Biology Exam Guide

Characteristics
growth

living organisms increase in size and mass

respiration

energy is released to carry out all the life processes

irritability

when living organisms respond to changes to their internal and external environment

movement

plants show growth and animals move from place to place

nutrition

organisms using food as a source of energy. plants get food form photosynthesis while animals
get their food by eating plants and other animals

excretion

living organisms creating waste products that must be removed form the body

reproduction

the production of new organisms

Classifications
Binomial system
a system for naming species with a biological name is called the binomial system

Kingdoms
Prokaryotes

Biology Exam Guide 1

 These are commonly called bacteria. They occupy environments such as soil, dust, air, water, and
in or on animals and plants. Some Prokaryotes can be found in hot springs with temperatures
higher than 78 degrees, while some can be found in freezing ice and deep cracks in the ocean
floor. They are the most ancient group of organisms, they have the smallest cellular structure.
Many exist as single cells while others can be found in groups. Their cell structure is simpler
than that of the Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are decomposers therefore they cause decay to dead
plant and animal material and release the nutrients back into the environment being essential in
the nitrogen cycle. They are important to humans since they cause TB and cholera and are used
in insulin production.

Protoctists
They are unicellular. Algae and Protozoa are two kinds of Protoctists.
Algae live in the sea and freshwater some live on land where the surface is damp. They make
their own food by photosynthesis. Some live as single cells while others are found in colonies or
groups. They can form scum on the surface of rivers, lakes and ponds turning them green. An
example of Algae is seaweed
Protozoa are unicellular and feed on other animals or heterotrophically. They are found in all
environments, especially in the water. Protozoa causes diseases such as malaria and sleeping
sickness. Examples of Protozoa are Amoeba and Paramecium.

Fungi
They range in size and can be unicellular yeasts or large toadstools. They feed heterotrophically
and obtain their food from the environment. However, they do not take in large particles of food.
They digest their food outside the body using enzymes which make it soluble so that they can
absorb the food. They are usually living in or on their food which can be dead or living
organisms. Some are used by humans for medical and dietary purposes, some can cause spoilage
to food, moulds and rusts damage crops. Examples of fungi include mushrooms, yeasts, moulds
and toadstools

Plant
The plant kingdom includes mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants. Many
plants are a source of food for humans and other animals. Some provide a rich a diverse habitat,
some plants can be used as medicine.

Biology Exam Guide 2

 Flowering plants are also called angiosperms and are divided into two groups monocotyledons
which have one seed and parallel veins for example corn, cane, and grass, and dicotyledons
which have two seeds and have net-like or branching veins hibiscus, rose, sunflower, and
breadfruit. Angiosperms are the largest group of plants, they include most crop plants,
ornamental plants and plants used as herbs or medicinal plants.

Animals
They contain multicellular heterotrophic organisms and are grouped in phyla.
Cnidaria- jellyfish, sea anemones, coral

Platyhelminthes- flatworms eg. tapeworms

Annelida- roundworm, earthworm, leech

Nematoda- roundworms
Molluscs- conch, snails, slugs, cockles, mussels, octopus, oysters

They have a soft body that is often covered by a shell. Some are used as a source of food,
and farming of molluscs is also practiced.

Chordata- amphibians, mammals, birds, reptiles

They are vertebrates

Humans are in this category

Class

Birds
Have waterproof skin with feathers

Have a beak and no teeth

Forelimbs are modified to form wings

Lay eggs with a hard shell

Are homeothermic

Eg. sparrow, cattle egret, hawk

Biology Exam Guide 3

 Reptiles
Have dry waterproof skin with scales

Lay eggs with a rubbery shell on land

Eg. snake, lizard, iguana, turtle

Arthropods
Have waterproof exoskeleton made mainly of chitin

Have a segmented body

Have several pairs of joint legs

Crustaceans

Have two pairs of antennae

Usually have five or seven pairs of legs

Body is divided into head thorax and abdomen

They live in aquatic, damp places

Eg. lobster, shrimp, crab, crayfish, barnacles

Arachnids

Have no antennae

Have four pairs of legs

The body is divided into cephalothorax and abdomen

They are mainly terrestrial and carnivorous

Eg. spider, tick, scorpion, mites

Insects

Have one pair of antennae

Have three pairs of legs

The body is divided into had, thorax and abdomen

Biology Exam Guide 4

 Have a pair of compound eyes

Most have two pairs of wings

Eg. cockroach, moth, ant, beetles, locusts

Myriapods

Have one pair of antennae

Have many pairs of legs

The body is elongated and divided into many segments

Eg. Millipede Centipede

Characteristics of Classifying Organisms

There are two types of classification Artificial Classification and Natural Classification.
Artificial Classification is based on easily observed physical characteristics for example their
color, shape, number of legs etc. This is an easy way that is designed for a practical purpose.
Natural Classification uses the natural relationships between organisms by using external and
internal characteristics.

Ecological Study
Method to Collect Organisms
Tullgren Funnel

This method is used to extract organisms from the soil. The heat from the bulb dries and warms
the
sample, causing the animals to move downwards and fall through the sieve into the funnel,
which directs them into a collecting dish or tube below. The dish can contain water or alcohol to
prevent the animals from escaping.

Pitfall Trap

Biology Exam Guide 5

 This method is used for capturing organisms for example insects. This trap comprises an
appropriately baited vessel (e.g. a
with a bait that is buried so its mouth is at ground level. The mouth is covered by a roof, to
shelter the vessel from rain and prevent larger animals from entering, and raised sufficiently to
allow access for target species.

Pooter

This method is used to collect and transfer small animals. It consists of a jar, sealed by a cover
pierced by two
tubes pointing in opposite directions. The operator sucks on the end of one tube drawing the
organism up the other (open) tube and into the jar.

Plankton Net

This method is used to collect plankton it is generally dragged behind a boat for collection. The
mesh used in a plankton net has holes that are large enough to allow water to pass through but
small enough so that plankton cannot pass through.

Sampling Techniques
Observation

The area should be observed and the common species of plants and animals that are present
should be recorded. Any adaptations that enable the organism to survive should also be noted as
well as the interrelationship between the organisms.

Quadrat

A square frame that is used to study the distribution and abundance of plants and stationary or
slow-moving animals within an ecosystem

Line transects

A measuring tape or string that had marks at regular intervals that is placed in a straight line to
record the species of plants and stationary or slow-moving animals touching the line or touching
the line at each mark

Belt transects

a strip of fixed width made by placing two parallel line transects across an ecosystem and
recording the species found between the lines. Or place a quadrat alongside one of the line
transects and count the number of species found withing its boundaries.

Biology Exam Guide 6

 Cycling of Nutrients
Role of fungi and bacteria
Carbon Cycle

Feed on dead organic matter and the carbon would then be incorporated in their bodies

Nitrogen Cycle

Decompose the bodies of plants and animals when they die to make ammonium compounds in
the soil. They decompose the waste for example faeces and urine of the animal

Food Webs, Chains and Feeding Relationships

producers
Producers are autotrophs since they make or produce their own food. They make up the first
level of every food chain. Plants are examples of producers.

consumers
Organisms that consume plants or producers are called consumers.

Herbivores
These are organisms that only feed on plants for example grasshoppers, bees, cows, horses.

Carnivores
These are organisms that only feed on animals, they may hunt and feed animals for food. For
example snakes, lions, dolphins, hawks

Omnivores
They feed on both plants and animals for example pigs and humans

Food chains

Biology Exam Guide 7

 A food chain is a simple diagram that shows how the food or nutrients pass from one organism to
another.

The arrows show the movement of energy along the food chain. The leaf is a part of a green
plant that is a producer. The caterpillar eats the leaf to get energy and therefore they are the
consumer. The small bird and hawk are also consumers since they are getting their energy from
other organisms.

Herbivores feed on plants or producers and then the carnivores feed on the herbivores. An
omnivore may feed on the producer or herbivore and in some cases the carnivores.
The trophic level is defined as the position of an organism in the food chain. This can be
determined by the amount of organisms in the food chain.

Predators
These are carnivores that hunt, capture, kill and feed on other animals.

Prey
These are organisms that are hunted and eaten by other animals.

Food webs
A food web is the interlinking of multiple food chains

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 Decomposers and Detritivores
These two organisms obtain their food or energy by feeding on the remains of dead organisms.
They feed saprophytically. As the decomposers and detritivores feed on the remains of these
organisms it causes the organisms to decay or decompose. They secrete enzymes which break
down dead plants and animals into humus. This helps in the recycling of nutrients.

Special Relationships
Symbiosis
This describes any relationship that exists when different species of organisms live together.
There are three types of symbiosis:
Mutualism

This is any kind of association with two organisms of different species that live closely together
and both benefit.
Examples of mutualism

sea anemones and hermit crabs

the anemone attaches itself to the crab’s shell and obtains scraps of food as the crab feeds. The
crab gains protection from predators by the anemone’s stinging tentacles as well as
camouflaged.

leguminous plants and rhizobium

the rhizobium bacteria live inside the roots of leguminous plants for example peas and beans.
This bacteria will convert nitrogen gas into nitrates which is used directly by the plants for
growth. The rhizobium bacteria benefits since it has a place to live as well as an energy supply
which they get from the plant.

Biology Exam Guide 9

 egret and cow

the egret feeds on insects especially ticks which may cause harm to the cow. The egret benefits
by obtaining food and the cow benefits by having the blood-sucking insect removed from its
body.
Commensalism

This is a relationship between two organisms of different species in which one benefits and the
other neither harmed nor benefits.
examples of commensalism

some orchids or ferns on trees

the orchids or ferns are small plants that grow high on trees so that they are able to obtain
sunlight to be able to carry out photosynthesis. The tree in this case neither benefits nor is it
harmed.

shark and remora

the remora attaches itself to the shark and moves around with it and as the shark feeds the remora
will also feed on the scraps of food that are floating around. In this case the shark is neither
harmed nor does it benefit
Parasitism
a parasite is an organism that lives and feeds on or in another organism, which is called the host.
the parasite gains while the host is harmed.
parasites that live on the outer surface of their host is called ectoparasites. for example, ticks,
lice, fleas, and leeches feed on the blood of their hosts such as dogs, humans, cattle and fish.

parasites that live within a host is called endoparasites. an example of an endoparasite is

plasmodium which causes malaria.

