Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

The polymers and their additives in particulate plastics: What makes them
hazardous to the fauna?
Srinidhi Sridharan a,b, Manish Kumar b, Mahua Saha a,c, M.B. Kirkham d, Lal Singh a,b, , Nanthi S. Bolan e,
⁎ ⁎⁎
a
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur 440020, Maharashtra, India
c
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula 403004, Goa, India
d
Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States of America
e
UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, M079, Perth, WA 6009, Australia

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• MNPs are generally perceived as a single

entity rather than a class of contaminants.
• We systematically reviewed the impacts of
MNPs and associated additives on fauna.
• Data on the faunal toxicity of MNPs + ad-
ditives are limited to only three polymers.
• Mechanisms of toxicity and leachability
are discussed with the available data.
• Ecotoxicity of MNPs depend more on their
physical properties than polymer types.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Due to the increasing concerns on global ecosystems and human health, the environmental risks posed by
Received 6 January 2022 microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have become an important topic of research. Their ecological impacts
Received in revised form 7 February 2022 on various faunal species have been extensively researched and reviewed. However, the majority of those studies per-
Accepted 8 February 2022
ceive these micro(nano)-plastics (MNPs) as a single entity rather than a collective term for a group of chemically dis-
Available online 11 February 2022
tinct polymeric particulates. Each of the plastic polymers can possess unique physical and chemical behavior, which, in
Editor: Damia Barcelo turn, can determine the possible environmental impacts. Furthermore, many studies explore the adsorption, absorp-
tion, and release of other environmental pollutants by MNPs. But only a handful of them explore the leaching of addi-
Keywords: tives possessed by these polymers. Data on the environmental behavior and toxicity of individual additives associated
Microplastics with different polymer particulates are scarce. Knowledge about the leachability and ecotoxicity of the additives

Abbreviations: 1-Nnap, 1-nitronaphthalene; BP-3, benzophenone-3; DEHP, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; BPA, bisphenol A; CTR, car tire rubber; CTAB, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide; DBP,
dibutyl phthalate; DiBP, diisobutyl phthalate; DnBP, di-n-butyl phthalate; EDI, estimated daily intake; HI, Hazard Index; HBCD, hexabromocyclododecane; LC-HRMS, Liquid Chromatography -
High Resolution Mass Spectrometry; MPs, microplastics; MNPs, micro(nano)-plastics; NPs, nanoplastics; PTA, paraphthalic acid; PFASs, perfluoroalkyl substances; POPs, persistent organic
pollutants; PPCPs products, pharmaceuticals and personal care; PHE, phenanthrene; PA, polyamide; PBDE, polybrominated diphenyl ethers; PBS, polybutylene succinate; PC, polycarbonate;
PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PHA, polyhydroxy alkanoates; PHB, polyhydroxy butyrate; PLA, polylactic acid; PMMA,
polymethyl methacrylate; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PU, polyurethane; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; SDBS, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate; THQ, target hazard quotient; TBBPA,
tetrabromobisphenol A; UV, ultra-violet.
⁎ Correspondence to: L. Singh, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
⁎⁎ Correspondence to: N. S. Bolan, UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, M079, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
E-mail addresses: lalsingh@neeri.res.in (L. Singh), nanthi.bolan@uwa.edu.au (N.S. Bolan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153828
0048-9697/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

Nanoplastics associated with environmental MNPs (unlike large plastic particles) remains limited. The ecological impacts of differ-
Fauna ent MNPs together with their additives and the basis of their toxicity have not been explored yet. The present review
Ecotoxicity systematically explores the potential implications of environmentally predominant polymers and their associated ad-
Plastic additives
ditives and discusses their physicochemical characteristics. The review ultimately aims to provide novel insights on
Particulate plastics
what components precisely make MNPs hazardous to the fauna. The paper also discusses the major challenges pro-
posed in the available literature along with recommendations for future research to throw light on possible solutions
to overcome the hazards of MNPs.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Methodology for review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Types of polymers and their impacts on fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Role of physicochemical characteristics and aging of the plastic particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Challenges regarding characterization and analysis of MNPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Toxicity of MNPs to the aquatic biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4. Toxicity of MNPs to the terrestrial biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5. Data insufficiency and knowledge gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Types of additives and their impacts on fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1. Sources and applications of plastic-associated additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2. Additive exposure through plastic particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3. Environmental interactions and toxicity of the additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4. Leachability and interactions of the plastic polymers with their additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.5. Characterization and analysis of MNP-associated additives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Impacts on humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.1. Exposure and health risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2. Available data on human toxicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3. Plastic waste management and human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. Recent trends and prospects for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1. Introduction
Plastics have an extensive range of key applications from packaging
(Piccardo et al., 2021) to power cable insulation (Ouyang et al., 2021a).
The ever-increasing global production of plastics in the last seven decades
has resulted in their vast circulation in the environment, and they have
emerged as a key geological indicator of the Anthropocene (Campanale
et al., 2020). These plastics further break down to smaller particles and
end up as mesoplastics (10 mm), MPs (≤5 mm) and NPs (<1 μm)
(NOAA, 2015). As of 2015, humans have generated around 6300 million
metric tons of plastic waste (Lin et al., 2020). By 2050, 26,000 Megatons
of plastic waste are projected to be dumped globally, at least 45% of
which shall remain non-recyclable (Castan et al., 2021; Kumar et al.,
2020). Municipal landfill leachate can contain up to 11.4 ± 0.8 μg L−1 of
27 different polymers of the MNPs (mostly <50 μm) (Sun et al., 2021), and
farmland soils used intensively can contain MNPs as high as 43,000 particles
kg−1 (Castan et al., 2021). Moreover, biosolids play a key role as a potential
source for MNPs (microbeads) in soil (Wijesekara et al., 2018) through sludge
applications from wastewater effluents enriched with particulate plastics
(Golwala et al., 2021). MNPs get transported to distant places from their
source, and polar lakes may become their potential sinks (González-Pleiter
et al., 2020). However, MNPs are unevenly distributed across this planet,
and the distribution depends upon the distance from their source, geological
and hydrological aspects (soil or sediment type, weathering) (Mendes et al.,
2021), environmental compartments (air, soil, or water) (Kooi et al., 2021),
anthropogenic disturbance or activity (Yin et al., 2021), and degree of urban-
ization or industrialization (Wong et al., 2020).
Based on their sources, MNPs can be either primary (intentionally
fabricated for suitable applications) or secondary (particulates formed by
fragmentation of larger plastic materials) (Auta et al., 2018). MNPs occur
in every ecosystem, including soil, water (marine or freshwater), and air.
Thus, they are deposited in every nook and corner of the planet. Due to
their omnipresence, MNPs have been acknowledged as a key stratigraphic
marker of the current geological period (Anthropocene), popularly termed
the Plasticene (Leslie and Depledge, 2020). MNPs are found in vegetables
and fruits (Conti et al., 2020), milk and honey (Diaz-Basantes et al.,
2020), meat (Kedzierski et al., 2020), salt (Vidyasakar et al., 2021; Lee
et al., 2019a), seafood (Saha et al., 2021), edible algae (Menendez et al.,
2021), and potable water (Welle and Franz, 2018). MNPs can impact vital
microbial communities in the environment or bioremediation systems,
thus interfering with important nutrient cycling processes like nitrification
(Qin et al., 2020b), manure composting (humification) (Zhou et al.,
2022b), and carbon cycling, because they pose as a nature-identical recalci-
trant carbon (Ladewig et al., 2021). MNPs are known to be hazardous to
various keystone species of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Sridharan
et al., 2021a). MNPs can directly impact organisms by entanglement, cell
inflammation, gut blockage, and by causing ingestion-reduced energy
reserves, or indirectly by adsorbing and transporting other chemical con-
taminants (organic or inorganic) in the environment (Fred-Ahmadu et al.,
2020). However, a much-debated question is whether or not MNPs inde-
pendently drive global biodiversity loss. Some studies state that there are
no significant impacts on fauna (Cunningham et al., 2021; Gambardella
et al., 2019) or humans (WHO, 2019), while some others contradict
these reports and give substantial evidence (Cox et al., 2020;
Pannetier et al., 2020). However, the data available concerning the
human exposure and toxicity of MNPs and their additives are too scarce
(WHO, 2019) to conclude that the concern is negligible (Leslie and
Depledge, 2020). Moreover, specified bioassays to assess the toxicity
of MNPs to fauna and humans remain undeveloped and unstandardized
(Karami, 2017).

