05 Fiber - Reinforced Polymers Processes and Applications

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POLYMER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMERS
PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS
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PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS
CATALIN IULIAN PRUNCU

SELIM GÜRGEN
AND
MD ENAMUL HOQUE
EDITORS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Pruncu, Catalin Iulian, 1984- editor. | Gürgen, Selim, editor. |
Hoque, Md. Enamul, editor.
Title: Fiber-reinforced polymers : processes and applications / Catalin
Iulian Pruncu (editor) honorary research fellow, School of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK, member of the European
Mechanics Society Charter and member of the Institute of Mechanical
Engineers (UK) and member of the Institute of Physics (UK), Selim
Gürgen (editor), Md Enamul Hoque (editor)
Other titles: Fiber-reinforced polymers (Nova Science Publishers)
Description: New York : Nova Science Publishers, [2021] | Series: Polymer
science and technology | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021000842 (print) | LCCN 2021000843 (ebook) | ISBN
9781536190496 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781536191219 (adobe pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Fiber-reinforced plastics. | Polymers--Mechanical
properties.
Classification: LCC TA455.P55 F468 2021 (print) | LCC TA455.P55 (ebook) |
DDC 620.1/92--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000842
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000843
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS
Preface ix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 1
Asrafuzzaman, Kazi Faiza Amin
and Md Enamul Hoque
Chapter 2 Natural and Synthetic Fibers
in Polymer-Based Composites 45
Carlo Santulli
Chapter 3 Nano-Engineered Fibers in Polymer Matrices 73
Jitha Santhakumari Jayan, Gopika Venu,
Sethulekshmi Anandhavalli Sabarisadanam,
Appukuttan Saritha, Kuruvilla Joseph
and Gejo George
Chapter 4 Recent Developments of Fiber – Reinforced
Polymer Composites in Automotive 131
Sonia Sathyaraj, John Edwin Raja Dhas
and Harish Kumar Balakrishnan
Chapter 5 Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Aviation 177
Mostakima Mafruha Lubna,
Zaheeruddin Mohammed,
Manik Chandra Biswas and Md Enamul Hoque

vi Contents
Chapter 6 Fibre Selections in Polymer Matrices

for Protective Structures 211
M. Ramesh, C. Ramkumar
and Arivumani Ravanan
Chapter 7 Manufacturing Methods of Fiber-Reinforced
Polymers 237
Syed Waheedullah Ghori and Vineet Tirth
Chapter 8 Machinability of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 257
H. Mohit, G. Hemath Kumar, M. R. Sanjay,
Arul Mozhi Selvan, Suchart Siengchin
and R. Ruban
Chapter 9 Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced
Polymers 291
R. Kumar, R. Manju, S. Vijay Ananth,
Md Enamul Hoque, Sharath Krishnan C. K.,
A. P. Balamurugan, Sreejith S.
and Frezgi Tesfom
Chapter 10 Aging Effect on Fibre-Reinforced Polymers 311
Krishnasamy Senthilkumar,
Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil,
M. Chandrasekar, Sabarish Radoor,
T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, N. Rajini,
Suchart Siengchin
and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai
Chapter 11 Fiber Reinforced Nano Composites:
Mechanical and Biological Aspects
for Biomedical Applications 343
Vivek Singh Yadav, Varun Saxena
and Lalit M. Pandey

Contents vii
Chapter 12 Mechanical Behaviour of Fiber Reinforced

Polymeric Composites at Different Loading
and Environmental Conditions 379
Kishore Kumar Mahato
and Bankim Chandra Ray
Chapter 13 Future Trends of Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer Composites 399
Manik Chandra Biswas,
Mostakima Mafruha Lubna,
Md Hasan Ul Iqbal,
Zaheeruddin Mohammed
and Md Enamul Hoque
About the Editors 445
Index 449

PREFACE
Nowadays, the composite materials play a crucial role for the

development of lightweight structures used in many applications (i.e.,
automotive, aviation and biomedical engineering). To further improve the
state of art this book provides a comprehensive survey with latest
development on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer: Processes and Applications.
The Editor of this manuscript consider this work very appropriate for
junior/senior students, researchers/ engineers and automotive/aerospace/
biomedical industry, respectively.
This book is compiled into thirteen chapters and provide an introduction
of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP) along with some classification of this
type of composite. Each of the chapters provides enough detail for
students/researchers to accommodate and understand the importance of
composite materials. Chapters 1 compiles the introductory classification of
reinforcing fibers and common polymer matrices along with the recent
developments in the FRP field. In chapter 2 were discussed the differences
offered in using natural and synthetic fibers, as regards especially the need
to obtain an effective fiber-matrix adhesion, and the possible selection of
fibers, as well as the possibilities offered by hybridization and the challenges
to improve the sustainability and the recyclability of the composites. Chapter
3 bring into light the different types of nano engineered fibers, their
fabrication methods and give details of various applications of the polymer

x Catalin Iulian Pruncu, Selim Gürgen and Md Enamul Hoque
composites fabricated from them. Chapter 4 provide a comprehensive

