Microbiology NoN pathoGeNs
 Study of microbes are said to
be ubiquitous (found
everywhere)
 The study of microscopic
organisms such as bacteria,
viruses, archaea, fungi, and
protozoa.
 Mikros (gk) = small
 Bios (gk) = life
 Logos (gk) = to study
Living microbes are known as cellular
(complete set) microbes or organisms;
(bacteria, archaea, some algae,
protozoa, and some fungi)
Non-living microbes are known as
acellular (absence) microbes or
infectious particles; (viroids prions,
and viruses
Germs
 Microbes that cause disease
 Scientific term for disease causing
microbes is pathogens
 Microbes that do not cause
disease
 Vast majority of microbes
 Bacteria are harmless
SIGNIFICANCE OF
MICROBIOLOGY
 Indigenous microflora Microbes
that live on and in our bodies
 Opportunistic pathogens
normally commensal in the body
but can cause disease when the
host’s resistance is altered.
 Microorganisms support life
 Saprophytes or decomposers
 Bioremediation
 Links to food chain
 Elemental cycle
 Biotechnology a tool in
industrial microbiology, which is
concerned with the uses of
microbes to produce or harvest
large quantities of substances
such as amino acids, beer, drugs,
enzymes, and vitamins
 Genetic engineering
 it involves techniques that alter
the genetic makeup of organisms
to produce hormones and
pharmaceuticals, create totally
new substances
 Cell model
 Microorganisms can cause pathoGeNs cause two
diseases cateGories of diseases:

 Infectious diseases
 Agricultural microbiology
 Microbial intoxications
concerned with the relationship
between microbes and crops, with
an emphasis on improving yields
and combating that plant diseases.

 Environmental microbiology
application of microbiology in
ecology

 Medical and clinical

microbiology aim to monitor
and control the spread of diseases
in communities

 Microbial physiology use of  Microorganisms play significant

microbial cell as cell models
 Paleomicrobiology involves the
study of ancient microbes through
molecular fossils
 Parasitology parasitic protozoa,
helminths, arthropods
 Sanitary microbiology includes
the processing and disposal of
garbage and sewage waste, as well
as the purification and processing
of water supplies to ensure that
no pathogen are carried to the
consumer by drinking water
roles in our lives; they are
essential for life on this planet
 Photosynthetic algae and bacteria
 Microorganisms are involved in
the decomposition of dead
organisms and waste products
 Saprophytes microorganisms that
live on dead or decaying organic
matter.
 Bioremediation The use of
microbes to clean up toxic wastes
and other industrial waste
products.