2
S. Sridharan et al.
A few toxicity studies explore the direct impacts of synthetic polymers
(Mandiola et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021b). It is widely perceived that virgin
MNPs are inert compounds that are not toxic by themselves. Unfortunately,
plastics also contain other compounds (like phthalates, flame retardants,
bisphenols), which are added during polymerization and processing
(Gunaalan et al., 2020). These functional additives play a major role in
the toxicity of the MNPs (Beiras et al., 2021). Moreover, MNPs become po-
tential vectors of transport for several hazardous, environmental contami-
nants including heavy metals (Borges-Ramírez et al., 2021; Catrouillet
et al., 2021), phenanthrene, nonylphenol, triclosan, and other organic com-
pounds including endocrine disruptors (Browne et al., 2013). Although en-
vironmentally exposed MNPs are observed to be more toxic (Alimi et al.,
2021; Liu et al., 2020a), data are lacking to show the long-term pathways
and behavior of environmental MNPs. Some of the main, established path-
ways by which MNPs enter different ecosystems include runoff and erosion,
groundwater migration, hydrodynamics (flow direction, ocean waves,
tides), and atmospheric fallout (Alfonso et al., 2021).
After the Stockholm Convention (UNEP, 2020), MNPs were proposed to
be persistent organic pollutants (POPs) due to increasing evidence concern-
ing their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range transfer,
and impacts from exposure (Lohmann, 2017). Recently, Arp et al. (2021)
and Duan et al. (2021) proposed that plastic litter from environmental
weathering (macro, meso, micro, nano) and its leachates are a threat to
the planet due to their global exposure, irreversibility, non-degradability,
and their known impacts on vital global processes like nutrient and biogeo-
chemical cycles. However, there is only a handful of studies on aged MNPs
(Luo et al., 2020b), and the weathering protocols followed to generate en-
vironmentally relevant aged-MNPs are not standardized yet (Alimi et al.,
2021). Plastic aging, which refers to time-dependent modifications in the
polymeric chemical bonds and physical structures, can be characterized
by temporal changes in the carbonyl (carbon‑oxygen) and hydroxyl
(hydrogen‑oxygen) bonds, bond index (a quantitative measure of atomic
bond structure), surface topography, crystallinity (particle brittleness),
etc. (Brandon et al., 2016). However, discrepancies in the distribution,
polymer types, shapes, color, and sizes of MNPs documented in different
countries and climatic zones make it difficult to understand their practical
aging, fate, and possible interactions, and their impacts and toxicity on
the regional biota. For instance, surface delamination is known to be the
Fig. 1. Layout of the review methodology: database collection and scrutinizing process for this review article.
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Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
primary mechanism during the initial stages of plastic sheet or strip
weathering in salt marshes (Weinstein et al., 2016). But this may vary
with the MNP shapes or the existing ecosystem.
Moreover, the mechanisms causing the interactions between the MNPs
and metallic elements or other chemical compounds in the environment
need to be explored further through modeling approaches (Binda et al.,
2021). For instance, Turner et al. (2020) identified <0.1 μg g−1 of lead
(Pb) adsorbed to 70% of different MNP pellets on a beach with avian acces-
sibility. To date, the majority of the research focuses on the physical aspects
of the ecotoxicological implications of MNPs. The biophysical or ecological
impacts of MNPs are more likely to be caused by their physical characteris-
tics (Lozano et al., 2021; Qin et al., 2021) than their chemical structure, be-
cause most conventional plastics are branded to be chemically stable and
inert. However, their additives exhibit more toxicity and health hazards
to biota and humans upon contact or ingestion, which are mainly attributed
to their chemical nature (Liu et al., 2020b). The principal mechanisms by
which MNPs exert toxicity to fauna include physical obstruction, transfer
and mobilization of environmental co-pollutants, and leaching of additives
(Barrick et al., 2021).
The types of MNPs and additive chemicals occurring in the environment
highly depend on their source. Bringer et al. (2021) conducted a pilot study
along the French Atlantic coast to characterize the MNPs and their additives
[like dimethyl phthalate, naphthalene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs)] that were found on the beach, surface water, and coastal (semi-
depth) sediments. They related their occurrence to the aquaculture tools
used by fishermen. The authors showed that around 70% of the identified
MNPs and chemicals represented the regionally predominant aquaculture
materials. However, Bergami et al. (2020) identified polystyrene (PS) par-
ticles (chiefly from long-range transport) in the gut of Cryptopygus
antarcticus (Antarctic springtail), and thus they reported evidence of MNP
ingestion by this most isolated collembolan of the Earth. Therefore, tracing
of sources is important to understand the possible routes and concentra-
tions of environmental MNPs.
From selected literature (Fig. 1), the authors identified many research
studies (although they were fragmented) on the impacts of plastic additives
(particularly bisphenols). But only a few research articles explored the com-
bined impacts of MNPs and their additives (Fig. 2). There is no dearth of re-
views on the additives linked with MNPs. To the authors' knowledge, in the
S. Sridharan et al.
Fig. 2. Bibliometric network visualization for the co-occurrence of the relevant keywords for the study using VOSviewer.
last decade (2010−21), there are 187 peer-reviewed papers dedicated to
the impacts of plastic additives, out of which 33 are review articles.
Campanale et al. (2020) systematically reviewed the impacts of MNPs
and additives on human health. Hong et al. (2017) reviewed the available
literature on the analytical methods and techniques for plastic-associated
chemicals. Barrick et al. (2021) reviewed the ecotoxicity of plastic addi-
tives, and they mainly focused on the legislative differences between New
Zealand and the European Commission concerning these additive com-
pounds. Hahladakis et al. (2018) reviewed the fate, migration and the envi-
ronmental impacts of plastic additives in regard to their use, management
and recycling. However, the study did not cover the impacts of plastics
and MNPs or their toxicity to biological systems. Another review article
(Gunaalan et al., 2020) addressed the environmental toxicity of the addi-
tives carried by MNPs. These authors discussed the leachate-preparation
protocols followed in toxicity-assessment studies. However, the review
was limited to only aquatic flora and fauna and the leachates (not the poly-
mers). Mandal et al. (2020) addressed the distribution and impacts of
weathering on the physicochemical characteristics and toxicity of particu-
late plastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment.
Yet, most of the available reviews and many research articles on the
leachates and additives have addressed them as a single entity or one mix-
ture rather than focusing on the detailed possible impacts associated with
different chemical compounds individually. Most importantly, to the au-
thors' knowledge, no review is available that systematically discusses the
ecological impacts of different MNPs and their additives together and ex-
plores the basis of their ecotoxicity. Moreover, knowledge of the ecotoxicity
of MNPs is limited to a few polymers (Fig. 2). Unlike macro- and
mesoplastics, little or no data are available on the leachability and
ecotoxicity of the additives associated with environmental MNPs. The pres-
ent review discusses the available literature concerning the impacts (indi-
vidual and combined ecotoxicity) of MNPs and the associated additives
on terrestrial and aquatic fauna and humans, and it explores the basis of
their toxicity due to their chemical (polymeric backbone, leachability)
and physical (size, shape, color, ductility, weathering) characteristics.
Furthermore, the present study aims to address an important knowledge
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Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
gap: environmental leachability of the MNP-associated additives in regard
to the combined toxicity of MNPs and additives on fauna.
2. Methodology for review
Potential literature for the present study was selected through a thor-
ough screening of available peer-reviewed research, reviews, and reports
collected from well-known scientific databases like Web of Science, Google
Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect (Fig. 1). The final database
was then analyzed using the bibliometric mapping tool, VOSviewer. A bib-
liometric network was mapped to understand the co-occurrence of the key-
words (MNPs and additives) in the selected literature (Fig. 2). In the final
database, the authors found that only three MNP polymers (terms: “polysty-
rene,” “polypropylene,” and “polyethylene”) had co-occurred with all the
terms “plastic additives,” “toxicity,” “microalgae,” “human health,” and
“adsorption”. Notably, no term related to any fauna (specific or general-
ized) could be visualized, which highlighted the need for more research
and review studies to bridge this knowledge gap. Hence, the present review
addresses the combined and individual impacts of MNPs and their additives
on fauna and highlights knowledge gaps and prospects for future studies in
the field. It carefully considers the physical and chemical diversity of the
MNPs. In all sections, this paper addresses MPs and NPs together as MNPs
for convenience (not generalization). However, NPs and MPs have diverse
transport properties, light and colloid interactions, surface areas, and hy-
drophobicity. Also, the fraction of surface molecules available for additives,
their bioavailability, and diffusion times all affect the release of additive
contaminants into the environment (Gigault et al., 2021).
3. Types of polymers and their impacts on fauna
MPs are not a single entity, but an ‘in toto' term used for several chem-
ical compounds (Rochman et al., 2019). Different polymers have different
functional groups, physical and chemical properties, and different types
of impacts on biota (Bolan et al., 2020; Palansooriya et al., 2020). Even
the same MNP polymers characterized from the same geographical location
S. Sridharan et al.
Fig. 3. A diagrammatic representation of the mechanisms by which MNPs become a potential hazard to the wildlife and humans.
can have dissimilar chemical compositions depending on how long the par-
ticles have undergone environmental weathering (aging) (Cormier et al.,
2021). For instance, Lozano et al. (2021) found that the impacts of MNPs
on terrestrial systems (plant growth, microbial activity, soil biota) varied,
not just with the polymer type [polypropylene (PP), polyurethane (PU),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), PS, polycarbonate
(PC)] and concentration, but also with the shape. For example, fibers in-
creased the water holding capacity, films decreased soil bulk density, and
foams and fragments increased soil aeration and porosity. Therefore, the
physicochemical properties of MNPs play an important role in their
ecotoxicity (Lambert et al., 2017). The mechanisms by which MNPs can
be toxic to fauna and humans are shown in Fig. 3.
3.1. Role of physicochemical characteristics and aging of the plastic particulates
Weathering of a plastic polymer and the generation rate of MNPs vary
with the polymeric chemical composition and the prevailing environmental
conditions (Duan et al., 2021). For instance, PS can fragment into micro-
sized particles much faster than PE in the ocean under erosional or inter-
tidal conditions (Rizzo et al., 2021). MNPs can be light enough for wind
transportation to distant areas, or hard enough for compaction and fossili-
zation like rocks (Campanale et al., 2020). Therefore, the texture (crystal-
linity, ductility) of the polymers influences the environmental behavior
and fate of the MNPs. The particle size of the MNPs plays a vital role in
the toxicity of the adsorbed contaminants (Qin et al., 2021; Wang et al.,
2019a). For instance, Cui et al. (2022) reported that the surface adsorption
of benzophenone-3 (BP-3) on PS, PE, and PP MNPs under gastrointestinal
(lab-simulated) conditions was highly size-dependent. The polymeric den-
sity also plays a crucial role in the migration of the MNPs in terrestrial eco-
systems or the sinking rates in aquatic ecosystems. Chen et al. (2022)
observed surface modifications and enhanced sinking rates of MNPs during
the pre-oxidation processes (KMnO4 treatment) in drinking-water treat-
ment plants. Moreover, the polymeric composition of MNPs influences
the sorption (absorption or adsorption) of various co-pollutants (heavy
metals or organic pollutants) in the environment. Xu et al. (2021) investi-
gated the sorption of 4 different MNPs [PP, polylactic acid (PLA),
polybutylene succinate (PBS), polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA)] onto phen-
anthrene (PHE) and 1-nitronaphthalene (1-Nnap). They also studied the
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Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
bioaccumulation of additives (PHE and 1-Nnap) by the earthworm Eisenia
fetida. The study provided new insights on the vital role of hydrophobic in-
teractions on reversible sorption of organic compounds to MNPs, where the
non-polar PP MNPs showed higher sorption (and additive bioaccumula-
tion) than the other polar MNPs.
Li et al. (2021b) demonstrated that the oxidative stress exhibited by
E. fetida when exposed to high-density PE and PP MNPs was size-
dependent, and the worms showed inflammation and neurodegeneration
when treated with the MNPs. Hüffer et al. (2018) observed that environ-
mental aging of PS MNPs could cause polymeric surface oxidation, increas-
ing the possibility of their interactions with biota or sorption of other
organic contaminants. However, in a recent study, Castan et al. (2021) eval-
uated the partitioning and diffusion coefficients for PE and tire-wear MNPs-
bound contaminant migration (agrochemicals or pesticides like hexachlo-
robenzene, endrin, aldrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, trans-
nonachlor and additives like polychlorinated biphenyls) in soil, and they re-
ported rapid desorption. They strongly questioned the potential of MNPs to
facilitate contaminant migration or mobility. Usually, fish communities
that are swallowing-feeders tend to ingest more MNPs than sucking-
feeders or filtering-feeders (Li et al., 2021a), and this specifies a serious
risk of MNPs and their additives on bioaccumulation in the food chain.
Aging of MNPs is a principal factor influencing their physical and chem-
ical interactions with the environment. The aging depends on environmen-
tal factors like ultra-violet (UV) radiation and mechanical or biological
disintegration (Binda et al., 2021; Duan et al., 2021). Moreover, natural ca-
lamities, like typhoons, cyclones, and tsunamis, can increase the environ-
mental response of the MNPs and the plastisphere due to increased
turbulence, transport, and redistribution (Chen et al., 2021a). Wu et al.
(2021) reported that photo-aging (under simulated conditions) rates of vir-
gin PP (pure) particles were higher than the PP particles from a tea cup and
meal-box products in a simulated ocean environment. The antioxidant ad-
ditives (Irgafos 168) in the molded plastics inhibited the aging process,
but caused yellowing of the plastic surfaces upon reaction with sunlight
(UV rays). Moreover, despite delaying the plastic weathering, the additives
leached out into the seawater, underwent degradation under sunlight (UV),
and generated intermediary degradation products. These observations
highlighted the influence of additives on the weathering-related environ-
mental impacts of MNPs in the open ocean. Therefore, the aging rate of
S. Sridharan et al.
particulate plastics needs to be considered as a parameter for their charac-
terization and analysis.
3.2. Challenges regarding characterization and analysis of MNPs
Analytical and instrumental tools and techniques, as well as methodolo-
gies, remain underdeveloped and unstandardized, particularly for smaller-
sized MPs (<10 μm) and NPs. This is due to the limitations on the sampling
protocols, sensitivity and resolution of the available sampling and analytical
systems. For instance, Schirinzi et al. (2019) developed a real-time, robust
quantification method for trace analysis of PS MNPs (resolution up to 20
pg) from the aquatic environment using Liquid Chromatography-High Reso-
lution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS). However, the methodology and instru-
mental setup were specifically designed for PS (one particular polymer),
while slight to major modifications were required for other predominant
polymers. The aging of different MNPs is influenced by different environmen-
tal factors. Many studies have focused only on PS MNPs mainly because of
their poor heat-resistance and the commonly associated carcinogenic addi-
tives (antioxidants, stabilizers, flame retardants).
A study in China showed that photo-fragmentation of terrestrial PET
MNPs can be influenced by certain components (iron oxide, clay, organic
carbon) in the prevailing soil (Ding et al., 2022), and the study provided
novel insights into polymeric photochemical behavior. Photo-degradation
by UV and solar radiation is another important factor in MNP generation.
Photo-degradation is not characterized as “degradation” but just light-
induced fragmentation of plastic particulates, which brings about surface
morphology changes in the exposed MNPs (Sait et al., 2021). PP particles,
under UV irradiation, can leach dissolved organic matter in the environ-
ment at a much faster rate than PE particles due to the reaction of long-
chain alkyl groups present in PP with UV radiation generating free alkyl
radicals (Lee et al., 2020b). UV radiation plays a key role in the photo-
aging of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Ouyang et al., 2021b). Ouyang et al.
(2021b) found an increased photo-aging of PVC particles under UVC
(generally used in sterilization applications) irradiation than under UVA
and UVB. However, most of the various commercial UV food and aquacul-
ture sterilization chambers (domestic or industrial disinfection boxes) use
only PVC, which can become a potential source of MNPs for humans.
Therefore, research and reviews concerning the impacts of MNPs on biota
need to address ecotoxicity with respect to different polymers rather than
grouping them under a single tag as MPs or NPs.
3.3. Toxicity of MNPs to the aquatic biota
In the past decade, various studies have documented the presence of
MNPs in aquatic fauna. MNPs are currently perceived to be more toxic to
the early life stages (embryonic to juvenile) of the aquatic fauna than the
mature or adult stages (Cormier et al., 2021) possibly due to increased
host sensitivity (susceptibility), bioavailability and residence time (from
larvae to juveniles) of the MNPs leading to an amplified exposure of the em-
bryos to the particulates and leachates. Pannetier et al. (2020) showed that
both juveniles and larvae of the Japanese Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) read-
ily ingest MNPs. MNPs are usually perceived to be of greater threat to pred-
atory fauna than the prey, because they are highly vulnerable to exposure
(Huang et al., 2020). For instance, Sanchez et al. (2014) identified
microplastics (MPs) in the digestive tracts of wild gudgeons Gobio gobio, a
freshwater benthic feeder (secondary consumer) in French streams, and
they highlighted possible biomagnification from their prey. The authors vi-
sually inspected the suspected particles under a dissection microscope to
observe hard-colored and transparent fibers and pellets. However, they
did not analyze the polymeric composition of the identified MPs. In an in-
door mesocosm experiment, PE MNPs disrupted the community structure
of benthic macroinvertebrates (Silva et al., 2021), and the study provided
important insights into the potential ecological risk to grazers and deposit
feeders. Bessa et al. (2019) identified MNPs (fibers, fragments: 76–4945
μm) from the scats of a polar top predator, the gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis
papua) of Antarctica (Bird Island, South Orkney Islands, Signy Island,
6
Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
South Georgia). Wang et al. (2021a) identified PP and PET fibers from
the stomachs (78–2498 μm, 1196 ± 671 μm) and intestines (small intes-
tine: 51–3609 μm, 706 ± 753 μm; large intestine: 87–3369 μm, 904 ±
825 μm) of 2 dead cubs of Phoca largha (spotted seal).
Initially, toxicity studies of MNPs concerning aquatic fauna used a well-
established model organism, Danio rerio (zebra fish) (Lu et al., 2016). In
these studies, ingestion of MNPs by lab-grown zebra fish over a 7-day expo-
sure is observed, which is followed by determining hepatotoxicity using
fluorescent-tagged PS MNPs (20 μm, 5 μm, 70 nm). When the ingested
MNPs enter the host's gut, these particles can support pathogenic biofilms
that can disrupt or interact with the gut microbiota (Li et al., 2022). For in-
stance, Xie et al. (2021) exposed D. rerio for 24 h to 10–1000 μg L−1 of MPs
(8 μm, PS) and NPs (80 nm, PS) and found greater gut inflammation and
gut-microbial community disruption by PS NPs than MPs. When the fresh-
water amphipod crustacean Hyalella azteca was exposed to PE and PP MNPs
(fibers and particles) for 10 to 42 days, they showed retarded growth and
energy levels (Au et al., 2015). Surprisingly, the MNP fibers showed more
toxicity than the particles. Cole et al. (2015) observed significant impacts
of PS MNPs on the feeding behavior, growth, and reproduction of a pelagic
copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Exposure to PS MNPs can impact the feeding
and shoaling behavior of the marine jacopever, Sebastes capensis (Yin et al.,
2018). Within 96 h of exposure, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) MNPs
could induce muscular antioxidant stress and retard the growth of the Atlantic
gilt-head bream, Sparus aurata (Balasch et al., 2021). Moreover, PS MNPs
alter the growth patterns of phytoplankton, microalgae, and dinoflagellates
(Alexandrium pacificum) (Liu et al., 2021a) through oxidative stress and phys-
ical damage (Mao et al., 2018). These organisms are the major oxygen pro-
ducers and vital nutrient sources for aquatic fauna. Long et al. (2017)
observed that PS MNPs formed clusters (hetero-aggregates) with the marine
phytoplankton, Chaetoceros neogracile, but it had negligible impacts on algal
morphology or growth. MNPs can also favor taxonomically distinct microbial
biofilms, thus altering natural microbial communities in aquaculture ponds,
which, in turn, can alter the overall content of extracellular polymeric sub-
stances (Deng et al., 2021a). These biofilms further may influence the health
of the cultured organisms, ultimately impacting the nutrient content they
offer to human consumers. Zhang et al. (2021d) observed that MNPs induced
a significant rise in the abundance of the gene intI1 (antibiotic resistance
gene) on the bacterial hosts in an aerobic sludge digestion plant.
In natural marine sediments, even bioplastic MNPs can favor microbial
strains carrying antibiotic or metal-resistant genes (Di Cesare et al., 2021),
which exposes susceptible aquatic fauna to pathogenic or virulent microbes.
Within 14 days of exposure, PS MNPs accumulated in the brain, liver, gut,
and gills of Oreochromis niloticus (freshwater red tilapia) and induced oxida-
tive stress and neurotoxicity (inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in the brain)
(Ding et al., 2018). Intramuscular exposure to PE MNPs for 7 days induced ox-
idative stress and reduced the survival rate of the Pacific white shrimp,
Litopenaeus vannamei (Hsieh et al., 2021). Another study using acute exposure
(2 days) on the same species reported microfloral dysbiosis (disruption to the
microbiota resulting in an imbalance of the microflora) at low concentrations
(50 μg L−1) of PE (fluorescent-tagged) MNPs; eventually death of the shrimps
occurred at high concentrations (5000 μg L−1) (Wang et al., 2021d). Artemia
parthenogenetica (brine shrimp) readily ingested PS MNPs, which did not
show any significant impact on shrimp growth, development, or survivability,
but the ingestion caused abnormal morphological structures in their digestive
tract (Wang et al., 2019b). Ecotoxicological impacts can also be species-
specific. For instance, the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) showed more
toxic responses to PET MNPs than PE, because the former interfered in path-
ways responsible for lipid metabolism (vital for oysters) (Teng et al., 2021). In
a mesocosm of a nematode-plant-soil system, the presence of PE MNPs and as-
sociated organic compounds (mixture) impacted the growth, biomass, and
microflora of a plant, maize (Zea mays), but not the nematode
(Caenorhabditis elegans) (Fajardo et al., 2022). In the study, the MNPs were es-
tablished to have been the soil contaminant-carriers through bioassays
(growth, reproduction, antioxidant stress). The black rockfish (Sebastes
schlegelii), when exposed to PS MNPs (0.5–15μm), showed decreased mobility
and swimming speed and increased ammonia excretion and dissolved oxygen
S. Sridharan et al.
consumption, and thus the fish had impaired exploration competence and
hunting behavior (Yin et al., 2019).
3.4. Toxicity of MNPs to the terrestrial biota
In terrestrial ecosystems, fauna can be exposed to MNPs through ingestion
(active exposure) or translocation (passive exposure) (Büks et al., 2020). Pol-
linators like bees (both rural and urban hives) can accumulate and sample
MNPs from a flower's surface or nectar. For instance, a study in Copenhagen,
Denmark, identified MNPs adhered to the bodies of honeybees from 19 differ-
ent rural and urban apiaries (Edo et al., 2021). They interpreted that static
electricity was a key factor in attracting microparticles (negatively charged)
from the flowers along with the pollens toward the corbiculae (hairy recesses)
on the body (positively charged) of bees. In soil, MNPs can be transported by
microarthropods (collembola) (Maaß et al., 2017). Maaß et al. (2017) used
Folsomia candida and Proisotoma minuta (both are springtails) to observe
their interactions with PET fibers and urea-formaldehyde, when no ingestion
observed. However, the particles adhered to the springtails' surface and got
translocated to the soil food web.
Jiang et al. (2020) demonstrated the toxicity (histopathological and
DNA damage; oxidative stress) of PS MNPs (100 nm, 1300 nm) to a popular
vermicompost earthworm, E. fetida, and the authors observed significant
impacts even at low concentrations (100 μg/kg). Moreover, LDPE MNPs
(< 400 μm) are ingested and egested (in worm casts) by E. fetida (Chen
et al., 2020). However, Ding et al. (2021) observed a clear avoidance be-
havior by E. fetida toward MNPs [PLA, PE, polypropylene carbonate
(PPC)] at concentrations greater than 40 g kg−1. The study reported that
biodegradable polymers, which also carried the same toxic additives,
were as toxic as the conventional PE MNPs, throwing light on the potential
ecological impacts of bioplastics. After 72 h of exposure, Muhammad et al.
(2021) studied the immunological and physiological impacts of PS MNPs
on the silkworm, Bombyx mori. The authors observed a significant bioaccu-
mulation of NPs in the silkworm's gut, but no accumulation of MPs, which
highlighted the importance of the size of the MNPs on their ecotoxicity.
The presence of PE and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) can modify the structure
of the soil microbiome and hinder ammonia volatilization, which, in turn,
can alter the nitrogen cycle in terrestrial ecosystems (Feng et al., 2022b).
Prendergast-Miller et al. (2019) exposed the common soil earthworm,
Lumbricus terrestris, for 35 days to PS MNPs (fibers) and observed no avoid-
ance behavior or mortality, but stress levels (hsp70) (hsp70 stands for
70 kDa heat shock proteins) were increased and cast production was de-
creased. Similarly, Baeza et al. (2020) exposed L. terrestris to various concen-
trations (2.5%, 5%, 7% w/w) of different MNPs (LDPE, PS, PET, PP) for 48 h
and identified MNPs from all the earthworm segments (notably in the hind-
gut), which suggested significant ingestion and no avoidance. However, ef-
fects and accumulation in the above study were more evident only at the
highest concentration (7% MNPs w/w), which might not reflect the practical
environmental toxicity, because the chosen concentration (7%) could be un-
realistically high. Coley et al. (2021) used the soil nematode, Caenorhabditis
elegans, as a biological model to study the acute ecotoxicity (24-hour expo-
sure) of primary marine MNP pellets (from 2 Colombian beaches where tour-
ists went). The pellets adsorbed co-contaminants from water and induced
oxidative stress, which interfered with somatic processes and reproduction.
Hu et al. (2018) evaluated MNPs (PP, polyester fibers and fragments)
from tadpoles of Yangtze River Delta in China. The types of MNPs identified
in the tadpole tissues resembled the ones characterized from the water sam-
ples, which showed an important link in the aquatic-to-terrestrial food
chain. MNPs can be ingested and transported longitudinally by anecic (deep
burrowing) earthworms like Lumbricus terrestris (Yu et al., 2019). The com-
mon soil nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, showed a wide range of acute,
toxic responses to 13 polymers of MNPs (0.001–1% w/w), with the highest
toxicity from PET and no toxicity from PE, which suggested a key role by
the extractable polymer additives in causing the ecotoxicity (Kim et al.,
2020). Chlorella, lycopene, and citric acid protected the African catfish, Clarias
gariepinus, from the toxicological effects of MNPs, which provided new in-
sights on their potential to revert MNP-induced hematobiochemical changes
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Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
in aquaculture fish, when they are combined with feed as a supplement
(Sayed et al., 2021). Imhof et al. (2017) exposed the freshwater crustacean,
Daphnia magna, to MNPs (40 μm) for 2 days. The adults showed altered
gene expression and juveniles showed subtle alterations in morphological
traits like spine length and width. Additionally, the authors saw that the im-
pacts were dependent on the shape, size, and type of the MNPs, which
would be important to know in a multi-stressor environment.
3.5. Data insufficiency and knowledge gaps
There is insufficient documentation of the polymeric properties that influ-
ence the environmental behavior and interactions of virgin or aged particu-
late plastics. As highlighted in Fig. 2, Büks et al. (2020) aptly highlighted
the underrepresentation of fibrous MPs in soil-impact assessment studies,
and they pointed out that most studies use only PS. The authors also empha-
sized that the concentrations selected in most studies were either impracti-
cally high or expected only in heavily contaminated soils. Therefore,
research on the emerging contaminants must collect environmentally rele-
vant data to reflect their practical impacts on the environment in which
they occur. Because global documentation studies on MNPs have been
reporting diverse sizes and shapes, analytical and sampling techniques have
been including a broader size range based on the defined limit for character-
ization (Rochman et al., 2019). Therefore, analytical techniques for faunal-
toxicity assessments must include not just the concentrations of MNPs but
also their shapes and sizes. However, available data for shapes and sizes are
currently lacking, especially for fibrous MNPs. Tanoiri et al. (2021) developed
a 3D model for mass quantification of MNPs and highlighted the prevailing
exclusion of shape (irregular, plate-like) as a characterization parameter.
Hence, they described a new shape for fibrous MNPs called “artificial grass”
to enhance the quantification accuracy. Kooi et al. (2021) parameterized
the environmental distribution of particle size, length, width, mass, volume,
and area through an in-depth meta-analysis on the properties of more than
60,000 particulate plastics in the environment. The study highlighted the
need for inclusion of multidimensionality for the dose of the MNPs in order
to determine their risk in the environment. MNPs indirectly impact the soil
micro-, meso-, and macro-fauna by influencing the soil physical and chemical
characteristics and the taxonomy and functions of the soil microbiota, which,
consequently, impairs their overall productivity (Feng et al., 2022a; Rillig and
Lehmann, 2020). As discussed above, to understand the effects of MNPs on
fauna, we must explore the toxicity of their additives as well. The commonly
documented additives associated with different MNP polymers are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1
Overview of the major MNP polymers with their predominant additives.
Polymers Possible additives References
PS Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) Jang et al. (2017)
PP Polystyrene-b-poly Ouyang et al. (2021a)
(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-polystyrene (SEBS)
Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wu et al. (2021)
phosphite)
PVC Dimethyl phthalates, naphthalene Bringer et al. (2021)
Diisonyl phthalate Schrank et al. (2019)
Plasticizers: dioctylphthalate esters; pigments: Allen and Edge (2021a)
titanium dioxide, carbon black; UV-stabilizer:
lead oxide, barium or cadmium carboxylates,
organotin stabilizers, dialkyltin maleates,
barbituric or thiobarbituric acid,
2-Benzimidazolylacetonitrile.
PET Phthalimide, benzophenone, benzothiazole, Sørensen et al. (2021)
phthalide, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP),
triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), tripropyl phosphate
(TPP)
Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wang et al. (2021c)
phosphite)
HDPE Metal catalysts, halogens, calcium stearate Allen and Edge (2021a)
LDPE Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wang et al. (2021c)
phosphite)
Phenols (antioxidants), halogens, calcium stearate Allen and Edge (2021a)
S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

Table 2
Available data on the purpose of the major additives and associated plastics along with their applications.
Types of Examples Purpose and Possibly associated References
additives applications polymers

Catalysts Pb, Cu, Pd, Hg, Cd (metals), zeolites Processing: To increase the Any polymer associated with packaging, Allen and Edge (2021a)
rate of polymerization recycled plastics through pyrolysis may contain
reactions traces of catalysts
Antiblocking Silica, zeolites, talc, amides To prevent sticking of plastic Plastic sheets and films (PE, PC) and synthetic Allen and Edge (2021b)
agents films rubber (PU)
Antioxidants Phenols, thioesters, amine, phosphite compounds To inhibit oxidation or Packaging materials (PE), plastics with long Zhao et al. (2020)
oxo-degradation (to delay shelf-life
weathering)
Flame-retardants Halogens (mainly bromine): To prevent ignition or All non-inflammable applications (PS, PVC, Kitahara and Nakata (2020)
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) combustion of the polymers PMMA, polyester)
Plasticizers Esters: Glycerides, adipates, phthalates (phthalic To enhance the elasticity and All moldable applications (mainly PVC, PC) Bejgarn et al. (2015)
acid esters) or acetates, bisphenol, polyhydric plasticity of the polymers
alcohols, azelate or benzoate compound
Stabilizers Heat and light stabilizers: Metallic (Cd, Zn) salts, To prevent or delay thermal All plastics intended for outdoor applications Allen and Edge (2021b)
benzophenones, triazoles and optical fragmentation of and long-term environmental exposure (mainly
the target plastics PVC, PAN, recycled plastics)
Antimicrobial Biocides and preservatives: Sodium benzoate, To prevent microbial growth Sterile applications (PP, PET: food packaging, Strasakova et al. (2021)
compounds phenolics, potassium sorbate on the surface, to maintain laboratory consumables, disposable surgical or
surface sterility clinical items)
Compatibilizers Interfacial adhesives: reactive compounds, blending To adhere immiscible or Recycled plastics and resins (polyacrylic, Allen and Edge (2021a)
materials like terpolymers incompatible polymers PMMA), PS
Lubricants Viscous compounds like polyurea, To promote smooth flow of the Moldable or flexible plastics Tonkonogov et al. (2021)
dialkyldithiophosphoric acid, or even molebdenum molten polymers through the
molding machine
Fillers Minerals (clay or silica, carbonates), talc, sulfates To enhance the physical Fibers, composites, resins Allen and Edge (2021a)
properties
Color pigments Synthetic dyes (anthraquinones, TiO2) To induce colors to the Any colored plastic product (syntetic fibers, Allen and Edge (2021b)
polymeric products PVC, PP, PET, etc.)
Cross-linking Curing agents: amines, peroxides, silicones To increase the molecular Any flexible plastics (Rubber, PVC) and Klitting et al. (2021)
compounds stability of the polymers coatings
Anti-shrinking Low profile compounds: polyoxyalkylene alkyl To even out, smoothen or Thermoplastics, foam (PS), plastics with Allen and Edge (2021a)
agents ethers, oxygenated compounds, stearates (glycerol protect the polymeric surface distinct surface properties
monostearate)
Surfactants Sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS), To reduce surface tension Polymeric surfactants (PE, PP, acrylates) Jiang et al. (2021b)
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) through cationic or anionic
surface-active compounds

