab and switch to the new tab.
click
Spacebar It is used to move down the page.
Shift + Spacebar It is used to move up the page.
End Its use is to move at the bottom of the page.
Home Its use is to move at the beginning or top of the page.
Ctrl+Shift+T It provides users the benefit to reopen the last tab you closed. If you have closed
multiple tabs, you can also reopen those tabs by pressing this shortcut key multiple
times.

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F.L. VARGAS COLLEGE INC.

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY