Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Topic
Main idea Notes
Cells range in diameter from 0.1 to 5 um
• prokaryotes as a cell Prokaryotes ave unicellular which do not have (micrometers)
membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any
membrane bound organelles. There are two types of
prokaryotes: archaea and bacteria

composed of:
- cell membrane -DNA floats in cytoplasm
-cell wall -flagella and pill to move
-cytoplasm
-ribosome Floats in cytoplasm

Due to the simple structure and lack of

' cells the membrane allows it to creat a

l
specific envrionment within the cytosol
that allows the biochemical to take
place allowing the organism to function Size comparison between

and live. prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Electron microscope image of E. Coil bacteria

Electron microscopy image of Halobacterium archaea

I
The structure of them both are
very simple and much smaller
than the eukaryotes

Summary
 Topic Prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Main idea Notes
Cell ranges in diameter from
Eukaryotes cell are both multi and unicellular organelles. 10-100 um (micrometers)
• Eukaryotes as a They are cells with a nuclear membrane and organelles
cell Animals, plants fungi are all eukaryotic

Composed of:
-Nucleus
-ribosomes
- Golgi apparatus
-Endoplasmic reticulum
-Plasma membrane
-Mitochondria
-cytoplasm
-lysosome

Internal structure of a cell is called organelles and they each have a special function
such as carrying out all biochemical reaction and processes in order for the cell to
live and function.

I
The eukaryotic cells have a much more
complex structure compared to what the
prokaryotes had

Summary Prokaryotes are the basis of life for unicellular organisms and eukaryotes are the basis of life for both multicellular and
unicellular. Prokaryotes are much smaller them eukaryotes as well as having a much more simple structure

Pt 2
 Topic Microscopes
Main idea Notes
Leeuwenhoek
• Different types of The early day microscope were very Focus knob microscope

-"
microscopes and usually composed of a lens, a flat metal

it's functions piece with a focal knob.

I
Each microscope were made specific for Sample
Different specimens with each specimens Lens translator
↓
• how to identity the fixed in place. The maximum magnification
Sample holder
different for these microscope were 270x

microscopes
Light
Just as the name suggest these microscope use light to observe
microscope
Ocular lens the specimens structure of cells. The specimen will be placed in a
Body tube E (eye piece)
• how to use the N slide then locked into the stage using the stage clips and with the

microscopes help of the diaphragm, objective lens you will be able to see the
cell through the ocular lens.
Nose piece Arms
I
These microscopes have a maximum magnification of 1,500x.
• function of Objective lens ->
However the one frequently used at school is a slight variation
microscopes
,

7
> E
- Stage called a compound light microscope which has a maximum
Stage Clips
magnification of 400x and a minimum of 40x.
i 2 Coarse adjustment
Diaphragm -

-
Some advantages of this microscope is you're able to view living
Light
E Fine adjustment

Base
and non-living specimens and you've able to view them in colour.
-

However a downside is it has a maximum magnification of

400x so once the cell gets too small you are unable to see
them.

Fluorescence microscopy Confocal microscopy

uses a colour staining technique in laser light passed through pin hole in
order to target and detect particular order to produce a high focused light
proteins and visualise structures inside onto only a tiny part so they can see
cells that are usually too small to see. optical sections with cutting the cells.
Can produce 3D views of living cells

Summary
 Topic Microscopes
Main idea Notes

• Different types of Transmission electron microscope (tem) uses an

microscopes and electron beam Instead of a light and can travel
it's functions through an ultra thin section (<100nm thick). This Transmission electron
microscope
allows the very fine details of the specimens
structure to be seen. They have a magnification
• how to identity the ranging all the way up to 500,000x or even the
different millions.
microscopes
Although it has many advantages such as being able
to see in greater detail, and able to gain more
• how to use the knowledge on their internal structure leading to a
microscopes greater understanding of their functions.
Image taken by
transmission
electron

It also has a few downsides which include having to

microscope

• function of place the specimen inside a vacuum as the air will

microscopes interfere with the beam of electrons. The specimens
would also not be allowed to be alive as they have to
be still and not moving. Due to all these requirements
setting up the specimen is a long and difficult process.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

Scanning electron
microscope Just like the TEM the SEM uses a beam of
electrons to get the image of the cell. (Has a max
magnification of 250,000x). The specimen is
first coated with a thin layer of gold. Then by
scanning the surface with a beam of electron it
produces an image. Due to the electron interacting
with the atoms within the sample it produces
Image taken by
Scanning electron microscope
various signals containing information about the
surface of the topography and composition of the
sample. Even though the images are 3D it cannot
show internal details.
Human eye

light microscope
electron microscope
-
I I I
dinm
I I
iddim
I 7
Imm i
1cm 10pm INM sonm Inm
0 . Inm
I Tissues organelles
↑
molecules
I cells bacterium
↑ ↑

cellsanim
R ↑
plant e
↑rism e
small
molecule
atom

Summary Microscopes have come a long way from having 270x all the way up to 1,000,000 x. Microscope helps us see the
structure of a cell that a naked human eye can't see as well as gain more knowledge about the functions of a cell. In
the modern days there are 3 main types of microscopes, light, TEM, SEM.
Pt 2
 Topic Cell membrane
Main idea Notes
Cell membrane helps with obtaining nutrients as well
-Function/purpose of
as expelling waste materials. Cell membrane
cell membrane
separates the internal environment with the
external. It helps with keeping unwanted bacteria's
-fluid mosaic model
out of the cell while obtaining nutrients and expel
waste.
- structure of cell
membrane/
The structure.
components
The cell membrane is composed of many different components some include the lipid component, protein
components, and carbohydrates components.

The lipid components

It is composed of two layers of the phospholipids
forming a phospholipid bilayer. The phospholipids is
made of two parts The phosphate group on the head,
and the fatty acid tail. The head area is attracted to
water (hydrophillic) where as the tail repels water
(hydrophobic). The heads are usually faced outwards
where as the tails will be faced inwards. Phospholipid
nature makes the cell membrane impermeable to water
soluble particles.

Protein components
the protein molecules are scattered through the lipid
bilayer . Some protein molecules are all the way
through the belayer forming channels that allows
some materials to cross the cell membrane. Where as
the others are partly embedded in the membrane,
fixed in place or travel about freely.
Carbohydrates components.
The third major components and is always found
on branched. exterior surface of cells and are
bound to either proteins (forming glycoproteins),
or to lipids (forming gycolipids). The carbohydrate
chains may consist of 2-60 monosaccharide
units and can be either straight or branched.
They function as adhesions and address loci for
cells.

Summary Cell membrane is a wall that contains all the cell within help with getting nutrient and takes Out waste it has three
main components. Lipid, protein, carbohydrates.
 Topic 6 kingdom classification system
Main idea Notes

I Organisms

Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
• Very tiny simple cells
• larger more complex cell
• no true nucleus
• have a nucleus
• no ogranelles
• have numerous organelles

Cell wall No cell wall

X
Autotrophs Heterotrophs W
1. Archaebacteria. • make their own • can't make their
2. Eubacteria. Unicellular Multicellular
food by own foods
photosynthesis • must eat other ↓
I
organisms
Protists Animals

↓
Bacteria Plants
fungi

Moss Yeast Amoeba Insects

ferns mould Algae Fish
mushroom

Summary
 Topic Transport
Main idea Notes

Diffusion and osmosis are both Processes that allows substances to cross the cell membrane. Some of the
• What is diffusion processes can be split into two different categories, active transport and passive transport.

Diffusion (simple)
• what is osmosis The movement of any molecule (except water) from a high concentration
region to a low concentration region. This happens until equilibrium is
reached and once it does there is no movement in either directions they
move equally in directions. This process does not require any energy
• different types of therefore a passive transport.
diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion
Diffusion of solutes through transport proteins (known as
channels or carriers). Substances such as polar and changed
molecules (carbohydrates, amino-acids, and ions). Cross the
plasma membrane this way. This is also a passive transport not
requiring any energy.