4. Types of additives and their impacts on fauna
4.1. Sources and applications of plastic-associated additives
Plastic polymers are known to contain more than 400 intentionally
added compounds (Gunaalan et al., 2020; Mandal et al., 2020). There are
various types of additives used in plastics: plasticizers; catalysts (metals);
anti-blocking, antifogging, and antistatic agents; compatibilizers; diluents;
fillers; flame retardants; surfactants; heat or light (mostly UV) stabilizers;
thickening, curing, and wetting agents; antimicrobials; antioxidants; phe-
nols; thixotropic compounds; and pigments (Allen and Edge, 2021a; Zhao
et al., 2020). The purpose of these intentional additives is shown in
Table 2. The chemical origin of the major polymeric additives and their en-
vironmental risks are outlined in Table 3. Most of the organic additives are
hydrophobic in nature (Kwon et al., 2017), which can enhance the hydro-
phobicity of the surface of the associated MNP particulates (Table 3), and
hence can potentially increase the sorption of toxic organic compounds to
the MNPs.
In the marine environment, the commonly identified contaminants re-
sulting from MNPs are hydrophobic, organic compounds like phthalates,
bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenols, polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDE), and other antioxidants (Hermabessiere et al., 2017). Plastic-
associated chemicals are widely known to interfere with hormonal modula-
tion (endocrine mimics) and detoxification processes (enzyme inhibition,
oxidative stress) and cause apoptosis (cell death) (Liu et al., 2020b). More-
over, these additives are not only found in conventional plastic particulates
but also in bioplastics or biodegradable polymers. These additives are usu-
ally not chemically bound to the plastic compounds and, hence, readily

Table 3
Overview of the sources of major polymeric additives and their environmental impacts.
Additives Chemical origin Environmental significance: Why are they hazardous? References

Plasticizers Reaction of organic acids and alcohol Esters: low molecular weight, decreases viscosity (friction): Odorless Vieira et al. (2011)
and colorless, readily ingested by organisms
Flame retardants Inorganic minerals + nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, or These compounds form a fire-preventive layer at the surface of a Jang et al. (2021)
phosphorus material: Easily leachable in the environment
Stabilizers Pb salts, acetylation or atmospheric oxidation of benzyl Prevents oxidation: Delays or prevents the degradation of plastic and Allen and Edge (2021b)
compounds bioplastic particulates in the environment
Surfactants Alkylation of fats or petrochemicals Ionizes the plastic surface: Enhances binding of MNPs to metals or Jiang et al. (2021b)
oppositely charged compounds and surfaces
Synthetic dyes and Oxidation of petrochemicals (coal tars): Traces of toxic Synthetic pigments are usually hydrophobic: Increases the Allen and Edge (2021b)
pigments inorganic and organic compounds: Hg, Cr, toluene, etc. hydrophobicity of plastic surface
Anti-shrinking agents Usually, mixtures of alkyl ethers and urea: Promotes Hygroscopic, water soluble: Easily assimilated by organisms that Allen and Edge (2021a)
(expansive additives) surface expansion and micelles to reduce cracks and ingest MNPs, makes the plastic particulates more stable in the
shrinkage environment