review of Natural fiber composites, car manufacturers, auto manufacturers
who uses composite as main material. Chapter 5 gives a brief overview of
the history, types of FRP composites used for aviation application, their
general production methods, and recent development in materials and
manufacturing technologies. A summary of the major market scenario in the
field of civil, military, and recreational aviation is discussed, along with the
current and future trends for developing FRP composites. Chapter 6
summarizes about significance of fibres reinforced in polymer matrices
including bio-fibres and also deals with variety, combination, attributes; and
finally addressing demerits of fibres such as moisture content, UV radiation
absorption, fire retardant aspects, biological features and dimensional
inconsistency.
Chapter 7 includes different manufacturing techniques used for making
FRP products and components. And this chapter also provide the evolution
of FRPs and presents a comparative overview of the different manufacturing
techniques available. In chapter 8 were presented an investigation, of
machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, and coolant flow rate
on sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/ Al-SiC (Aluminum Silicon Carbide)
reinforced polyester hybrid nanocomposites using circular saw arrangement.
Chapter 9 deals with the mechanical characterization of different fibers
(natural fiber, synthetic fiber and natural-synthetic fiber) reinforced
composite as well as their applications. Chapter 10 intends to provide the
significant findings from the recent works carried out on biobased
composites subjected to weathering with controlled conditions of
(i) moisture (ii) temperature (iii) light (UV radiation) and (iv) microbes. In
chapter 11, we have summarized the synthesis and characterization of
various FRPCs and reviewed their physical and mechanical properties
relevant to biomedical applications. Chapter 12 conveys the mechanical
behavior FRP composites submitted to numerous stress and environmental
parameters. The various loading acting on these composites may be static or
dynamic or combinations of the two. Different environmental parameters
include temperature fluctuations (thermal spike, freeze-thaw, low, high,
thermal shock), hydrothermal, hygrothermal, ultraviolet radiations etc.

Preface xi
These stresses and environments alter the mechanical behaviour of the

composite materials constituent’s i.e., fiber, matrix, fiber/matrix interfaces.
Chapter 13 focuses on a recent market summary of state-of-the-art
applications of fiber-reinforced polymer composites which include
automotive, aerospace, petroleum, construction, consumer products, etc.
With the increasing global population, the enormous demand for high-
quality life and unparalleled industrialization, the demand for fiber-
reinforced polymer composites enhanced significantly with high quality and
performance. The aim was to integrate the global market demand and
production volume of FRP composites in the aforementioned industries.
The design of lightweight component is a paramount important process
to reduce the CO2 and generate cleaner life, therefore the integration of
Fiber-Reinforced Polymers in automotive, aviation and biomedical
engineering application will be crucial during the near future.
Catalin Iulian Pruncu

Selim Gürgen
Dr. Md Enamul Hoque
October 2020

In: Fiber-Reinforced Polymers ISBN: 978-1-53619-049-6
Editors: Catalin Iulian Pruncu et al. © 2021 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
Asrafuzzaman1, Kazi Faiza Amin2

and Md Enamul Hoque3,
1
Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET),
Rajshahi, Bangladesh
2
Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering,
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET),
Dhaka, Bangladesh
3
Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST),
Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ABSTRACT
Traditional materials that have been utilized for centuries by mankind

cannot always fulfill the requirements of all engineering and other

Corresponding Author’s Email: enamul1973@gmail.com.

2 Asrafuzzaman, Kazi Faiza Amin and Md Enamul Hoque
applications. Thus, the advancement of modern civilization demands the

invention of advanced materials. The fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs)
having the potential as the most versatile materials are gradually replacing
traditional materials almost in all areas of science and engineering. The
possibilities of FRPs are endless due to their enormous availability,
renewability/recyclability, generally low cost, easy processability and so
on. The new types of reinforcement fibers and/or polymer matrices are
being developed almost every day. It is essentially important to enhance
knowledge on the advancement of fibers, matrices and FRPs for their
advanced applications. This chapter compiles the introductory
classification of reinforcing fibers and common polymer matrices along
with the recent developments in the FRP field.
Keywords: advanced material, composite, fiber, fiber-reinforced polymer,

polymer, traditional material
1. INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century, composite materials have become the most important
sector in the world of materials science. Composites have become the major
component in every field such as construction, avionics, automobiles,
biomedical, and so on. Their emergence as the material of modern
civilization is due to the fact that composite materials provide us with the
combination of the best qualities of each of its component materials. Since
composite is made of combining any two or more different kinds of basic
materials groups like metals, polymers, or ceramics; the possibilities and
number of functioning composites are endless. However, polymer
composites have held the main focus from the very beginning. Availability,
low cost along with ease of manufacturing are the driving factors behind the
attractiveness of polymer composites. Another reason for polymers being
the most commonly used matrix is the contrast of insufficient mechanical
properties of polymeric materials compared to metals and ceramics to their
lightweight which is a desired criterion in engineering designs. Thus,
strengthening polymers with reinforcements provided us with lightweight
composite materials which are sometimes even stronger than steel and other
metals. In the latter half of the last century, polymers have emerged as a

Introduction to Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 3
substitute for traditional materials such as metals, wood in several

applications (Nabi Saheb and Jog, 1999). Polymer composites can be
classified into two main categories-
1. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)

