Solution Manual for Child Development From Infancy

to Adolescence An Active Learning Approach, 2nd

Edition, Laura E. Levine, Joyce Munsch

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Solution Manual for Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence An Active Learning Approac

Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e

SAGE Publishing, 2020

Lecture Notes
Chapter 7: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and
Toddlerhood

Learning Objectives
7.1: What are emotion and temperament?
7.2: How do infants and toddlers develop a sense of self?
7.3: How does attachment develop?
7.4: What are the contexts that shape infants’ development?

Chapter Summary
The infant comes into this world equipped with a small, but effective, list of emotions to use
as a way of communicating with those around them. As they continue to grow, infants come
to recognize themselves as a person separate from other people, with unique thoughts,
feelings, and needs. They also learn to attach themselves to someone in a way that ensures
they can safely venture out into the world. How the infant’s caregivers respond to and
reinforce these progressions provide the groundwork for their social interactions for the rest
of their lives. In this chapter, we will take a look at those basic emotions and the typical
patterns of responses infants tend toward. We will also see how infants and toddlers develop
a sense of who they are as individuals, which will later give them the perspective they need
to socialize and communicate. We will also look at the history and modern understanding of
attachment in infants. Finally, we will explore some of the contexts in an infant and toddler’s
growth, and how they direct development.

Chapter Outline
I. Emotions and Temperament: Universality and Differences
A. What is Emotion?
1.The physiological reaction, your interpretation of the situation,
communication with another person, and your own actions
2.Basic emotions
a. Automatic and unlearned--all infants demonstrate these and
there are particular neural systems that are partially dedicated
to the expression of each of these
i. Happy
ii. Sad