8
S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

migrate to the polymeric surface and leach out to the environment
(Gunaalan et al., 2020). For instance, fluorescent pigments associated
with MNPs, which are usually toxic to aquatic algae, can easily get released
into the environment (Luo et al., 2019). Some of these additives like surfac-
tants, if released into the environment, can also aid in the transport of the
associated MNP particles. For instance, PE and PP MNPs in water can easily
get suspended by their surfactant-additives like sodium dodecylbenzene
sulfonate (SDBS) (anionic) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)
(cationic) (Jiang et al., 2021b).
The available literature on the possible impacts of different categories of
additives, along with the associated polymers, on fauna is shown in Table 4.
The type and quantity of the additives in plastics are solely dependent on
the nature of their applications. For instance, PVC products can contain
around 60% of additives, added in the proper proportion to impart UV sta-
bilization, enhanced elasticity, and other performance parameters (Lee
et al., 2020a). However, migration of the additives in the environment
highly depends on the irradiation (UV and solar intensity) and the stability
of the additive (chemical structure) (Wang et al., 2021c).
MNPs can also adsorb or desorb metals (or any co-pollutant) in the en-
vironment. For instance, pristine PLA particles can adsorb Cu(II), while sur-
face biofilms and fulvic acid reduce the adsorption rate (Sun et al., 2022).
Many factors affect the adsorption or release of additives by MNPs in the en-
vironment. Generally, pH and organic matter are proposed to be the major
driving forces. However, Liu et al. (2019) reported salinity (NaCl, CaCl2)
played a key role in increasing the MNP (PS, PE, PVC) sorption rates of
phthalates, and natural organic matter and pH played only a negligible
role. They interpreted that salinity triggered the effect of salting-out,
which decreased the solubility and separated out the dissolved organic
compounds from water, and increased their sorption to MNPs.
4.2. Additive exposure through plastic particulates
When ingested by organisms, MNPs can release these additives into
their biological systems (Jang et al., 2021). For instance, Jang et al.
(2016) identified marine Styrofoam debris as a potential source of
hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and flame retardants that the regional
fauna could be exposed to. Therefore, plastic waste in the environment
can transport hazardous additives or other co-pollutants in the food
chain. However, a model that Koelmans et al. (2014) developed to under-
stand plastic additive exposure to marine organisms through plastic particle
ingestion showed that additive exposure by MNP ingestion was only rele-
vant to marine worms and not much for fish. Tracing the additives associ-
ated with the MNP polymers can indirectly track the MNP levels in the
environment. For instance, Kitahara and Nakata (2020) sampled road-
dust particles of 3 Japanese cities (Tokyo, Okinawa, Kumamoto) and, inter-
estingly, detected the same type of additives (plasticizers, flame retardants)
in the dust as well as in the MNPs (PVC, PMMA, polyester) in the dust,
which implied that MNPs were the source for these additive compounds
in the urban atmosphere. Álvarez-Ruiz et al. (2021) evaluated the bioaccu-
mulation by mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, grown for 58 days with and
without PE MNPs of 20 chemical compounds, including pesticides,
perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), pharmaceuticals, and personal care
products (PPCPs). The PE MNPs acted as a potential vector for the PFASs
by inhibiting their elimination from the mussels' system, but they reduced
the accumulation of pesticides and PPCPs.
4.3. Environmental interactions and toxicity of the additives
It has often been shown that the additives can be more toxic to the fauna
than the MNPs themselves. For instance, Beiras et al. (2021) reported that
polyamide (PA), PE, and PVC MNPs were harmless to plankton systems,
but their interaction with their additives made them toxic to the aquatic
fauna. However, the same study also suggested that a biopolymer (polyhy-
droxy butyrate: PHB) could be equally toxic (embryotoxic or teratogenic)
when compared to the polymer-associated additives. E. fetida (red wriggler
earthworm), exposed to BPA (a known endocrine disruptor) for 28 days
showed modified endocrine pathways in the male organs along with al-
tered gene expression (Novo et al., 2018). PS MNP-associated phenolic

Table 4
Available literature on the species-specific (individual and combined) impacts that link different classes of additives with their source polymers.
Classes of additives Source Species Impacts observed References

Pigments or colorants
(fluorescent pigments)
Flame retardants (HBCD)
perfluoroalkyl substances
(PFASs)
Lixiviates
Plasticizers
(diisononylphthalate)
Plasticizers (BPA, PTA)
Plasticizers (phthalates: DBP,
DEHP)
Flame retardants and stabilizers
Plasticizers (phthalates: DEHP,
DnBP, DiBP)
Plasticizers (7 phthalates, 9
organophosphate esters)
Mainly plasticizers (mixture)
Plasticizers (DEHP)
Metals: Cadmium (adsorbed
from the environment)
UV stabilizers
(benzophenone-3)
Flame retardants (DBDPE)
PU MNPs Flora: Chlorella vulgaris, a crucial Reduced photosynthetic efficiency Luo et al. (2019)
food source for aquatic fauna
Expanded PS Mytilus galloprovincialis (marine Significant ingestion and bioaccumulation Jang et al. (2021)
(styrofoam) mussels) PS MNPs were a potential source of HBCD intake in the Jang et al. (2016)
mussels
PE MNPs M. galloprovincialis (marine MNPs inhibited the elimination of PFAS additives from Álvarez-Ruiz et al. (2021)
mussels) the mussels' system
PA, PE, PVC and PHB Planktons (Tisochrysis lutea), MNPs were harmless to the planktons, but chemical Beiras et al. (2021)
MNPs crustaceans (Acartia clausi), compounding with their additives (lixiviates) made
echinoderms (Paracentrotus lividus) them toxic (population growth, survival, reproduction).
PVC MNPs (flexible) D. magna (crustacean) No impacts (morphology and lifecycle changes) of PVC Schrank et al. (2019)
(rigid) in the absence of the additive.
19 different polymers Caretta caretta (Mediterranean Significant ingestion and accumulation in the Di Renzo et al. (2021)
loggerhead turtle) abdominal fat tissues.
Solitary ascidians (Herdmania Vered et al. (2019)
momus, Microcosmus exasperates)
PE MNPs Fish (Myoxocephalus brandti) and Potential tissue accumulation and inflammation. Hasegawa et al. (2021)
crustaceans (Neomycis spp.)
_ General (marine aquaculture Potential bioaccumulation risks in benthic fauna. Zhang et al. (2021c)
system)
MNPs (sampled, Zooplanktons (sampled from the Alarming risk of trophic transfer. Schmidt et al. (2021)
uncharacterized) sea using manta nets)
21 different polymers Copepod (Nitocra spinipes) Toxicity of the leachates increased with the source Bejgarn et al. (2015)
(mainly PVC) particle’s aging.
– Earthworm (E. fetida) Impaired total protein content, antioxidative capacity, Ma et al. (2017)
cell signal transduction
PET (fibers, granules) Danio rerio (zebrafish) Inhibition of embryonic development and hatching Cheng et al. (2021)
PE MNPs D. magna Oxidative stress, acute hepatotoxicity Na et al. (2021)
_ E. fetida Impaired soil microbial activity while significant Jiang et al. (2021a)
biotransformation by the earthworms.