 Veterinary microbiology
CONTD.
 Many microbes play essential
roles in various elemental
cycles
 Food for tiny animals
 Aid in the digestion of food
and produce beneficial
substances
 For many years,
microorganisms have been
used as “cell models”; the
more that scientists learned
about microbial cells, the more
they learned about cells in
general.
CONTD.
● Microbes are used in many
industries
● In genetic engineering, a gene or
genes from one organism is/are
inserted into a bacterial or yeast cell;
the cell that receives the new gene(s)
is then capable of producing the gene
product(s) coded for by the new
gene(s)
● Biotechnology the use of living
organisms or their derivatives to
make or modify useful products or
processes.
First microorganisms on earth
● Fossils of primitive microorganisms
date back about 3.5 billion years ago
● Candidates for the first
microorganisms on Earth are archaea
and cyanobacteria.
● Infectious diseases of humans and
animals have existed for as long as
humans and animals have inhabited
the planet.
● Earliest known account of
pestilence occurred in Egypt in about
3180 BC.
 4.5 billion years ago, Earth was
formed
 3.7 to 4 billion years ago,
Molecular fossils
 3.5 billion years ago, Cellular
fossils
 900 to 600 million years ago,
Animals appeared
 100 thousand years ago, Humans
existed in 1676
PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF
MICROBIOLOGY
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
● “Father of Microbiology”
● Made many simple single-lens
microscopes
● Observed ”animalcules” (bacteria
and protozoa)
● Discovered protozoa in 1674 and
bacteria
Louis Pasteur (1822-1896)
 Investigated different
fermentation products
 Developed the pasteurization
process
 Discovered life forms that could
exist without oxygen (anaerobes)
 Developed several vaccines ○
including rabies and anthrax
vaccines
 Disproved spontaneous
generation
 Discovered forms of life that
could exist in absence of oxygen
 Discovered the infectious agents
that were causing the silkworm
disease
 Made contribution to the germ
theory of disease
 Championed changes in hospital
practices to minimize spread of
disease by pathogens
Robert Koch (1843-1910)
 Discovered that Bacillus
Anthracis produced spores,
capable of resisting adverse
conditions
 Developed methods of fixing,
staining and photographic
bacteria
 Developed methods to cultivate
bacteria
 Discovered Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and Vibrio cholera
 Developed the Koch’s postulate
which made a significant
contribution in the germ theory
of disease
 Provided the initial evidence that
 Tuberculin testing
Koch’s Postulates
 A particular microbe must be
found in all cases of the disease
and must not be present in
healthy animals or humans.
 The microbe must be isolated
from the diseased animal or
human and grown in pure
culture in the laboratory
 The same disease must be
produced when microbes from
the pure culture are inoculated
into healthy susceptible
laboratory animals
 The same microbe must be
recovered from the
experimentally infected animals
and grown again in pure culture.
LIMITATIONS OF THE KOCH’S
POSTULATES
 Obligate intracellular
pathogens or obligate
intracellular parasites
 Fastidious microorganisms
 Some microorganisms are
species-specific
 Ethical considerations
 Synergistic infections
 Pathogenicity of some
microorganisms is affected in
vitro
 Not all diseases are caused by
microorganisms
JOHN TYNDALL
some of the microbes in dust and
air have very high heat resistance
 CAREERS IN MICROBIOLOGY 8.Malaria

 Bacteriology - bacteria 9.Chickenpox

 Phycology - algae
10.Dengue fever
 Mycology- fungi
 Protozoology - protozoa mortalitY
 Virology - virus
 The state or condition of being
MEdICAL MICROBIOLOGY
subject to death
• Involves the study of pathogens,
top 10 leadiNG cause of
the disease they cause and the mortalitY

body’s defenses against disease 1.Diseases of the heart

• Concerned with epidemiology, 2.Diseases of the Vascular System

transmission of pathogens, 3.Malignant neoplasm

disease-prevention measures, 4.Pneumonia

aseptic techniques, treatment of 5.Accidents

infectious diseases, immunology, 6.Tuberculosis, all forms

and production of vaccines. 7.Chronic lower respiratory disease

morBiditY 8.Diabetes mellitus

 The condition of suffering from a 9.Certain condition originating in the

disease or medical condition. perinatal period

10.Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome and

top 10 leadiNG cause of
nephrosis
morBiditY

1.Acute lower RTI and Pneumonia

2.Bronchitis

3.Acute watery diarrhea

4.Influenza

5.Hypertension

6.Tb respiratory

7.Diseases of the heart

 MICROBIAL MORPHOLOGY AND
CLASSIFICTON
Historical Notes
Cell
Robert Hooke  Fundamental unit of any living
organism
Matthias Jacob Schleiden was a
German botanist who, with Theodor  Cytology the study of the
Schwann, cofounded the cell theory. structure and function of cells
In 1838 Schleiden defined the cell as  Basic membrane-bound unit that
the basic unit of plant structure, and contains the fundamental
a year later Schwann defined the cell molecules of life and of which all
as the basic unit of animal structure. living things are composed.
Rudolf Virchow introduces the
biogenesis comes from 'bio' meaning
'life', and 'genesis', meaning
'beginning'. Rudolf Virchow, in 1858,
had come up with the hypothesis of
Biogenesis, but could not
experimentally prove it. By 1861, he
succeeded in establishing biogenesis
as a solid theory rather than a
controversial hypothesis.