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 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
iii. Fear
iv. Anger
v. Interest
vi. Disgust
b. How we choose to express those emotions is mediated by
culture, gender, personal temperament, and personality (e.g.,
the “boys don’t cry” stereotype might push a young boy to turn
sadness into anger, which is considered more appropriate for
males)
c. Emotion schemas--ways of thinking about emotions that affect
the way we experience and show emotions
3.Social referencing
a. Looking at how others are reacting
b. Develops between 9 and 12 months
i. Babies and young children will start laughing when
other people are laughing
4.Empathy
a. Experiencing the feelings of others
i. Babies will start crying if they hear another baby crying
b. Also requires the awareness that the emotions belong to the
other person, and not to oneself
i. By 8 months infants will respond to another distressed
baby by looking at the other baby and directing social
actions, but will not become distressed themselves
5.Temperament
a. The general way we respond to experiences in the world--a
general emotional style that guides our tendency to respond in
certain ways
b. Often reported as being present at birth--may be little
environmental control over this
c. Chess and Thomas’s three temperaments
i. Easy (40% of infants)
ii. Slow-to-warm (15% of infants)
a) Goodness of fit refers to not pressuring
the child to do things they don’t want to. By not
pressuring them and giving them chances to be
exposed to new experiences, they will come
around.
iii. Difficult (10% of infants)
iv. Remaining 35% could not be classified.
d. Mary Rothbart
i. Placed a greater emphasis on the neurobiological basis
of temperament
 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
6.Emotional self-regulation in infants and toddlers
a. Infants and toddlers have not yet learned how to control their
emotions--this is seen in the temper tantrum, a method of self-
soothing in times of distress or rage
b. Other forms of self-soothing include thumb-sucking,
attachment items like a favorite blanket, or looking away from
fear-inducing things
c. It’s important to respond to an infants’ cues--yawning, turning
away--to show they don’t need to use more drastic emotional
responses to get what they need
d. Parents can help children learn to deal with their emotions
i. Emotion coaching--parents help their children explore
and understand their feelings
ii. Emotion dismissing--parents see emotions as toxic and
minimize the importance of emotions
II. The Self in Infants and Toddlers
A. The child begins to be able to think about themselves, seeing themselves as
agents of change--making things happen in the environment around
themselves
B. The child is also aware of their own thoughts
C. Mirror Self-Recognition
1.Child can recognize themselves in the mirror, rather than as a separate
child
2.The rouge test--most 18- to 24-month-olds will pass this test
D. Use of Pronouns
1.Can use pronouns, saying “pick me up” instead of “pick up”
2.Typically develops around 24–30 months
E. Visual Perspective-Taking
1.Toddlers may start to develop an understanding that you can’t see
everything they see (e.g., a child holds up a picture they drew, but
holds it facing themselves)
2.Typically develops between 18 and 24 months
F. Possessiveness
1.Possessiveness may seem greedy, but it shows the child has a sense of
self and autonomy
2.Linked to Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt
a. Child understands they are independent and have some control
over what happens to them
III. Attachment
A. The emotional bond a child develops with caregivers
1.Attachment in infancy helps form the protocol for how we deal with
distressing situations and form relationships later in life
B. The Development of Attachment: Bowlby’s Stages
 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
1.Bowlby based his theory on ethology--the idea that we naturally tend
toward adaptive behaviors that help us survive
2.Behaviors like crying, smiling, sucking, clinging, and following help
the child survive
3.Stages
a. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks)
i. Parents are very responsive to the simple cries of an
infant
ii. Senses predispose infant toward social interaction, that
is, face as an area of contrast
b. Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6–8 months)
i. Social smiling begins around 2 months, facilitating
more interaction from others
ii. Stranger anxiety is adaptive to protect infant from
harmful strangers
c. Clear-cut attachment (6–8 months to 18–24 months)
i. Separation anxiety in the absence of caregivers
ii. Baby can move away from parents now, so the parent
becomes a secure base of exploration
d. Goal-corrected partnership (18 months and beyond)
i. Becomes aware of the goals and motives of others
ii. Internal working model is like a schema for attachment
a) A child with loving parents learns to
trust in others and engage them warmly
b) A child with abusive parents learns to
expect hostility from others
C. Security of Attachment
1.Ainsworth looked at individual differences in types of attachment
based on the degree of security infants felt in the relationship
2.The Strange Situation places an infant and mother in a series of
situations that become increasingly more stressful for the infant (e.g.,
new room, stranger enters, mother leaves, baby is alone)
a. Based on their reactions, infants were categorized into four
types of attachment
i. Secure--infants have learned to rely on parent to
respond to their needs and use parent as a secure base to
explore
ii. Anxious avoidant--infants have learned parent is not
available to them, mother has been unresponsive to
their needs
iii. Anxious ambivalent/resistant--mother interacts
positively with infant, but does not respond to the
infant’s cues
 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
iv. Disorganized/disoriented--infant doesn’t know what to
do or where to turn, likely caused by abuse or neglect
D. Attachment as a Relationship
1.The role of the mother
a. A mother’s sensitivity and responsiveness to her infant’s needs
are essential for development of secure attachment
b. Factors associated with sensitivity and responsiveness:
i. Good social support
ii. Positive relationship with partner
iii. Adequate economic resources
iv. Good psychological health
v. A history of good care in their own childhood
2.The role of the father