9
S. Sridharan et al.
antioxidants, like butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), can exert a combined
(PS + BHA) toxicity on the metabolism and development in juveniles of
Danio rerio (zebra fish) (Zhao et al., 2020). Schrank et al. (2019) exposed
D. magna to flexible and rigid PVC MNPs containing diisononylphthalate
as the prominent additive. The Daphnia exposed to the flexible PVC with
the additive had a changed morphology and life-history parameters,
while the Daphnia exposed to the rigid PVC particles with additive showed
no significant impact. The difference in toxicity between these two (flexible
and rigid) PVC MNPs was attributed to the presence of diisononylphthalate,
which suggested that the cause for toxicity was not the MNP particles them-
selves but their additives. The adsorption capacity of the MNPs is also im-
pacted by weathering. For instance, Wu et al. (2020) observed in an
aquatic environment that aged PP MNP particles possessed greater adsorp-
tion capacity for triclosan (organic additive compound) than new, pristine
ones. A similar effect was observed by Luo et al. (2020a) on the adsorption
of lead chromate pigments by pristine and aged PE MNPs. However, some-
times hydrophobic organic chemicals that are already being accumulated
by fauna from the environmental media (reduced bioaccumulation with in-
creasing MNP ingestion) do not accumulate further through MNP ingestion
(a dilution effect) (Lee et al., 2019b).
PE plastic bag-derived fragments, when exposed to the gastric juice of
the Japanese Medaka fish, leach out their organic additives, thus inducing
sublethal endocrine disruption and acute reproductive problems (Chen
et al., 2021b). Mediterranean loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) can ingest
and accumulate around 19 different polymers of MNPs and additives
[mainly BPA and paraphthalic acid (PTA)] in their abdominal fat tissues
(Di Renzo et al., 2021). Two of the major filter-feeding, solitary ascidians
(Herdmania momus, Microcosmus exasperates) in the Red Sea and the eastern
Mediterranean region are highly susceptible to MNPs (50–540 μm) and ex-
posure to phthalate (Vered et al., 2019). Vered et al. (2019) found high con-
centrations of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) (6 mg/L) and bis (2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate (DEHP) (36 ppm) in the ascidians at almost all the sampled
sites, which suggested that ascidians could be used as a potential in-situ
model to monitor marine MNP pollution. A recent lab-scale study has pro-
vided direct evidence for the tissue accumulation of hazardous chemical ad-
ditives (brominated flame retardants and UV-stabilizers) in fish and
crustaceans when exposed to PE MNPs (Hasegawa et al., 2021).
Sucharitakul et al. (2021) showed that jellyfish (both ephyra, which is the
larval phase, and medusa, which is the sexual phase) can ingest PS MNPs
through trophic transfer, and the uptake increased upon light incubation,
which led to increased photodegradation and potential release of additives.
Zhang et al. (2021c) identified phthalate esters in a popular marine
aquaculture area of Xiangshan Bay, China, and the predominant ones
were DEHP, di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP).
The study threw light on the potential ecological risks to the predatory
(high trophic levels) benthic fauna via bioaccumulation. Zooplankton,
sand sediments, and surface water of the Northwest Mediterranean Sea
have been contaminated with organophosphate esters and phthalates
leached out from the plastic debris (Schmidt et al., 2021), which indicates
a large risk of trophic transfer. The available pieces of evidence are suffi-
cient to suggest that MNPs are bioaccumulated and biomagnified at every
trophic level of the aquatic and terrestrial food chain. But whether the
same processes apply to the MNP-associated chemicals in the ecosystem re-
main unclear (Miller et al., 2020).
Jang et al. (2017) detected HBCD, a brominated flame retardant associ-
ated with PS, in the marine debris across the coasts of South Korea (Asia-Pa-
cific). Interestingly, the authors found HBCD only in Styrofoam (PS)-
contaminated areas, which suggested that the polymeric particulates were
their major source. The study highlighted that the reported long-range
ocean transport of PS debris occurs, which can introduce hazardous addi-
tives like HBCD into marine waters and the food web. Moreover, expanded
PS MNPs (generated from Styrofoam) can bind highly toxic, dioxin-like
chemicals (DLCs), and then they are leached out to induce dioxin-like
impacts on the marine organisms (Chen et al., 2019). Being a lightweight in-
sulator thermoplastic, expanded PS (lightweight insulating thermoplastic)
can leach and bind more toxic chemicals than the extruded PS (conventional
10
Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
foam material) (Jang et al., 2017). Under simulated weathering and artificial
sunlight, Bejgarn et al. (2015) studied the leaching properties of twenty-one
plastic products containing different polymers. They then did a toxicity assess-
ment using a copepod (Nitocra spinipes) as the model. The authors observed
acute toxicity in the leachates produced by eight of the tested polymers
(38%). The leachate produced by PVC was a complex mixture of many chem-
ical compounds (mainly plasticizers). The study highlighted the potential in-
crease in toxicity through aging. DEHP can impact the total protein content,
antioxidative capacity, oxidative stress, and cell signal transduction of the
earthworm E. fetida (Ma et al., 2017).
PET granules and fibers entered the chorion membrane and inhibited
embryonic development and hatching of zebra fish (Danio rerio) (Cheng
et al., 2021). The PET granules and fibers also adsorbed cadmium (Cd)
from the media. In contrast to the granules (deposited in the chorion),
PET fibers were dispersed in the culture media, and, hence, upon adsorp-
tion, they decreased the Cd-toxicity inside the chorion. The study provided
important insight into the influence of different shapes and forms of MNPs on
faunal exposure and toxicity. Zhang et al. (2021a) indicated that an important
additive, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), impaired the motility, growth,
photosynthesis, and glycolysis of two microalgal species (Platymonas
subcordiformis, Dicrateria zhanjiangensis), which are the major food source
for various marine consumers. Capolupo et al. (2021) exposed edible Mediter-
ranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to leachates from different plastics
(PVC, PP, PS, PET) and synthetic car tire rubber (CTR) for a week. They ob-
served that different leachates (Capolupo et al., 2020) had different impacts
and levels of toxicity on the adult mussels. The leachates (organic, metallic)
from PVC were neurotoxic, while many others induced lipid peroxidation
and lysosomal dysfunction. The authors observed that the toxicity of the
leachates from PVC (phthalide, zinc), CTR (benzothiazole, cobalt, zinc), and
PP (acetophenone, lead) was greater than those from PS and PET (antimony,
cobalt). The above study reported lower stress responses by the leachates of
PS, the most studied type of MNPs in toxicity assessments, in comparison to
those from PVC, PP, and synthetic rubber.
4.4. Leachability and interactions of the plastic polymers with their additives
To understand the nature of the interactions between MNPs with their ad-
ditives and biota, there is a need to explore the interactions between MNPs
and their additives. For instance, Na et al. (2021) observed a prominent syn-
ergy in the ecological risk and toxicity (lethal and sub-lethal) of PE particles
and their additives (benzophenone-3) on the freshwater crustacean,
D. magna. The study also found a higher (80 times higher) acute toxicity and
oxidative stress caused by MNP fragments compared to beads due to the
high specific surface area and shape irregularity in the fragments. MNPs mod-
ified or inhibited neurotransmitters (with an impact on neurobehavior) of the
discus fish, Symphysodon aequifasciatus, which altered the serotonergic syn-
apse pathways of the brain and the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction
(Huang et al., 2022). The popular vermicompost earthworm E. fetida
biotransformed decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), a brominated flame re-
tardant, in a soil-earthworm-microbe system in China, where the authors also
observed slight impacts on the soil microbial activity by DBDPE (Jiang et al.,
2021a).
Even bio-based and biodegradable plastics carry toxic and leachable
additive compounds. For instance, Rodgers et al. (2021) created 4 bio-
based plastic polymers (PLA, polycaprolactone, polyvalerolactone,
polypentadecalactone) through ring-opening polymerization (ROP),
weathered them in marine water, and identified some toxic leachates, in-
cluding triphenylmethane (carcinogenic) and oxacyclohexadecan-2-one
(hepatotoxic), which were comparable to those from weathering of conven-
tional plastics. Zhang et al. (2018) identified PS and PP MNPs (flakes) on
the North Chinese beaches and found high concentrations of organophos-
phorus esters, like tris-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate (TCEP), tris (1-chloro-2-
propyl) phosphate (TCPP), and phthalates (DEHP), in the beached MNPs.
Huuskonen et al. (2020) exposed PS MNPs (90 μm spheres) along with zoo-
plankton to whitefish, Coregonus lavaretus, and reported a positive covari-
ance of the ingestion rate between zooplankton and MNPs, which showed
S. Sridharan et al.
the conflict between natural feeding and avoidance of MNPs. Seuront et al.
(2021) observed that constant exposure to MNP leachates (mixture) by 4 dif-
ferent species of edible, intertidal mussels (Mytilus edulis, M. galloprovinciallis,
Choromytilus meridionalis, Perna perna) reinforced one trait (byssal thread for-
mation) while others (like motility, aggregation) remained unaffected. The
study highlighted that various species might have different competitive
abilities to cope with exposure to MNPs and their leachates.
4.5. Characterization and analysis of MNP-associated additives
More studies need to focus on the instrumentation and analytical methods
for MNP-associated additives. Guedes-Alonso et al. (2021) proposed
ultrasonic-assisted extraction as a sustainable method to analyze (or even re-
move) endocrine-disrupting chemicals (organic additives) associated with
MNPs. Fikarová et al. (2019) developed a fully automated, on-line monitoring
method of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to mimic real-
time additive leaching (flow method) from plastic fragments under natural
marine or freshwater settings. As discussed, all the pieces of evidence suggest
that the additives associated with MNPs are often more toxic than the MNPs
themselves. Therefore, the leachability of the MNPs under environmental
conditions needs to be studied, because it is an important parameter for
ecotoxicity assessment. Understanding the chemical composition and real-
time behavior of various leachable additives from the associated MNPs is a
herculean challenge, but in great need. Particularly, unintentionally added
compounds (during the manufacturing process) associated with environmen-
tal MNPs are difficult to track or characterize and, hence, pose a serious,
concealed threat, not just to the biota but also to humans.
5. Impacts on humans
5.1. Exposure and health risks
A study in the USA reported that average American children and adults
consume around 74,000 to 113,000 MNPs every year (Cox et al., 2020). An
Fig. 4. Outline of the modes of exposure and potential implications of the MNPs to human health.
11
Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
average human being can ingest around 203 items/week of MNPs (predom-
inantly PS, PP, PE, PET) via synthetic, take-away containers alone (Du et al.,
2020). Humans are susceptible to MNP and additive exposure from various
sources including drinking from mineral-water bottles (Welle and Franz,
2018) and by breathing air (Abbasi and Turner, 2021; Deng et al.,
2021b). Upon ingestion, MNPs can induce cytotoxicity and oxidative stress,
and they get translocated to other tissues (Rahman et al., 2021). Barboza
et al. (2020) reported the livers and muscles of 3 major, edible commercial
fish species (Scomber colias, Dicentrarchus labrax, Trachurus trachurus) of the
Northeast Atlantic Ocean were contaminated with 7 different bisphenols
associated mainly with plastic debris, which indicates possible lifetime
human exposure and health risks. The study showed evidence of a much
higher hazard index (HI), estimated daily intake (EDI), and target hazard
quotient (THQ), particularly for bisphenol A, B, and E, than the norms es-
tablished by the European Food Safety Authority, which highlighted poten-
tial health risks for consumers. The possible routes of exposure and