Osmosis
Process where solvent such as water flow into or out of the cell membrane depending on the concentration.
Osmosis happens spontaneously without any energy meaning it is a passive transport. Unlike the diffusion
osmosis goes from low to high solute concentration.

Summary
 Topic Transport
Main idea Notes

• What is diffusion Isotonic Solution

• solute concentration inside = solute concentration outside
• water molecule move in and out the cell freely while the cells

• what is osmosis • stay normal.

Hypotonic solution.
• solute concentration inside > solute concentration outside

• different types of • water molecules move into cell

diffusion. • cells swell.

Hypertonic solution
• solute concentration inside < solute concentration outside.
• water molecules move out the cell
• cells shrink

Active transport
Movement of molecules across a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration. Active transport uses proteins
(channels/carriers), but these pathways require cellular energy. The cellular
energy takes form of ATP (adensosin tripphosphate) which is a by product of
cellular respiration.

Conversion of energy (glucose -> ATP)

CoH1206 +602 <6202 + 6 H2O

Glucose + Oxygen >carbon dioxide +

Water

There are different ways molecules move through the membrane passive transport (osmosis, simple diffusion and
Summary facilitated diffusion) or active transport. If there is too much water inside the cell (hypotonic) it swells, if there is too little
(hypertonic) the cell shrinks and when there is just right isotonic the cell is normal
 Topic Endocytosis and exocytosis
Main idea Notes
What are endocytosis and exocytosis for?
- endocytosis They are processes for when the cells are too large for it to pass through the lipid belayer. Large molecules,
microorganisms and waste products are some examples. Endocytosis and Exocytosis are bulk transport
mechanisms and it is needed when engulfing bacterium or release a hormone. They are used in eukaryotes
-exocytosis and due to them needing energy they are active transport.

Endocytosis
A process where it engulfs the substances from outside of cell inside. it include things like nutrients or
pathogens. it occurs when a portion of the cell membrane folds in on itself, encircling extracellular fluid and
various molecules or micro organisms. This results in vesicle breaking off and being transported within the
cell. There are two types of endocytosis phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
The phagocytosis is also known as eating, It is how immune cells engulf and destroy dangerous
microorganisms or toxic compounds. Macrophages and neutrophils, types of White blood cells, are two
primary phagocytes,
The pinocytosis is also known as drinking common in animal and plant cells. Takes in substance from the
extracellular fluid that it needs to function such as water and nutrients.

Exocytosis
Process which it moves materials from Within the cell
into the extracellular fluid. This occurs when vesicles
fuses with plasma membrane allowing things to be
released outside the cell. Their purpose is to remove
waste or toxin products from within the cell, facilitating
cellular communication, and facilitating cellular
membrane growth, repair, signalling and migration.

exocytosis

The difference

Summary Endocytosis takes substance from outside of the cell inside where as exocytosis take substance from with the cell
outside. To remember ex for exit and the other one will be intake.
 Topic Surface area to volume ratio
Main idea Notes

54cm2 27cm 54 :
27 2 : 1

• Calculate 24 cm2 ⑧um 24 : 8 3 : I

surface area Gem2 Icm 6 : 1 6 : 1

& volume

• affect on rate
of diffusion

-824x180 .

2 Tcm3 13 . 824cm3
48 8%
=

8 2
744x100
-
.

⑧em 2 . 744cm3 ⑧

1 em 0 864.
- , 100

=
93 .
6%

1120cm2 512cm3 35 : 16

6402m2 512cm3 5 : 4

448cm2 512cm3 7 : 8

384cm2 512cm3 3 : 4

The larger the surface area to volume ratio, the quick the rate of diffusion.
Summary
vol
formula for diffusion into cell :

origion a w
n
x,00
 Topic Cell requirements
Main idea Notes

• autotrophs Plants are autotrophs they obtain nutrients by

performing photosynthesis within the chloroplast.
Animals are typically heterotrophs, they consume
other organisms to obtain nutrients. They then
• heterotrophs produce chemical energy ( ATP) through cellular
respiration which occurs within the mitochondria.