2. Particle reinforced polymer (PRP) (Chandramohan and Marimuthu,
2011)
Among all the polymeric composites that have been developed so far,
fiber-reinforced polymers are the most common. Both natural and synthetic
fibers have been used as reinforcement in polymeric composites. Natural
fiber can be sourced from a wide variety of plants and animal and in recent
times they are gaining attention over synthetic fibers mainly due to their eco-
friendly aspect among other reasons. Common synthetic fibers have been a
popular choice for polymer composites. Glass fibers, carbon fibers, aramid
are some of the well-known members of this category. Details of fiber
reinforcements and polymer matrixes will be discussed further throughout
the chapter.
2. FIBERS FOR REINFORCEMENT
Fiber is one of the two components that make up a fiber-reinforced

composite. Fiber exists in the matrix phase while retaining its own properties
which in combination with the matrix properties produce the desired
characteristics of the composite. Fiber shape, size, orientation in the matrix,
surface condition, chemical compositions, etc. play a vital role in
determining the composites’ mechanical properties such as strength,
toughness, stiffness, corrosion resistance, and so on. Fiber can be either
sourced from nature or synthesized. Fibers that are sourced from plants and
animals are classified as natural fibers. Synthetic fibers are derived from
minerals and elements like carbon, and basalt. Many types of fibers both
natural and synthetic have been used successfully as reinforcements for
polymers. Surprising as it may seem but the first fibers to be used as polymer

reinforcements are actually synthetic fibers made of glass and carbon.

Extensive research on synthetic fibers reinforced polymers was carried out
during the 1930s after the discovery of glass fibers. Later on, the growing
concern about the harmful effects of synthetic fibers on human health and
environment directed the interest in utilizing natural fibers. The
classification of fibers based on their sources is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Classification of fibers based on their sources.
2.1. Natural Fibers
As mentioned earlier natural fibers are sourced from plants, animals, and
naturally sourced minerals. Natural fibers are gaining considerable attention
due to their sustainability and environmental approachability. Natural fibers
can be classified into three types- animal fibers, plant fibers, and mineral
fibers.
2.1.1. Animal Fibers

Animal fibers are derived from the hair, fur, or cocoons. Wool, silk fall
into this category. Several types of animal fibers are discussed shortly in the
following.

Table 1. Properties comparison of B. mori and spider silk fibers
Properties Silk Worm silk fiber Spider silk Reference

fiber
Degree of crystallinity (%) 38-66 20-45 (Ramamoorthy,
Maximum use temperature (°C) 170 150 Skrifvars and
Thermal degradation (°C) 250 234 Persson, 2015)
Tensile strength (GPa) 0.6 1.1 (Gosline et al.,
Extensibility (%) 18 30 1999)
Silk is a very versatile protein-based animal fiber that itself is a

composite. Fiber produced by Silkworms Bombyx mori (B. mori) has been
used for centuries to weave luxurious clothing. Weaving spider species also
produce silk based composite fiber to capture prey (Hardy and Scheibel,
2010). The comparison of properties of B. mori and spider silk fibers is
presented in Table 1.
The first reported research of silk fibers in synthetic polymer composite
was a combination with (poly(acrylonitrile) for improved textile properties
(Cates and White Jr., 1956). Silk based fibers derived from silkworm and
spider webs have been combined with synthetic polymers such as Poly(l-
lactide) (Zhou et al., 2008) (Wang et al., 2009), poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (Chen
et al., 2004), and poly(aspartic acid) (Kim et al., 2008) to develop bio-
composite materials have been reported by separate research groups.
2.1.2. Wool
Wool is a commonly used textile fiber that is sourced from sheep, rabbit,
camel, goat, and other mammals even though sheep are the largest
commercial source of it. Wool fiber is hydrophilic and contains mainly
keratin (Arunkumar et al., 2013). Wool fibers have been used as
reinforcement in the polypropylene matrix (Conzatti et al., 2013) and
polyester resin (Conzatti et al., 2012). The use of recycled wool fibers for
composite reinforcements has also been explored due to the high cost of
virgin wool (Arunkumar et al., 2013).

2.1.3. Chicken Feather Fiber

The chicken feathers contain 91% keratin, 1% lipids, and 8% water
(Arunkumar et al., 2013). Chicken feathers can be utilized as whole fibers
or keratin fibers can be derived from them through chemical processes to be
used as reinforcements (Reddy and Yang, 2010). Chicken feather has been
employed as reinforcement in polypropylene (Reddy and Yang, 2010), PLA
(Cheng et al., 2009), and epoxy (Zhan, Wool and Xiao, 2011) composites.
2.1.4. Plant Fibers

Fibers derived from plants are usually lignocellulosic in nature. Their
structure is comprised of helically wound micro-fibrils of cellulose in a
matrix of lignin and hemicellulose. The helical structure is centered on a
hollow axis. This particular assembly plays a vital role in giving plant fibers
their strength. A considerable amount of energy is required to uncoil the
helical structure thus increasing the fiber strength (Dicker et al., 2014). The
hemicellulose matrix is responsible for biodegradation, thermal degradation,
and water absorption whereas lignin is responsible for UV degradation
(Rahman et al., 2015). The molecular structure of Cellulose is demonstrated
in Figure 2.
Plant fibers can be further classified based on the parts of the plant they
are sourced from. They are categorized as leaf fibers, bast fibers, seed fibers,
grass fibers, stalk fibers, wood fibers, and fruit fibers. The chemical
composition of fibers varies from species to species. The generalized
structure of plant fiber is illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Molecular structure of cellulose.

