EEEN202 Measurement

Measurement and Transducers
(EEEN202)
Eng. I.A. Shehu

(Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K Zarewa)
Department of Electrical Engineering

Ahmadu Bello University,Zaria (A.B.U)
August 30, 2019

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
(EEEN202) Engineering August
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
2 / 50
Measurement and Instrument
Measurement
It is the act or result of quantitative comparison between a predefined
standard and an unknown quantity.
Measuring System
Exist to provide information about the physical value of some variables
being measured.
Types of Measurement
Direct Measurement
Indirect Measurement

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
3 / 50
Instrument
It is a device or mechanism used to determine the present value of a
quantity under observation.
Classification of Instrument
Absolute Indicating AC
Instrument. Instrument. Instrument.
Secondary Recording DC
Instrument Instrument Instrument
Integrating AC/DC
Instrument Instrument

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
4 / 50
Element of Measuring System
Sensor Conversion Element Signal Processing
Signal Transmission Signal Presentation
Instrument used in Practice
Table: Instrument and Their Usage
S/N Instrument Quantity Measured

1 Voltmeter AC or DC Voltage
2 Ammeter AC or DC Current
3 Wattmeter AC Power (Watt)
4 Energy Meter Energy (Watt hour)
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
5 / 50
Instrument Scaling
Scale
z }| {
Non Linear Scale Linear Scale
Linear Scale :- Is one in which the graduation are evenly spaced e.g f.s.d
Voltmeter
Figure: Example of Linear Scale

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
6 / 50
Instrument Scaling
Non Linear Scale : Is one in which the scale or graduation is cramped at
one end or uneven throughout the range.
Figure: Example of Non Linear Scale

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
7 / 50
Instrument Electrical Principle of Operation

All electrical measuring instrument are classified according to the following
effect utilize in their operation.
For Ammeters and Voltmeters Usually.
Magnetic Effect →
For Ammeters and Voltmeters Usually.
Electrodynamic Effect →
For Ammeters,Voltmeters watt me-
Electromagnetic Effect → ters,and watthour meters.
For Ammeters and Voltmeters.
Thermal Effect →
For d.c. ampere-hour meters.
Chemical Effect →
For Voltmeters only.
Electrostatic Effect →

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
8 / 50
Indicating Instrument Torques
Operation of Indicating Instrument
For satisfactory operation of any indicating instrument, following three
torques must act together appropriately:
Deflecting Torque
Controlling Torque
Damping Torque
Deflecting Torque
It causes the moving system of the instrument to move from its position of
rest. Deflecting torque is produced by using any one of the following effects
of Electric current.
1 Heating effect 3 Electrostatic effect

2 Magnetic effect 4 Electromagnetic induction effect
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,
Bello
2019
University,Zaria
9 / 50
Indicating Instrument Torques Cont.
Controlling Torque
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It also ensures that
magnitude of deflection is always the same for the given value of input
quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite direction to that of the deflecting
torque.
• At steady state,
Deflecting torque Td = Controlling torque Tc
• Controlling or restoring or balancing torque in indicating instrument is

produced by either of the following:
a. Spring Control
b. Gravity Control
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
(EEEN202) EngineeringAugust
Ahmadu30,Bello
2019 University,Zaria
10 / 50
Spring Control
Figure: Spring Control System

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
11 / 50
Spring Control Cont.

• Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 2).
• With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in opposite
direction.
• The twist produces restoring force which is directly proportional to the
angle of deflection of the moving system.
• The pointer comes to rest position when deflecting torque equals
restoring torque (controlling torque).
∴ Td ∝ θ (1)
and for spring control Tc ∝ θ (2)

As Tc = Td
∴θ∝I (3)
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
12 / 50

Since deflection θ is directly proportional to current I, The spring control
instrument has a uniform scaled (Linear scale)
Spring Control Material
For springs control, the spring are made of such material which:-
Are non Magnetic. Have low specific resistance.
Are not subject to have low temperature resistance
much fatigue coefficient The
exact expression for controlling torque is :
Tc = C θ (4)
Where C = spring constant its value is given by:

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
13 / 50
Ebt 3
C= (N − m/rad) (5)
L
Gravity Control
Gravity Control is obtained by attaching a small adjustable weight to some
part of the moving system such that the two exact two torques in opposite
directions.It can be clearly observed from fig.2 that the restoring torque is :
Tc ∝ sin θ (6)
and
Td ∝ I (7)
At rest position Td = Tc
∴ I ∝ sin θ (8)
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
14 / 50
Gravity Control Cont.