• inorganic Organic compounds are groups of carbon atoms

compound covalently bonded to hydrogen, usually oxygen and
other elements aswell. Some examples are
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, Nucleic acids, and
vitamins.
• organic
compound Inorganic compounds are compounds that don't contain
both carbon and hydrogen. But many contain hydrogen
atoms and only a handful contain carbon. Some
examples are water, hydrochloric acid, and carbon
dioxide is one of the few inorganic compound that
contain carbon.

Summary Autotrophs are known as producers due to them producing their own food. Where as the heterotrophs are consumers
due to them gaining their nutrients by consuming other organisms rather than making their own. Organic compound
contain carbon usually bonded with hydrogen whereas inorganic don't usually contain carbon.
 Topic Photosynthesis & Cellular respiration
Main idea Notes
Photosynthesis is a process by which
autotrophs (plants) absorb light energy and
• Photosynthesis convert into chemical energy. There is a light -Glucose stored

dependant stage as well as a light or used by plant

independent stage. This Happens within the -oxygen released

chloroplast of the plant.
-

-
Carbon dioxide

• cellular respiration
carbondioxide water Glucose age
e and water gained

Stage 1: Light dependant stage Stage 2: light independent stage

The chlorophyll captures the solar energy and uses
it to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Photolysis also occurs which is the process of
splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.
As the name suggest it does not require light.
Through the use of ATP produced in stage 1,
CO combines with H to produce glucose,
water and adenosine diphospate (ADP). This
process happens within the stroma.

Cellular respiration Glycolysis

Process which all organism break down glucose Glucose is split into two molecules,
to obtain energy which carries out cellular pyruvate.
activities. This process happens within the
mitochondria of plants and animals which occurs Respiration
in two main stages: glycolysis, and respiration. Two pyruvate molecules in the presences of oxygen

CoHiz0s +60 -> 6C02 +6H20 +ATP

are broken into carbon dioxide, water and energy
-

(ATP)
Glucose
Oygen->carewoun energy
+

Summary
 Topic Enzyme
Main idea Notes

• Function of What is enzyme

enzyme cells.
Enzymes are proteins that act as a
catalysts meaning biochemical reactions
• What is an happen fast thanks to the low activation
enzyme energy created by enzyme. Although it
takes part in the chemical reaction it is
neither a product or Reactant.

Different enzymes

They will only catalyse a certain type of reaction such as photosynthesis, decomposition etc. it binds to a
single specific substrate out of millions of different molecules that are floating in our bodies. it is usually
-

reflected in the name of enzyme.

subtrate :
e.g:
one or more
lipase breaks down lipids into smaller molecules
substance (reactant) protease breaks down proteins into smaller molecule
that binds to an

enzyme's active Composition of enzyme.

site and take part Globular proteins that contain long chains
in chemical reaction . of amino acids that have been folded into
specific shape. There are two different
theories about enzymes action lock and
key, induced fit. Lock and key
Substrate fits into the active site shape like a key
fitting into a lock hence where it gets the name.

Induced fit
The shape of enzymes active site as well as the
substrate aren't the same therefore as the substrate
enters the enzyme shape changes.

Summary
 Topic Enzyme
Main idea Notes

Enzyme is a catalyse that affect the rate of the chemical reaction however enzyme has three factors that
• Enzyme activity
affect the rate of enzymes activity.
factors

Ph level
Enzyme is most active when it is
between 6-8, meaning it is most
active when it neutral.

Temperature
It functions best at body temperature of the organism
which is usually 40°C. If the temperature is extreme heat
it will make the protein structure change the shape of the
site causing denature (change ïs irreversible). If the
temperature is too cold it will also change shape as well as
slowing it down (change is reversible).

Concentration
By increasing the concentration of the
enzyme the rate of reaction will increase.
This only applies when there is substrate
available to bind to, once all substrate is
bound and no additional enzyme to bind
to it will no longer speed up.

There are 3 factors that increases the rate of the reaction such as concentration, temperature and ph levels. Enzyme
Summary are catalyse a process that speeds up a chemical reaction. There are two types lock and key, induced fit.