The contents of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and wax determine the

physical properties of the fibers such as wettability, moisture absorption, and
adhesion characteristics, and so on. Table 2 is a compilation of the chemical
compositions of different plant fibers that have been reported to be used as
reinforcements in polymers.
Table 2. Chemical composition of various plant fibers
Fiber Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose Wax Reference

(wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%)
Sisal 8 78 10 2 (Saxena et al., 2008)
Jute 11.30 82.50 - 0.64
Coir 40-45 32-43 0.15-0.25 - (Taj, Munawar and Khan,
Banana 5 63-64 10 - 2007)
Bagasse 20.8 77.8 27.9 - (Nourbakhsh, Ashori and
Bamboo 23.4 76.6 19.5 - Kouhpayehzadeh, 2009)
Hemp 3.7– 70.2–74.4 17.9–22.4 0.8 (De Rosa et al., 2010)
5.7
Kenaf 8.18 53.14 14.33 - (Yu and Yu, 2007)
Flax 3 81 14 - (Mwaikambo and Ansell,
Ramie 1 76 15 - 2002)
Abaca 12-13 56-63 - - (Taj, Munawar and Khan,
Oil palm 19 65 - - 2007)
Cuaraua 7.5 73.6 9.9 - (Ramamoorthy, Skrifvars
Wheat straw 13-20 39-45 15-31 - and Persson, 2015)
Rice straw 8-19 41-57 33 8-38
Rice husk 20 35-45 19-25 14-17
Artichoke 4.3 75.3 - - (Fiore, Valenza and Di
Bella, 2011)
Okra 5-10 60-70 15-20 - (Santulli et al., 2014)
Ferula 1.4 53.3 8.5 - (Seki et al., 2013)
Betal nut 7.20 53.20 32.98 0.64 (M. M. Hassan et al., 2010)
Althaea 2.7 44.6 13.5 - (Fiore, Scalici and Valenza,
Piassava 48.4 31.6 - - 2014)
Alfa 23 45 - -
Arundo 17.2 43.2 20.5 -
Roselle 5.41 65.49 20.46 - (Nadlene et al., 2015)
Phoenix sp 4.29 + 76.13 + - 0.32 + (Rajeshkumar, Hariharan
0.21 3.8 0.016 and Sathishkumar, 2016)
Pineapple 12.7 81 - - (Faruk et al., 2012)

Figure 3. Generalized illustration of a plant fiber structure.
2.1.5. Bast Fibers

Bast fibers are collected from the phloem or the inner skin surrounding
the stem of the plant. Among the most commonly used bast fibers are jute,
flax, hemp, ramie, kenaf, okra, and roselle.
2.1.5.1. Jute
Jute is cultivated in the tropical region mainly for fiber. It has been one
of the most used and important fibers across the world for centuries. The
global production of jute fibers is around 2300×103 tons with China,
Bangladesh, and India being the biggest contributors (Ramamoorthy,
Skrifvars and Persson, 2015). The availability of jute fiber has made it one
of the most explored fiber reinforcements in polymeric composites. Effect
of jute fiber reinforcement has been investigated in epoxy (Mishra et al.,
2000), PLA (Khondker et al., 2006), polyester amide (Mohanty, Khan and
Hinrichsen, 2000), and phenolic (Singh, Gupta and Verma, 2000)
composites. Jute fiber has been used as reinforcement by German
automobile industries (Lewington, 1990). Mercedes-Benz developed a jute

fiber reinforced epoxy composite for door panels in E-class vehicles in 1996
(Sanjay et al., 2016). Jute fiber reinforced polymer composite is used in
sports equipment, decorative materials, sanitary items, furniture, primary
structural elements, and temporary outdoor applications (Gupta, Srivastava
and Bisaria, 2015).
2.1.5.2. Flax
Evidence shows that flax fibers have been used by mankind since 5000
BC (Kvavadze et al., 2009). High cellulose content and degree of
crystallinity make flax fiber a suitable reinforcement for polymer
composites. Flax fiber reinforced polymer composites are being widely used
in automotive parts. The use of flax-fibers in the car, includes disk-breaks
that has been studied as a substitution for asbestos-fibers (Kalia, Kaith and
Kaur, 2009). Flax fibers are used in the composite as monofilaments, mats,
roving, and fabric configurations (Yan, Chouw and Jayaraman, 2014).
2.1.5.3. Kenaf
Kenaf is another largely cultivated fiber producing plant. Its properties
are very similar to jute fibers. It has the lowest cellulose and highest lignin
content among all bast fibers. It is reported that kenaf fiber reinforced PLA
composite exhibits higher tensile and flexural strength compared to other
nature fiber-PLA composites (Akil et al., 2011). Kenaf fibers have also been
used in PP and PLLA matrix composites.
2.1.6. Leaf Fibers