Movement of energy through a food chain

In a food chain, there is less energy at each level for the animal in that level than in the level
below. Energy enters a food chain as light energy from the sun and lost from every trophic level
as heat energy to the environment.

Biology Exam Guide 10

 The plant gains energy from the sun therefore it would have the most energy. Some of this
energy is lost as heat due to respiration, some of it is stored, some of it is used to carry out life
processes and 10% of the energy is passed on to the primary consumer or herbivore. The
herbivore stores some of the energy in its tissues, some of it is lost as heat due to respiration,
some of it is also lost in urine faeces and then 10% is passed on to the secondary consumer or
carnivore. The same thing happens for the secondary consumer and 10% is passed on to the
tertiary consumer or carnivore.

the amount of organisms present as well as the energy in biomass available at each level also
helps to determine the length of a food chain and the amount of trophic levels.

pyramid of numbers
a pyramid of numbers is like a pyramid of energy but it shows the number of all the organisms at
each tropic level in a food chain at a given area

Definitions
habitat

the place where an organism lives

population

all the members of a particular species living together in a particular habitat

community

all the populations of different species living together in a particular habitat

biotic factors

Biology Exam Guide 11

 living components or factors that affect an ecosystem or the organisms living within the
ecosystem. for example preys, predators, decomposers, competitors etc

abiotic factors

non-living components or factors that affect an ecosystem or the organisms that live in an
ecosystem. for example edaphic, climatic and aquatic

edaphic factors

those which are connected to the soil. the soil is a habitat for many organisms and it provides the
organism that is living within it with water, oxygen, nitrogen, and mineral nutrients. other
edaphic factors would include the soil texture, pH, and humus. edaphic factors affect
subterrestrial organisms

climatic factors

these are factors that affect terrestrial organisms this includes:

light

light intensity and duration affects living organisms.

temperature

humidity

humidity can can affect transpiration rate in plants and evaporation rate in some animals

water availability

chemical reactions in cells and most life processes need water in order to take place. It is also
important in photosynthesis

wind

wind is essential for pollination and seed dispersal in many plants, it may also affect migration of
birds. it may affect the transpiration rate in plants and the evaporation rate in animals

atmospheric gases

oxygen is essential for aerobic respiration in almost all living things and carbon dioxide is
essential for photosynthesis. pollutant gases have a negative effect on living organisms.

aquatic factors

anything that affects organisms living in aquatic habitats.

Biology Exam Guide 12

 salinity

the concentration of salt in the water. most organisms are adapted to survive in a specific salinity

water movement and wave action

those living in rivers and streams are affected by the constant movement of water, those living
along ocean shorelines are affected by changing water levels as the tide rises and are exposed to
wave action, and those that live in oceans are affected by currents

dissolved oxygen

aquatic organisms use dissolved oxygen for respiration.

plant zonation

Resources
renewable and non-renewable resources
renewable resources

these are resources that can be reused or replaced quickly for example water and soil resources

non-renewable resources

these are resources that are in limited supply and once they are used up, they are gone forever.
for example fuel resources and mineral resources

3 r’s
reuse

waste that can be used again in the same way or in another way. for example tins and jars can be
reused as conatiners

reduce

buying and using only what is needed this will lessen discarded waste and pollution

recycle

Biology Exam Guide 13

 collecting materials that are already used and would be considered waste separating and making
them into new products

difficulties of recycling
it can be time-consuming to sort and separate the materials

people who are participating must be educated about how to separate and sort the materials
as well as why this is important

extremely large storage area is needed

expensive- buying containers/bins, transportation, and maintenance of the transportation

consequences of deforestation
soil erosion

increased flooding

destruction of natural resources

soil degradation

destruction of habitats which can result in species destruction

advantages and disadvantages of industrialization

advantage

it generates income for communities and countries

it provides jobs

disadvantages

it causes land, air and water pollution

it causes water shortages

it causes deforestation

Climate Change
effects of climate change

Biology Exam Guide 14

 increased drought

rising of ocean levels

more severe storms

hotter temperatures

Population
sigmoid growth curve
The sigmoid growth curve is a common growth curve that illustrates how an organism's
population density rises gradually at first, in a positive acceleration phase, then quickly,
approaching an exponential growth rate before falling in a negative acceleration phase until the
population stabilizes at zero growth rate.

4 phases of growth
phase 1- little growth
phase 2- rapid growth
phase 3- growth slows down

phase 4- no growth, population size is constant

causes of population increase and decrease

increase

few predators or able to avoid predators

good food supply

ability to resist diseases

good water supply

decrease

limited space

many predators present or unable to avoid predators

susceptible to diseases

Biology Exam Guide 15

 poor food supply

Biology Exam Guide 16