Hence gravity control instruments have scales which are not uniform but
cramped or crowded at one end.
Disadvantage of Gravity Control
As compared to spring control, gravity control has the following
disadvantage
It gives cramped scale.
The instrument has to be kept vertical
However it has the following advantage:

It is cheap.
it is unaffected by temperature.
It is not subject to fatigue or deterioration.
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
15 / 50
Quiz
1 The torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current through
it.If a current of 5A produces a deflection of 900 , what deflection will
occur for a current of 3A when the instrument is (i) Spring-Control (ii)
Gravity control [Ans:(i) 32.40 , (ii) 21.10 ]

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
16 / 50
Damping System
Damping Torque
• The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are
electro mechanical.
• Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it
final steady position before coming to rest.
• The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the
oscillations quickly, a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by
different systems as follows:
1 Air Friction damping
2 Fluid friction damping
3 Eddy current damping

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
17 / 50
Damping System Cont.
Air firction Damping
Figure: Air Friction Damping System
When the pointer oscillates in clockwise direction, the piston goes inside
and the cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the piston upwards and
the pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
18 / 50
Air Friction Cont.

• If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away
and the pressure of the air inside cylinder gets reduced.
• The external pressure is more than that of the internal pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in
clock wise direction.
Assignment 1
1 Explain the principle of fluid Friction
2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of air friction
3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of Fluid friction
4 Compare and contrast fluid and air friction system with respect to
measuring instrument

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
19 / 50
Eddy Current Damping System
Figure: Disc Type Eddy Damping System

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
20 / 50
Eddy Current Damping System
Figure: Rectangular Type Eddy Damping System

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
21 / 50
Eddy Damping System
An aluminum circular disc (or Rectangular) is fixed to the spindle
(Fig.). This disc is made to move in the magnetic field produced by a
permanent magnet.
When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by
damping magnet
An emf is induced in the circular disc by faradays law
Eddy currents are established in the disc since it has several closed
paths
By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in a direction
opposite to oscillating force.
The damping force can be varied by varying the projection of the
magnet over the circular disc.
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
22 / 50
Damping System
• Depending on the magnitude of torque, damping may be classified as
underdamped, Overdamped or Critically damped,.
• Effect of damping on the deflection of the instrument is shown in fig.(1).
Figure: Damping System

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
23 / 50
Damping System
If the instrument is underdamped , the pointer will come to rest after
some oscillations.
If the instrument is overdamped, pointer takes considerable time to
obtain its final deflected position.
If the damping is critical,without oscillation and in short time the
pointer reach its final steady position.

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
24 / 50
Instrument Connection
Ammeter and Voltmeter Connection Diagram
Figure: Ammeter
Figure: Voltmeter
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
25 / 50
Instrument Classification
Ammeters and Voltmeters

[1] Moving-Iron [2] Moving-Coil Type [3] Induction Type (A.C
Type Permanent Magnet Only)
Attraction Type (DC). Split-Phase Type.
Type. Dynamometer Type Shaded Pole Type
Repulsion (D.C/A.C)
Type
[4] Hot-wire Type [5] Electrostatic Type for Voltmeters
(Both for D.C/A.C) Only
(Both for D.C/A.C)

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
26 / 50
Instrument Classification Cont.
Wattmeter
[1] Dynamometer [2] Induction Type [3] Electrostatic Type
Type both for A.C for A.C Only D.C
and D.C
Energy Meter
[1] Motor Meters [2] Electrostatic Type D.C

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
27 / 50
Instrument Principle of Operation
Principle of Moving Iron Type

One of the most accurate instruments used for both AC and DC
measurement is moving iron instrument. There are two types of moving
iron instrument
Attraction Type M.I Instrument

Construction;
The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil
(Fig.).The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is
supported with jewelled bearing. Air friction damping system is used.