Leaf fibers are extracted from the leaf of the plant. Along with bast
fibers, leaf fibers are another major portion of fibers used in composites.
Sisal, pineapple, banana, agave, henequen are some of the commonly used
leaf fibers.
2.1.6.1. Sisal
Sisal fibers are extracted from sisal leaves by decortication method and
based on the area of extraction are classified into mechanical, ribbon, and
xylem types (Bisanda and Ansell, 1992). Sisal fibers have been used as

reinforcements in PE (Joseph et al., 1993) (Joseph, Thomas and Pavithran,

1995) (Joseph, Thomas and Pavithran, 1996), natural rubber (Kumar, Amma
and Thomas, 1995) (Varghese, Kuriakose and Thomas, 1994), and polyester
epoxy (Singh, Gupta and Verma, 1996) (Bisanda and Ansell, 1991)
composites. Sisal fibers are a suitable reinforcement for thermoplastics,
thermosets, and rubbers composites because of their low density and high
specific properties (Joseph et al., 1999).
2.1.6.2. Pineapple
Pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) possesses great luster and fineness
(Kicińska-Jakubowska, Bogacz and Zimniewska, 2012). The PALF is
extracted by mechanical and retting methods yielding about 2-3% fibers
from a single leaf (Asim et al., 2015). PALF exhibits low compatibility with
hydrophobic polymers as it is hygroscopic in nature (Yogesh and N, 2017).
But various surface treatment methods such as cyanoethylation, alkalization,
dewaxing, and grafting of acrylonitrile monomer have been successfully
utilized in removing this obstacle (Mallick, 2007). The reinforcements of
PALF in Polyethylene based composites have shown promising results but
the studies on successfully combining PALF with another polymeric matrix
is still on going.
2.1.6.3. Banana
Banana fiber contains four types of cells called xylem, phloem,
sclerenchyma, and parenchyma (Kulkarni et al., 1983). Banana fiber has
been incorporated in various thermoset polymers such as Polyester (Pothan,
Thomas and Neelakantan, 1997), Phenol-Formaldehyde (Joseph et al.,
2002), and Polystyrene (Haneefa et al., 2008). The combination of banana
fiber with thermoplastic polymers have also been explored. Banana fibers
have been successfully integrated into Epoxy (Sapuan et al., 2006),
Polyethylene (Habibi et al., 2008), and Polypropylene (Paul et al., 2008).
Different types of natural fibers are displayed in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Different types of natural fibers (Rahman et al., 2015).
2.1.7. Grass Fibers

Grass fibers are extracted from grass plants like bamboo and bagasse.
Other less common fibers of this class are corn, canary, sabai, and so on.
2.1.7.1. Bamboo
Bamboo fiber is probably the most sought-after fiber after glass fiber.
The bamboo fiber shows better mechanical properties than other natural
fibers but is more brittle as a result of the higher lignin content (Abdul Khalil
et al., 2012). It has gained a considerable amount of interest in recent years
as a replacement for glass fibers in polymeric composite materials. There
are two kinds of bamboo fiber- natural bamboo fiber and bamboo
regenerated viscose fiber from the pulp (Ramamoorthy, Skrifvars and
Persson, 2015). Both thermosetting and thermoplastic composites using
epoxy (Rajulu et al., 1998) and polypropylene (Chen, Guo and Mi, 1998)
with bamboo reinforcement have shown satisfactory properties. Bamboo
fibers have also been used in developing eco-friendly biodegradable
polymer composites (Okubo, Fujii and Yamamoto, 2004). Bamboo/PLA has
exhibited lower thermal conductivity than wood fiber composites (Takagi et
al., 2007).

2.1.7.2. Bagasse
Bagasse is the primary waste material of sugar mills which is the fibrous
remains after sugarcane stalks extraction. Bagasse fiber has a lower tensile
strength than other natural fibers (Ramamoorthy, Skrifvars and Persson,
2015). Bagasse fibers have been used in polypropylene (Luz, Gonçalves and
Del’Arco, 2007) (Vázquez, Domínguez and Kenny, 1999), phenolic (Paiva
and Frollini, 2002), HDPE (Lei et al., 2007) and esterified (Hassan et al.,
2000) composites.
2.1.8. Fruit and Seed Fibers

Coir, oil palm, cotton, etc. are the commonly known fruit/seed fibers.
This category also includes milkweed, kapok, sponge gourd, etc.
2.1.8.1. Coir
Coir is extracted from dried coconut husk. Unripe coconut produces
white fiber and fiber from ripe coconut is brown (Harish et al., 2009). Coir
fiber cell is narrow, hollow, stiff, and has thick walls of cellulose with the
highest lignin content of all fibers resulting in low water absorption (Harish
et al., 2009). There have been reports of the use of coir fiber reinforcement
in natural rubber (Geethamma and Thomas, 2005), polyester (Rout et al.,
2001) (Varma, Varma and Varma, 1985), polypropylene (Haque et al., 2009)
(Lai et al., 2005).
2.1.8.2. Oil Palm

Oil palm fibers (OPF) are the secondary product of the oil palm fruit
bunch. Oil palm fibers can be sourced from two parts of the plant- oil palm
empty fruit bunch that is extracted by retting and from the mesocarp which
is the waste material after oil extraction (A. Hassan et al., 2010). OPF has
properties similar to coir fibers (Sreekala, Kumaran and Thomas, 1997).
Various research group have reported use of OPF in polymer composites
such as polypropylene (Wirjosentono, Guritno and Ismail, 2004) (Rozman
et al., 2000), poly(methyl acrylate) (Raju et al., 2008), phenol-formaldehyde
(Sreekala, Kumaran and Thomas, 2002), and natural rubber (Jacob et al.,
2006).