Abiogenesis, the idea that life arose

from nonlife more than 3.5 billion
years ago on Earth. Abiogenesis
proposes that the first life-forms
generated were very simple and
through a gradual process became
increasingly complex. Biogenesis, in
which life is derived from
the reproduction of other life, was
presumably preceded by abiogenesis,
which became impossible once
Earth’s atmosphere assumed its
present composition.Although many
equate Abiogenesis with
the archaic theory of spontaneous
generation.
 Cellular Structure of
Eukaryotic Cells
Cell membrane
(plasma membrane)
 Encloses and holds the cell intact
 Regulates the passage of
nutrients, wastes, products, and
secretions into and out the cell
 Selective permeability refers to
the one of the distinctive
characteristics of the plasma
membrane. The plasma
membrane is the membrane that
contains the cytoplasm. In the
animal cell, it is the outermost
covering. In a plant cell, the
plasma membrane is found
beneath the cell wall. The plasma
membrane is capable of being
selectively permeable because of
its structure. It is composed of
a bilayer of phospholipids
interspersed with proteins. The
phospholipid part of the plasma
membrane renders the latter
hydrophobic and therefore polar
molecules would not be able to
easily pass through this layer.
The proteins embedded on the
plasma membrane act as
transporters or channels for
certain molecules (e.g. ions). Thus,
the composition and structure of
the plasma membrane makes the
latter semipermeable, i.e.
selective to the entry of certain
molecules and substances. This
means that not all substance
would be able to gain entry or
exit through the cell. The
selective permeability of
the plasma membrane helps the
latter to carry out an important
function of controlling or
regulating the passing through of
substances between the external
environment and the cytoplasm.
The Intracellular fluid
(ICF) compartment is the system that
includes all fluid enclosed in cells by
their plasma
membranes. Extracellular fluid
(ECF) surrounds all cells in the body.
Extracellular fluid has two primary
constituents: the fluid component of
the blood (called plasma)
A single phospholipid has a
hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic
tail. A phospholipid bilayer contains
two connected layers of
phospholipids with the tails of each
layer meeting. The hydrophilic heads Nucleolus
attract water into the membrane and
are then propelled away by the
hydrophobic tails.

Nucleus

 Dark are in the nucleus where the

rRNA molecules are
manufactured.

Cytoplasm

 “True nucleus” - Nucleoplasm,

Chromosomes (human has 46

chomosomes or 23 pairs), Nuclear
membrane

 The command center of the cell

 A semi-fluid, gelatinous, nutrient
 Although most genes code for matrix
proteins, some code for 2 types
 Contains storage granules and a
of ribonucleic acid (RNA)
variety of organelles
 Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
 Where most metabolic reactions
 Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) occur (metabolic reactions and
processes which occur in the
 ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules mitochondria of cells,
form the core of a cell's transferring biochemical energy
ribosomes (the structures in from molecular substrates into
which protein synthesis takes the high energy bonds of ATP and
place); and transfer RNA (tRNA) some waste byproducts.)
molecules carry amino acids to
the ribosomes during protein
synthesis
Ribosomes (80s) Golgi Complex

 Consist of ribosomal RNA and  Golgi apparatus or Golgi body

protein
 Completes the transformation of
 Sites of protein synthesis newly synthesized proteins and
packages them for storage or
 Part of the protein-generating
export.
factory in the cell. The ribosome
itself is a two-sub unit structure
that binds to messenger RNA.
And this structure acts as a
docking station for the transfer
RNA that contains the amino acid
that will then become part of the
growing polypeptide chain, which
eventually becomes the protein.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Lysosomes and