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
28 / 50
Instrument Principle of Operation Cont.
Figure: Attraction Type M.I

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
29 / 50
M.I Principal of Operation

The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current
is flow through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic
induction the moving iron gets magnetized. The north pole of moving coil
is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force is
produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with
the spindle, the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated
scale. But the force of attraction depends on the current flowing through
the coil
Torque Developed by M.I

Let "θ" = Deflection correspond to a current "i" (amp)
Let "di" = change in current correspond to deflection "θ + dθ"

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
30 / 50
Torque developed by M.I

Since the position of moving iron changes w.r.t the fixed
electromagnet,hence there exist change in inductance.
Let, L + dL = New Inductance

e (Volt) = E.M.F Induced in the coil
∴ The system energy are in two forms

1 Part of the energy is stored in the inductance
2 Remaining part is converted to mechanical energy which produces
deflection
d di dL
e = (Li) = L + i (9)
dt dt dt

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
31 / 50
Torque developed by M.I Cont.
Multiply (9) by idt
edt = Lidi + i 2 dL (10)
recall, change in energy stored = Final energy - initial energy stored
1 1
= (L + dL)(i + di)2 − Li 2
2 2
1
= {(L + dL)(i 2 + di 2 + 2idi) − Li 2 }
2
Note that i 2 + di 2 ≈= i 2
1
= {(L + dL)(i 2 + 2idi) − Li 2 }
2
1
= {2Lidi + i 2 dL}
2
The mechanical work require to move the pointer by dθ is defined as Td .dθ
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
32 / 50

By law of conservation, Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored
energy + Mechanical work
1
Lidi + i 2 dL = Lidi + i 2 dL + Td dθ
2
1 2
i dL = Td dθ
2
1 dL
∴ Td = i 2
2 dθ
At steady state conditionTd = Tc
1 dL
∴ Kθ = i2
2 dθ
1 2 dL
∴θ= i
2k dθ
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
33 / 50
Where k is the spring constant
Hence;
θ ∝ i2 (11)
And when the instrument measure A.C then;
2
θ ∝ irms (12)
∴ the scale of the instrument is non uniform

Advantages of M.I;
Can be used in AC and DC
It is cheap
Simple construction
Less friction error
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
34 / 50
Advantages of M.I;
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error.
Scale is not uniform
It consumed more power
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
Quiz
1 What will be the expression for (11) and Tc if gravity control is used?
2 What will be the scales mode ?

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
35 / 50
Repulsion Type M.I Instrument

Construction; The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron
attached to it (Fig. ). The moving iron is connected to the spindle.The
pointer is also attached to the spindle and supported with jeweled bearing
Principle of Operation
When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by it.
So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity,
since they are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and
moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is produced due to
magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle
will move.
Damping System; Air Friction Control; Spring Control system

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
36 / 50
Figure: Repulsion Type M.I

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
37 / 50
Moving coil Instrument
PPMC
Construction;
A permanent magnet is used in this type of instrument. Aluminium former
is provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet
(Fig.). Coils are wound on the aluminium former which is connected with
the spindle. This spindle is supported with jewelled bearing. Two springs
are attached on either end of the spindle. The terminals of the moving coils
are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through spring 1,
moving coil and spring 2.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used.
Control: Spring control is used.

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
38 / 50
Figure: PMMC Instrument

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
39 / 50
PMMC cont.
Operation;
When D.C. supply is applied to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through
it. When the current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it
experiences a force. This force produces a torque and the former rotates.
The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the
pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a
torque is produced in the opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does
not allow the deflection in the opposite direction. Therefore the polarity
should be maintained with PMMC instrument

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
40 / 50
PMMC cont.
Torque Developed by PPMC
Recall that the force produced in the coil is given by the expression
F = NBIL (13)
and Torque is define as Force x perpendicular distance
Td = NBIL × b = NBI (L × b) = NBIA N − m (14)
Where A is the area of the coil.

It can be clearly observed that if B is constant, then Td is proportional to
the current passing through the coil i.e
Td ∝ I , Td = Tc ∴ θ ∝ I (15)
Hence such instruments have Uniform Scale

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
41 / 50
PMMC Cont.
s/n Adavantage Disadavantage
1 Small power Consumption Use only for D.C
2 No hysteresis loss High Cost
3 Very efficient damping system Error due to ageing
4 Not much effected by stray can be affected by temperature
magnetic field and firction
5 Very high (torque/weight) ratio
6 Can be modified with the help
of Shunt and Multiplier

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
42 / 50
Dynamometer
Construction ;
It is modification of PMMC instrument.
Permanent magnet in PMMC is replaced by two fixed coils.
As shown in fig.(1), F1, F2 are two identical circular, air cored coils.
They are connected in series and these coils are placed in parallel to
each other.
They produced a uniform magnetic field. M is a light moving coils. It
lies in the magnetic field produced by F1, F2. moving coil is supported
by a spindle and jeweled bearing.
Two control springs wound in opposite directions are used as leads to
pass current in moving coil. These springs produce the controlling
torque. Damping torque is obtained using air-friction damping.
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
43 / 50
Figure: Dynamometer M.C

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
44 / 50
Principle of Operation
It works on the principle that whenever a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, force is exerted on the conductor.
In this case, fixed coils produced magnetic field. Moving coil carrying
the current to be measured is suspended in this magnetic field.
Hence it experiences a torque. The moving coil then rotates through
an angle proportional to the current flowing through the moving coil.
As the pointer is attached to the moving coil, we get the pointer
deflection proportional to the current to be measured.