2.1.8.3. Cotton
Cotton fiber is one of the purest natural cellulose (Basra and Malik,
1984). High cellulose content renders the fiber hydrophilic so surface
treatment is required to enhance bonding with the hydrophobic polymeric
matrix. Cotton fiber has been woven and then used as reinforcement in
polyester (Mwaikambo and Bisanda, 1999) and polypropylene
(Mwaikambo, Martuscelli and Avella, 2000) composites.
2.1.9. Straw Fibers

Straw is the byproduct of cereal plants like rice, wheat, barley, oats, etc.
after the removal of grain and chaff. Rice straw has been reported as
reinforcement in polyvinyl chloride (Kamel, 2004), polyethylene (Yao et al.,
2008), and polypropylene (Grozdanov et al., 2006). Wheat straw fibers have
been used in PP composite (Zou, Huda and Yang, 2010).
2.2. Synthetic Fibers
Synthetic fibers have been the first fibers to be used as reinforcement in

composite materials. Synthetic fibers can be divided into organic and
inorganic types. Organic fibers include aramid, polyethylene, polyester, etc.
Inorganic fibers are the famous glass, carbon, boron, basalt fibers. Table 3
contains the mechanical properties of commonly used synthetic fibers in
polymer composites.
Table 3. Mechanical properties of various synthetic fibers
Synthetic Tensile Density Young’s Elongation Reference

Fiber Strength (MPa) (g/cm3) Modulus (GPa) (%)
Aramid 3000–3150 1.4 63–67 3.3–3.7 (Li, Tabil and
Carbon 4000 1.4 230–40 1.4–1.8 Panigrahi,
E-glass 2000–3500 2.5 70 2.5 2007)
S-glass 4570 2.5 86 2.8
Basalt 4840 2.7 89 3.15 (Dhand et al.,
2015)

2.2.1. Organic Fibers
2.2.1.1. Aramid
Aromatic amide fibers with a high degree of crystallinity are called
aramid fibers. The difference between aliphatic and aromatic polyamides is
that aliphatic polyamides are linked by amide linkage (-NH-CO-) but in
aromatic polyamides, at least 85% of the (-NH-CO-) linkages are
neighboring to the aromatic structure (Masuelli, 2013). They are also known
as Kevlar. Aramid fibers have the lowest specific gravity and highest tensile
strength to weight ratio compared to other synthetic fibers (Taj, Munawar
and Khan, 2007). The properties of aramid fibers depend on chain structure,
molecular arrangements, and crystallinity (Lewin, 2006). The most
commercially used aramid structure that are used as fibers are PMIA
{poly(m-phenylene isophthalamide)}, PPTA {poly(p-phenylene
terephthalamide)}, ODA-PPTA {copoly(p-phenylene/3,4′-diphenyl ether
terephthalamide)}, SVM {poly[5-amino-2(p-aminophenyl)benzimidazole
terephthalamide]} (Denchev and Dencheva, 2012). The molecular
arrangements of commercial aramid fibers are demonstrated in Figure 5.
Aramid fibers are popular reinforcements for composites developed for
avionic applications due to their exceptionally high mechanical strength to
weight ratio (Chung, 1989). Aramid fiber composites are also good for
dampening vibration therefore they are used for making sports equipment.
Figure 5. Molecular arrangements of commercial aramid fibers.

2.2.2. Inorganic Fibers
2.2.2.1. Carbon Fiber

Carbon has been considered as an ideal engineering material due to its
atomic bonding, mechanical strength, and availability. Carbon fibers can be
produced by carburizing an organic polymer filament having a diameter of
5-10 micrometers. It was invented by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879 to be
used as filament for light bulbs. The high tensile strength of carbon fibers
makes CFRP composites suitable for pre-stressed applications (Bakis et al.,
2002). CFRP composites are the leading materials that are replacing the
traditional engineering materials in automobile industries, sports, marine,
avionics, construction, and nuclear engineering. Carbon fibers are
unidirectional reinforcements so they are arranged in the matrix along the
direction of the load (Taj, Munawar and Khan, 2007). Based on mechanical
properties carbon fibers can be divided into five groups- Ultra-high-modulus
(modulus > 450 GPa), High-modulus (modulus 350-450 GPa), Intermediate-
modulus (modulus between 200-350 GPa), Low modulus and high-tensile
(modulus < 100 GPa, tensile strength > 3 GPa), and Super high-tensile
(tensile strength > 4.5 GPa) (Masuelli, 2013).
2.2.2.2. Glass Fiber

Glass fibers are the most widely known reinforcement fibers. It is one
of the most explored inventions of modern times. Glass fiber was first
manufactured in 1930 to be used as an insulator in high-temperature
electrical applications. Glass fibers have excellent strength, stiffness,
flexibility, and resistance to chemical attacks. Glass fiber are classified
based on their chemical composition and physical properties. The definitions
of different types of glass fiber according to their designations determined
by ISO 2078 is depicted in Table 4.
The chemical compositions of various types of glass fibers are as the
following (Sathishkumar, Satheeshkumar and Naveen, 2014).
A-Glass: SiO2-67.5%, Al2O3-3.5%, B2O3-1.5%, CaO-6.5%,

MgO-4.5%, Na2O-13.5%, K2O-3.0%.