(ER) Peroxisomes

 Smooth ER - without attached

ribosomes and plays a role in
 Lysosomes contain lysozyme and
lipid synthesis
other digestive enzymes
 Rough ER- with attached
 Peroxisomes membrane-bound
ribosomes. Protein synthesis
vesicles where H202 is generated
and broken down. This enzyme
is used to breakdown Hydrogen
Peroxide into water
 Macrophages work as innate
immune cells through
Phagocytosis (process by which
certain living cells called
phagocytes ingest or engulf other
cells or particles.) and sterilization
of foreign substances such as
bacteria, and play a central role in
defending the host from infection.
However, residual macrophages
in intestinal mucosa can
potentially reduce inflammation
to a greater extent than those in
other tissues.
Mitochondria
 Power plants, “powerhouse” or
“energy factories
 ATP molecules are produced
within mitochondria by cellular
respiration (set of metabolic
reactions and processes that take
place in the cells of organisms to
convert chemical energy from
oxygen molecules or nutrients
into adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
and then release waste products.)
Plastids
 Membrane-bound structures
containing photosynthetic
pigments
 They are sites of photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts are a type of plastid;
they contain chlorophyll (a green
pigment found in plants. Plants
use chlorophyll and light to make
food. People sometimes use
chlorophyll as medicine. Common
sources of chlorophyll used for
medicine include alfalfa, algae,
and silkworm droppings.)
 Photosynthesis converts carbon
dioxide and water into oxygen
and glucose. Glucose is used as
food by the plant and oxygen is a
by-product.
Cytoskeleton
 A system of fibers throughout the
cytoplasm.
 Important of cell division and
contraction
 Giving the shape of the cell
 Microtubules
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate filaments
Cell wall
 External structure that provides
rigidity, shape and protection
 Fungi possess cell walls made
of the N-acetylglucosamine
polymer chitin.
 Plant cell walls are primarily
made of cellulose, which is the
most abundant macromolecule on
Earth. Cellulose fibers are long,
linear polymers of hundreds of
glucose molecules. These fibers
aggregate into bundles of about
40, which are called microfibrils.
Flagella and Cilia
 Organelles of locomotion
(movement) which is eventually
necessary for survival
 Microvilli, found in the intestine.
Specialized hairlike structures
(microvilli) located at the surface
of taste buds in minute openings
called taste pores.
 Cilia short eyelashlike filament
that is numerous on tissue cells
of most animals and provides the
means for locomotion of
protozoans of the
phylum Ciliophora. Cilia may be
fused in short transverse rows to
form membranelles or in tufts to
form cirri.
 Cellular Structure of Cell membrane
Prokaryotic Cells
 Mesosomes - site for cellular
respiration in bacteria

Chromosome
 Single, long supercoiled DNA
molecules

 Like the eukaryotic chromosome,

the prokaryotic
Binary fission, asexual reproduction
chromosome helps to store and
by a separation of the body into two
transmit biological information to
new bodies. In the process of binary
another cell. It replicates,
fission, an organism duplicates its
transcribes and translates to form
genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic
DNA, RNA and protein,
acid (DNA), and then divides into two
respectively.
parts (cytokinesis), with each new
organism receiving one copy of DNA.

Generation time is the average time

between two consecutive generations
in the lineages of a population.
Nucleoid prokaryotic cells. This 70S
ribosome is then used to
translate mRNA into proteins.
 DNA-occupied space within a
bacterial cell
Cell wall
 Provides strong structural
support that prevents the cell
from bursting or collapsing

Cytoplasm
 Semiliquid containing a complex
mixture of all materials required
for metabolism

Peptidoglycan - is a giant molecule

that forms the cell wall that
Ribosomes (70s) surrounds bacterial cells. It is
composed of alternating N-
 Bacteria and archaebacteria have
acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-
smaller ribosomes, termed 70S
acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
ribosomes, which are composed
residues connected by β-(1,4)-
of a small 30S subunit and large
glycosidic bonds and cross-linked
50S subunit. The "S" stands for
with short polypeptide chains.
svedbergs, a unit used to
measure how fast molecules
move in a centrifuge.

 Small subunit is responsible for

the binding and the reading of
the mRNA during translation. The
small subunit, both the rRNA and
its proteins, complexes with the
large 50S subunit to form the 70S
prokaryotic ribosome in
Gram-positive bacterium

 Bacteria classified by the color

they turn in the staining method.
Hans Christian Gram developed
the staining method in 1884. The
staining method uses crystal
violet dye, which is retained by
the thick peptidoglycan cell wall
found in gram-positive organisms.

Gram-negative bacterium
 Classified by the color they turn
after a chemical process called
Gram staining is used on them.
Gram-negative bacteria stain red
when this process is used.
Glycocalyx
 A slimy, gelatinous material
produced by the cell membrane
and secreted outside the cell wall
 It protects the cell from
desiccation
 Highly charged layer of
membrane-bound biological
macromolecules attached to a cell
membrane. This layer functions
as a barrier between a cell and
its surrounding. ... Glycocalyx is
also involved in development and
progression of many diseases.