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
45 / 50
Range Extension
M.I Instrument
Ammeters; when such instrument is used as ammeters the range can be
extended by connecting a suitable shunt resistor across its terminals to
divert some part of the current. The multiplying power of the shunt is
given by;
I R
Ma = = 1 + (16)
ia Rs
Where I = Line current ; ia = Ammeter full scale deflection (f.s.d) ;
R, Rs = are the resistance of the instrument and shunt

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
46 / 50
Range Extension
M.I Instrument
Voltmeters; The range can be extended when used as voltmeter by
connecting multiplier, a non- inductive resistance in series. Greater the
value of the multiplier, greater is the extension in the voltage range of the
instrument.
The voltage magnification of meter is define as;
V R
Mv = =1+ (17)
v r
Where r is the instrument resistance. For A.C work, the frequency error
introduced by the inductance of the instrument coil is compensated by
shunting "R" by a capacitor "C " given by the expression
L L
C= √ = 0.41 (18)
(1 + 2)R 2 R2
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
47 / 50
Range Extension
Figure: Shunt and Multiplier

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
48 / 50
Range Extension
Discuss rang extension method for MCI (moving

coil instrument)

Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
49 / 50
Range Extension
EX.1 ; A moving coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the current is 40 mA
and its resistance is 25 ohm . Calculate the value of the shunt to be
connected with the meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50 A.[20.02 mΩ]
EX.2 ; A moving coil instrument having a f.s.d when the current is 8 mA
and its resistance is 10 ohm . Calculate the value of the multiplier to be
connected with the meter to be used as voltmeter for measuring p.d.s to
100 V.[12.49 kΩ]
EX.3 ; A spring controlled M.I voltmeter reads on 250 V D.C. Calculate the
scale reading when 250 V A.C is applied at 50 Hz . The instrument coil has
a resistance of 500Ω and an inductance of 1 H and the series
(non-reactive) resistance is 2000 ohm [248 V]
EX.4 ; The change of inductance for a M.I .A is 2µH/degree. The control
spring constant is 5x10−7 N − m/degree. The maximum deflection of the
pointer is 100o , what is the current corresponding to maximum? [7.07 A]
Measurement
Zarewa) (Department
and Transducers
of Electrical
Ahmadu30,Bello
50 / 50

EEEN202 Measurement

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EEEN202 Measurement

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Measurement and Transducers

Eng. I.A. Shehu

Department of Electrical Engineering

August 30, 2019

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Sensor Conversion Element Signal Processing

Signal Transmission Signal Presentation

Instrument used in Practice

Table: Instrument and Their Usage

S/N Instrument Quantity Measured

Figure: Example of Linear Scale

Figure: Example of Non Linear Scale

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Instrument Electrical Principle of Operation

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

1 Heating effect 3 Electrostatic effect

Deflecting torque Td = Controlling torque Tc

• Controlling or restoring or balancing torque in indicating instrument is

Figure: Spring Control System

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Spring Control Cont.

and for spring control Tc ∝ θ (2)

Spring Control Cont.

Where C = spring constant its value is given by:

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Gravity Control Cont.

However it has the following advantage:

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Figure: Air Friction Damping System

Air Friction Cont.

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eddy Current Damping System

Figure: Disc Type Eddy Damping System

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eddy Current Damping System

Figure: Rectangular Type Eddy Damping System

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Figure: Damping System

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Ammeters and Voltmeters

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Principle of Moving Iron Type

Attraction Type M.I Instrument

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Figure: Attraction Type M.I

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

M.I Principal of Operation

Torque Developed by M.I

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Torque developed by M.I

Let, L + dL = New Inductance

∴ The system energy are in two forms

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Torque developed by M.I Cont.

∴ the scale of the instrument is non uniform

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K

Repulsion Type M.I Instrument

Eng. I.A. Shehu (Course Cordinator ; Dr.A.K