C-Glass: SiO2-64.6%, Al2O3-4.1%, B2O3-5.0%, CaO-13.4%,

MgO-3.3%, Na2O-9.6%, K2O-0.5%.
D-Glass: SiO2-74.0%, B2O3-22.5%, Na2O-1.5%, K2O-2.0%.
E-Glass: SiO2-55%, Al2O3-14%, TiO2-0.2%, B2O3-7%, CaO-22%,
MgO- 1%, Na2O-0.5%, K2O-0.3%.
R-Glass: SiO2-60%, Al2O3-24%, CaO-9%, MgO-6%, Na2O-0.5%,
K2O-0.1%.
S-Glass: SiO2-65%, Al2O3-25%, MgO-10%.
Table 4. Description of glass fibers types
Glass Definition Properties and Scope of Reference

Fiber Type Application
A-Glass Alkali-lime glass containing alkali Relatively lower tensile (Jones and
> 1% and little or no B2O3 strengths and lower Huff, 2018)
chemical durability
C-Glass Alkali-lime glass with high Good chemical resistance (Pico et al.,
amount of B2O3 2012)
D-Glass Borosilicate glass Low dielectric properties
E-Glass Alumino-borosilicate glass with Reinforcement in polymer
alkali ≤1 %
R-Glass Aluminosilicate glass without High mechanical
CaO and MgO requirements
S-Glass Aluminosilicate glass without High tensile strength
CaO and 10% MgO
Glass fibers can be used in polymer composites in the form of chopped

up fibers or mats. Glass fiber mats can be woven in a specific pattern or
random mats. Techniques that are commercially used for glass fiber polymer
composites (GFRPs) manufacturing are mixing and molding, compression
molding, hot press technique, and hand lay-up method followed by the
hydraulic press or compression molding, etc. The prominent physical
properties of different glass fibers are summarized in Table 5.
The matrixes of GFRP composites range from polyester, thermosets,
vinyl ester to thermoplastics, phenolic and epoxy. In the earlier times of
GFRP composite during the 1930s, the major matrixes used were epoxy and
polyesters (Petinakis et al., 2015). Even though GFRP composites have been
around for a long time their short-comings regarding relatively high fiber

density, low machinability, recycling difficulty, and environmental hazard

is driving researchers to find alternates (Holbery and Houston, 2006).
Table 5. Physical properties of different glass fibers
Glass Fiber Type High Electrical Corrosion High

Strength Resistivity Resistance Durability
A-Glass √ √ √
C-Glass √
E-Glass √ √
S-Glass √
3. POLYMERS COMMONLY USED AS MATRIX
A polymer is defined as the linked chain formation of small-molecule

groups or monomers with at-least two functional groups. Polymerization
reactions are of two types- condensation and additional. Polymer chains can
be linear, branched, or cross-linked. Polymers used in composites can be
divided into two basic categories- thermoplastics and thermosets.
Thermoplastic polymers can be alternately softened and hardened by
fluctuating temperature in a given range. This class includes most of the
linear polymers and some branched polymers such as polyethylene (PE),
polystyrene (PS), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and poly(ethylene
terephthalate) (PET), etc. Thermoset polymers are harder, have better
dimensional stability than thermoplastics, and do not soften upon heating.
They are basically cross-linked polymer and include epoxy resins, polyester
resin, phenolics, and vulcanized rubber. Both thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers have been used to develop fiber reinforced polymer
composites. However, thermosetting resins such as epoxy and polyester
exhibit outstanding properties when reinforced with fibers (Masuelli, 2013).
While the reinforcing fibers provide directional strength to the polymer
matrix, the matrix itself holds the fibers together and increases the toughness
of the composite. This synergistic relationship between fibers and polymer

renders the composite with unique properties. The major mechanical

properties of commonly used polymers are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Mechanical properties of commonly used polymers
Polymer Tensile Flexural Density Reference

Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa) (g/cm3)
Epoxies 55-130 110-150 - Crosky et al.,
Polyesters 34-105 70-110 2014)
Polypropylene (PP) 26 - 41.4 55.2 0.899 - 0.920 (Van de Velde
Low density 4-78.6 - 0.910 - 0.925 and Kiekens,
polyethylene(LDPE) 2001)
High density 14.5- 38 - 0.941-1
polyethylene (HDPE)
Polyvinyl chloride 48 - 1.35 (Deanin et al.,
(PVC) 2012)
Vinyl ester 73–81 - 1.12–1.32 (Migliaresi and
Pegoretti,
2002)
3.1. Thermoplastic Polymer Matrix
3.1.1. Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene is a popular choice for natural fiber reinforced bio-
composites. Polyethylene reinforced with pineapple leaf fibers has shown
satisfactory properties (Abdelmouleh et al., 2007). The effect of bagasse
fibers on high-density PE (HDPE) has been explored to determine their
creep behavior (Xu et al., 2010). Various research groups have reinforced
PE with jute (Mohanty, Verma and Nayak, 2006), wood fiber (Lei et al.,
2007), rice straw (Yao et al., 2008), sisal (Joseph et al., 1993), curaua
(Araújo, Waldman and Paoli, 2008) fibers.
3.1.2. Polypropylene (PP)