 Hook - is a flexible coupling
Slime layer - for movement
 Filament- is the rigid, helical
Capsule - for protection
Flagella
 Primary function: motility or self
propulsion and eventually
chemotaxis through runs and
tumbles
Components of Flagella
Parts
 Basal body - consists of a rod and
a series of rings that anchor the
flagellum to the cell wall and the
cytoplasmic membrane. Unlike
eukaryotic flagella, the bacterial
flagellum has no internal fibrils
and does not flex. Instead, the
basal body acts as a rotary
molecular motor, enabling the
flagellum to rotate and propel the
bacterium through the
surrounding fluid. In fact, the
flagellar motor rotates very
rapidly. (Some flagella can rotate
up to 300 revolutions per second!)
between the filament and the
basal body.
structure that extends from the
cell surface. It is composed of the
protein flagellin arranged in
helical chains so as to form a
hollow core. During synthesis of
the flagellar filament, flagellin
molecules coming off of the
ribosomes are transported
through the hollow core of the
filament where they attach to the
growing tip of the filament
causing it to lengthen. With the
exception of a few bacteria, such
as Bdellovibrio and Vibrio
cholerae, the flagellar filament is
not surrounded by a sheath
 Pili (fimbriae)
 Short hair like structures, most
often observed on Gram-negative
bacteria

 For bacteria conjugation, process

of reproduction. The process by
which one bacterium transfers
genetic material to another
through direct contact. Sex pili
(conjugated, for reproduction)

Testing for motility

 Stabbing a tiny mass of cells into
soft medium

 Proteus

Spores (Endospores)
 As a means of survival

 Sporulation - is the formation

 Microscopically through hanging
of nearly dormant forms of
drop technique
bacteria. Given that resuscitation
is possible, sporulation does not
result in a completely inert
structure. The interior of a spore
contains genetic material,
cytoplasm , and the necessary
enzymes and other materials to
sustain activity.
Microbial Growth
Nutritional Requirements

Nutrients

Refers to the various chemical

compounds that organisms utilize in
order to sustain life

Essential Nutrients

Materials that the organism is unable Atmospheric Requirements

to synthesize but are required for
Five classifications according to
sustaining life.
relationship to oxygen
Six major elements needed by
bacteria
- needs oxygen to survive
- carbon
- 20-21% O2 or room air
-hydrogen
- Mycobacterium spp.
-oxygen
Obligate anaerobic
-sulfur
- grows in absence of O2
-phosphorus
- clostridium spp.
Six major elements + Other and trace
elements + Vital macromolecules of Microaerophile
life
- requires O2 at 5%

- neisseria gonnorhea

- helicobacter pylori

- grow with or without O2

- 0-21% O2

- E. coli
Aerotolerant anaerobe

- can grow equally well in the absence

or presence of o2

- Lactobacilli

PSYCHODURIC ORGANISMS

- survive or endure very cold

temperature

THERMODURIC ORGANISMS

- survive boiling

Capnophiles
- grow better in the increased level of
CO2
Temperature Requirements
Three Cardinal Temperatures
Minimum growth requirement
- below which, growth ceases
Optimum growth requirement
TRIVIA
Over 100 years ago, doctors infected
syphilis victims with malaria
parasites to induce high fever.
Surprisingly, such treatment often
cured syphilis infection.
Moisture
- all living organisms require water to
carry out their normal metabolic
processes

- at which microorganisms grow best

Maximum growth requirement

- above which, destruction occurs

Components of microorganisms
affected by temperature:

Proteins

Lipids
Osmotic Pressure Barometric Pressure
- pressure that is exerted on a cell - normal atmospheric pressure
membrane by solutions both inside
and outside the cell. - 14.7 psi

OSMOSIS BAROPHILES

- movement of solvent from are of - thrive deep in the ocean

lower to higher concentration

Hypertonic Solution

- results in crenation or plasmolysis

Hypotonic Solution

- results in hemolysis or plasmoptysis

Isotonic Solution

- water leaves nor enters the cells

OBLIGATE HALOPHILES

- grow only in salty environment

HALODURIC MICROORGANISMS

- do not prefer but are capable of

living in salty environment