implications of MNPs and additives on human health are shown in Fig. 4.
MNPs are commonly detected in drinking-water treatment plants, and
the predominant polymers are PE, PET, PVC, and PS (Chen et al., 2022).
Song et al. (2022) developed efficient degradation processes for plastic
packaging waste recycling, which decomposed packaging additives includ-
ing BPA and DEHP. However, the study mainly targeted a particular type of
polymer (PE), and their methods might not be efficient for other plastic
polymers. Mohsen et al. (2022) identified 10 different MNP polymers
from the edible organs of the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus (both
processed and live), which is a common seafood in Southeast and East Asia.
5.2. Available data on human toxicity
In an in-vitro study, Hwang et al. (2019) assessed the impacts of PP par-
ticles (20–200 μm) on human-derived cell lines (HMC-1, PBMCs, Raw
264.7 cells), and they observed increased local, immune-response cytokines
(IL-6, TNF alpha) and histamine. Virgin PS-MNPs reduced the cardiac fre-
quency of ventricular contraction in zebra fish (Danio rerio) (Dimitriadi
S. Sridharan et al.
et al., 2021). PS MNPs are known to be hepatotoxic, because they induce
liver-cell apoptosis due to Ca2+ overload in the hepatocytes (Li et al.,
2021d). Recently, using a model of a lipid bilayer, Fleury and Baulin
(2021) demonstrated the mechanism of mechanical stretching upon MNP
absorption. The experiment reported that membrane stretching was inde-
pendent of any biological, oxidative, or inflammatory reactions, even at
low MNP concentrations. The study threw light on the potential of MNPs
to enter the lipid membranes of a cell and impair the cell machinery. The
observed membrane relaxation time was much slower than the MNP ad-
sorption rate, which reduced the membrane area available for biomole-
cules, thus increasing membrane tension, which, in turn, led to a strong
reduction of membrane lifetime. However, the degree of such physical im-
pacts may differ more with the shapes and sizes of the polymers rather than
with the polymers of the MNPs. There is a need to examine whether the tox-
icity of a certain plastic can be correlated with the toxicity of their additive
compounds. As discussed, many plastic-associated additives are known to
be toxic to humans, but little is known about the impacts of realistic concen-
trations of MNPs associated with their leachable additives on human
health.
Modeling approaches can throw light on human exposure and associ-
ated toxicological impacts. Jeong and Choi (2020) developed deep-
learning models (artificial neural networks) based on the established global
molecular toxicity database, ToxCast™, to predict the possible mechanisms
of toxicity of around 50 commonly documented additives eluted from par-
ticulate plastics. The models traced 15 potential mechanisms (predicted
from the gene targets) including cancer, neurotoxicity, altered lipid metab-
olism, and inflammation. Similar approaches are needed in the future to de-
termine if the mechanisms of toxicity of any MNP-associated additive may
change with the size, shape, or age of the MNP particle.
5.3. Plastic waste management and human health
Deme et al. (2022) stated that, in Africa, the top-down implementation
of policy on banning of single-use plastics has failed to reduce MNP pollu-
tion or even manage the macroplastic waste. This is due to the extensive
lack of legislative acceptance and insufficient public-private partnerships.
Moreover, all of the global MP regulations only focus on the primary
MPs, and they neglect the management of secondary MPs and NPs (Jiang,
2018). Many countries across the world still use conventional approaches
to manage plastic waste, which involve open dumping and incineration.
However, the bottom ash of incineration plants (even advanced fluidized
bed incinerators) becomes a significant source of MNPs and produces
around 360–102,000 particles per metric ton of non-segregated waste
(Yang et al., 2021b). In fact, Hu et al. (2021) observed that burnt or incin-
erated (250 °C) PP particles, when exposed to environmental forces, pro-
duced a higher (over 105 particles/kg) abundance of MNPs than did
natural weathering. They observed significant changes in the relative stiff-
ness, surface characteristics and chemical composition of the plastic parti-
cles under artificial fire simulation (heat-treatment), and cited fire as a
potential source for MNP generation. Besides incineration, even bushfire
and forest fire are a potential source for airborne MNPs (Sridharan et al.,
2021b), which significantly enhance the generation of MNPs under exter-
nal forces. The research on MNPs is still being mainly done by only a few
countries, including China and some developed countries (USA, England,
Germany) (Qin et al., 2020a), national research on MNPs must increase in
developing countries to determine human exposure and health concerns.
6. Recent trends and prospects for future research
Pyrolysis has been suggested as a way to recycle plastic waste. Hetero-
geneous or unsegregated plastics (high molecular weight) can be used as
a fuel or chemical feedstock. The plastic waste then is converted into usable
hydrocarbon products (low molecular weight), thus leading to a carbon-
efficient circular economy (Li et al., 2021c). A circular economy has been
proposed to be a sustainable solution to manage the plastic waste problem
(Kumar et al., 2021; Sarkar et al., 2021). However, it is important to note
12
Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828
that processing of the recycled polymers requires more additives (plasti-
cizers: Table 2) than virgin ones. Recycling and reuse of plastic litter depend
on the type of polymers, the additives and pigments, and the environmental
exposure of the particles. For instance, PVC plastics can be recycled into an
efficient metal-ion adsorbent as sulfonated, hydrothermally treated
hydrochar (Xu et al., 2022). Xu et al. (2022) sulfonated waste PVC pipes
to generate hydrochar that efficiently removed Cu(II) and Cr(VI) ions. How-
ever, the authors failed to demonstrate if the proposed treatment processes
to generate PVC-hydrochar released PVC MNPs into the air. As MNPs can
contribute to the particulate-matter pollution in the air and lead to several
health concerns (Sridharan et al., 2021b), it is important to understand the
individual implications and interactions of different polymers (both biode-
gradable and conventional plastics) regarding human health. Rochman
et al. (2019) highlighted the need to consider MNPs as a separate class of
environmental contaminants (just like flame retardants or pesticides) due
to the diversity (from molecular structure to mechanical strength) of
these polymeric compounds.
Bioremediation is being proposed as a possible solution for plastic and
MNP waste (Zhou et al., 2022a). Microbes exposed to synthetic polymers
for a long period could develop mechanisms to utilize them as a carbon
source. A well-established Japanese bacterial strain of Idionella sakaiensis
has evolved to produce PETase enzyme to depolymerize PET (Fecker
et al., 2018). The gut microbiomes of Zophobas atratus (superworms) and
Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworms) have evolved to depolymerize and
biodegrade PP (Yang et al., 2021a). However, knowledge on the bioremedi-
ation of MNPs remains at a basic level and is limited to a handful of poly-
mers. Therefore, the feasibility on a large scale (for example, municipal
plastic waste treatment) of management of unsegregated polymeric waste
remains questionable and future research needs to address the problem.
Interdisciplinary and combined approaches are needed to find potential
solutions for the recycling and treatment of macroplastics and MNPs. For
instance, Zhang et al. (2021b) reported 54.70% removal of PET particles
from wastewater by coagulation through sweep flocculation and adsorp-
tion. But the study did not address what could be done to treat the retained
PET particles. For example, the retained particles can be treated with
PETase producing microbes. There are unanswered questions on what addi-
tional contaminants are present along with PET, and the degradation condi-
tions and cost efficiency, and all of these issues can be addressed by future
research. Recently, Wang et al. (2021b) have developed “cellulose
cinnamate,” which is a bio-based, hydroplastic polymer with a high tensile
strength (92.4 MPa) and polymer stability (16 months). Such sustainable
hydrosetting approaches are needed to minimize the further accumulation
of non-biodegradable plastics in the environment. Moreover, the applica-
tion of natural and biodegradable additives to plastics has been proposed
as a potential, sustainable solution to prevent the leaching of toxic
chemicals from plastic particles (Ong et al., 2021; Strasakova et al.,
2021). As many non-toxic plant-based extracts and phytochemicals natu-
rally possess UV-shielding, anti-corrosion, antifouling, antimicrobial and
other functional characteristics besides being absolutely biodegradable,
they pose a promising replacement for synthetic coatings on bioplastics
(Ong et al., 2021). However, more research is needed to enhance their effi-
ciency, feasibility and shelf-life so that these biodegradable additives may
become a part of sustainable solution to avert the conventional toxic
additives.
7. Recommendations
The review has explored the available literature on the faunal
ecotoxicity of MNPs and their additives, with a focus on what makes
them hazardous to the fauna. The functional additives play a key role in
MNPs toxicity to the biota. Environmental age of MNPs play a key role in
the leachability of these additives. The majority of the studies explore
only the physical aspects of MNPs in regard to ecotoxicity as they are per-
ceived to be chemically inert. However, the chemical characteristics of
MNPs can play an important role in their aging, leachability and the com-
bined ecotoxicity (MNPs + additives). The toxicity and leaching of MNPs
S. Sridharan et al.
vary, not just with the type of polymers (chemical structure), but also with
their physical properties (shape, color, size, tensile strength). The chemical
structure of the MNPs and their additives play a major role in species-
specific impacts. Hence, it is necessary to develop accurate analytical tech-
niques for MNP characterization. The authors recommend the following as
the future aspects for research:
• New characterization techniques must include “leachability” and “envi-
ronmental age” as parameters to understand the real-time environmental
ecotoxicity of MNP particulates.
• Impacts of physically and chemically distinct MNPs (along with leachabil-
ity) on human cells should be analyzed, not just in vitro, but also using
in vivo animal models (like rats).
• Research needs to explore the practical exposure of pollinators and
humans to MNPs through honey.
• Human exposure to PP-associated additives (like phthalates) through face
masks and the impending toxicological and environmental impacts need
to be studied.
• Modeling approaches must evolve to explore the environmentally realis-
tic ecotoxicity of MNPs and leachable additives on fauna and humans.
• Policy concerning the risk of MNPs needs to include the possible toxicity
of the associated leachates.
• The possible environmental weathering pathways for both synthetic and
bio-based polymers need to be studied.
• The possible impacts of the functional additives on the environmental
weathering of plastics need to be studied.
• Development of sustainable and high-performing hydroplastic alterna-
tives is needed to manage plastics.
• Research on the potential biodegradable additives and development of
cost-effective and feasible intrusion, molding and coating technologies
are needed.
• Plastic recycling and circular economy strategies must include the risk as-
sessment of the additives needed for reprocessing the plastic waste.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Srinidhi Sridharan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – origi-
nal draft. Manish Kumar: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.
Mahua Saha: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. M.B. Kirkham:
Writing – review & editing. Lal Singh: Supervision, Writing – review &
editing, Funding acquisition. Nanthi S. Bolan: Supervision, Writing – re-
view & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial inter-
ests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the
work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to CSIR-National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) for providing the necessary infrastructure
and facilities. This represents the CSIR-NIO contribution number 6884. Ms.
Srinidhi sincerely acknowledges the Academy of Scientific and Innovative
Research (AcSIR), CSIR-HRDG, and this work is a part of her Ph.D. thesis
under AcSIR.
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