a. The unique relationship infants form with fathers plays an
important role
b. Father’s encouragement of exploration is a better measure of
attachment than the measures of caregiver sensitivity used with
mothers
3.The role of the infant
a. The infant’s temperament affects the way parents respond to
the child
i. Infants with higher levels of positive affect and self-
regulation were more likely to be securely attached later
ii. Infants negative emotions are only weekly related to the
security of attachment
iii. It may be easier to form a secure attachment with an
easy baby, but parents can adapt to babies who are
more difficult
E. The Biology of Attachment
1.Neurochemical explanations for adaptive and maladaptive behaviors
a. Oxytocin--increases when infants interact with their parents,
but not for previously neglected children with their adoptive
parents
b. Vasopressin--a neurochemical linked with the ability to
recognize individuals as familiar, is also reduce in previously
neglected children
2.Insecurely attached infants also show higher levels of cortisol (an
effect of being hypervigilant) and higher levels of systemic
inflammation, which may impact long-term health
F. Attachment and Culture
1.The proportion of secure and insecure attachments appears consistent
across cultures
a. Secure = about two thirds
 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
b. Insecure = about one third
i. Type of insecure attachment seems to vary cross
culturally
ii. American and Northern European cultures, the most
common category in avoidant attachment
iii. In Israel, Korea, and Japan, the most common category
is anxious/ambivalent attachment
G. Continuity and Discontinuity in Attachment
1.The long-term effects of attachment in infancy
a. Securely attached = more internal resource to cope with
difficult events
b. Insecurely attached = more externalizing behavior problems
(e.g., aggression and oppositional behavior) and internalizing
problems (e.g., anxiety and depression)
2.New life circumstances can change an attachment style
H. Attachment Disorders
1.Reactive attachment disorder (RAD)
a. The child is unable to form any attachment
b. Child is withdrawn and shows disturbances in social and
emotional functioning
2.Disinhibited social engagement disorder
a. No special relationship with caregiver
b. Adaptive behavior for children who have been abandoned or
mistreated
IV. Context of Development
A. Family Relationships
1.Nuclear family--Traditionally = husband and wife living with their
biological children
a. More variants today (e.g., single-parent home, same-sex
partners, adoption)
2.Extended family--nuclear family plus other relatives (e.g.,
grandparents)
3.Divorce
a. Although infants are unable to understand what’s happening,
they do pickup on parents’ distressed feelings and disruptions
to their normal routine
i. May lead to behavioral problems (e.g., irritability,
separation anxiety, loss of recent developmental
achievements)
b. As attachments are still forming during this time, divorce can
impact the development of a secure attachment with one or
both caregivers
 Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e
SAGE Publishing, 2020
i. The role of joint custody and time spent away from
their primary caregivers
ii. For an infant, frequent overnight visits (at least one
night a week) with nonresident parents may be
associated with a higher percentage of infants showing
attachment insecurity
c. Stepfamilies are common
i. Parents must remember consistency and stability are
important
ii. The addition of a new attachment does not necessarily
harm the quality of existing attachments
4.Grandparents raising children
a. Almost 7.8 million children under the age of 18 lie with their
grandparents or other relatives
b. Grandparents may help support parents by taking care of the
children when the parents are at work, but they may also have
full custody if parents are incarcerated or the children have
been taken away from the parents by the state (e.g., drug abuse)
i. Grandparents may have mixed emotions--resentment
for having to care for children at this time in their life
ii. Grandparents may feel isolated from others their age,
but also isolated from younger parents
iii. Grandchildren may have a number of problems
(behavioral or physical) from their life circumstances
5.Adoptive families
a. Infants under 2 account for only 6% of adoptions and toddlers
and preschoolers account for 9%
b. Most adoptions today are open adoptions--the child and birth
and adoptive families have access to each other
6.Foster care
a. If children must be removed from the home for their safety or
well-being, they may be place in a temporary residence
b. The temporary nature of foster care can be difficult for infants
and toddlers who need consistent care (e.g., self-control and
inhibition)
B. Beyond the Family
1. As more women are returning to work after giving birth (for a variety
of reasons), there is a need for childcare
a. Children may be cared for by another member of the family or
in a childcare center
i. Father (or other parent) = 24%
ii. Relative = 27%
iii. Center-based childcare program = 26%
Solution Manual for Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence An Active Learning Approac

Levine, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, 2e

SAGE Publishing, 2020
iv. Nanny or babysitter = 14%
b. Childcare can be very expensive
i. Families with an income of $4,500 or more spend about
7% of their income on childcare
ii. Families with an income below $1,500 may spend as
much as 40% of their income on childcare
iii. Only 11% of workers receive assistance from their
employer to cover the costs of childcare
c. Nonparental childcare has not been associated with insecure
attachments to mothers
i. Infants can develop multiple attachments, which will
not impact the quality of the original parental
attachment
d. Quality of the childcare setting does matter
2.Development of peer relationships
a. Infants start their social interaction by simply preferring the
presence of other children, even if they aren’t directly engaged
with them
i. Imitation is an early form of social interaction
b. Toddlers show possessiveness over toys in social interactions,
which shows a social awareness
i. Still since this can lead to conflicts, toddlers should be
taught appropriate sharing behaviors
c. Toddlers and preschoolers with secure parental attachments are
more well-received by their peers

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