Polypropylene is an isotactic crystalline polymer with high rigidity,
chemical resistance, moderate strength, and higher fracture toughness than
HDPE (Cheung et al., 2009). Polypropylene has also been extensively used

in research based on natural fiber composites. The biggest drawback of using

PP with natural fibers is that PP is hydrophobic whereas natural fibers are
hydrophilic which results in difficulty in interface bonding. The use of a
coupling agent does not improve this problem much (Rahman et al., 2015).
But the use of functionalized PP like polypropylene-g-maleic anhydride
(MA-g-PP) has shown improved bonding (Sanadi, Caulfield and Rowell,
1994). Natural fibers used in PP composites with or without pre-treatments
are jute (Rashed, Islam and Rizvi, 2006), banana (Paul et al., 2008), kenaf
(Sanadi et al., 1995), flax (Garkhail, Heijenrath and Peijs, 2000), wood
(Karmarkar et al., 2007), bagasse (Vázquez, Domínguez and Kenny, 1999)
and pineapple (Arib et al., 2006). Glass fiber has been reported to be used as
reinforcement in PP (Ya’acob et al., 2004). Other synthetic fibers
incorporated into PP are basalt (Botev et al., 1999) (Czigány, Vad and
Pölöskei, 2005) (Dhand et al., 2015) and carbon (Taketa et al., 2010).
3.1.3. Poly(Vinyl Chloride)

Poly(vinyl chloride) or PVC is a hard thermoplastic which has the
broadest range of application due to its ease of fabrication and durability
(Wirawan, Zainudin and Sapuan, 2009). However, PVC has been suspected
as a hazardous material since it can produce hydrogen chloride and dioxins
during production and decomposition (Nass, 1985). Mixing PVC with
natural fibers may counter its disadvantages (Ayora et al., 1997). Reported
natural fiber-reinforced PVC composites include rice straw (Kamel, 2004),
banana (Zainudin et al., 2008), oil palm (Bakar, Hassan and Yusof, 2005),
bagasse (Zheng et al., 2007), sisal (Djidjelli et al., 2007), and coconut
(Leblanc et al., 2007).
3.2. Thermoset Polymers
3.2.1. Epoxies
Epoxy resins are widely used matrices for polymer composites.
Developed during the 1940s, epoxy resins cure fast in low temperature and
pressure with minimal shrinkage, providing high hardness combined with

excellent resistance to heat and chemical attacks (Deanin et al., 2012). Being
an amorphous highly cross-linked group of polymers, epoxies possess
various desirable properties like high tensile strength and modulus with
dimensional stability (Song et al., 2000). These properties have made epoxy
resins a popular choice for both natural and synthetic fiber-reinforced
composite matrix. All the common natural fibers such as bamboo (Shih,
2007), sisal (Gañan et al., 2005), jute (Mohan and Kishore, 1985), hemp,
kenaf, and flax (Sgriccia and Hawley, 2007) have been reported to be used
as reinforcement for epoxy composites. Glass and carbon fiber reinforced
epoxy composites are being commercially manufactured for six decades and
plenty of research work have been performed based on them to find the right
combination of fiber, coupling agent and composition to achieve the desired
properties.
3.2.2. Polyesters
Unsaturated polyesters belong to the thermoset polymers group. The
disadvantages of unsaturated polyesters are high water absorption rate, low
impact strength, and shrinkage upon curing (Masuelli, 2013). Unsaturated
polyesters are produced through condensation reaction between saturated
aromatic acids, unsaturated acids, and glycols followed by dissolution in
diluents with carbon-carbon double bonds like styrene for curing (Migliaresi
and Pegoretti, 2002). Orthophthalic polyester is most widely used
possessing high rigidity but low heat resistance (Holbery and Houston,
2006). Natural fibers reported to be combined with the polyester matrix are
kenaf (Rassmann, Reid and Paskaramoorthy, 2010), bagasse (Vilay et al.,
2008), jute (Gowda, Naidu and Chhaya, 1999), pineapple (Devi, Bhagawan
and Thomas, 1998), sisal (Sydenstricker, Mochnaz and Amico, 2003),
henequen (Han et al., 2006), coir (Rout et al., 2001) (Varma, Varma and
Varma, 1985), kapok (Reddy, Naidu and Rani, 2008), and rice straw (White
and Ansell, 1983).
3.2.3. Vinyl Esters

Unsaturated vinyl ester resins are obtained by the reaction between
ethylenically unsaturated carboxylic acid and epoxy resins. Vinyl ester

monomer has carbon-carbon double bonds only at the ends. They need to be
dissolved in styrene for curing like polyesters. Reaction with styrene
monomers produces cross-links at the points of C-C double bonds (Denchev
and Dencheva, 2012). The position of the reactive sites at the ends of the
molecular chains allows the chain to absorb energy hence has greater
toughness than polyesters (Holbery and Houston, 2006). Compared to
unsaturated polyester resins, vinyl ester resins have lower susceptibility to
chemical attacks and lower cross-link density, but higher volume shrinkage
(Migliaresi and Pegoretti, 2002).
4. RECENT TRENDS IN FIBER REINFORCED

POLYMER COMPOSITES
Fiber-reinforced polymers have been around in our day to day lives for
a little short of a century now. But they are still in the development stage.
Active research is being conducted to achieve a better form of reinforcement
fibers, matrices, and a combination of both in terms of sustainability,
economic feasibility, and physical properties. The journey of fiber-
reinforced polymers may have started with incorporating synthetic fibers of
glass and carbon in thermoset polymers. But the adverse effects of
commonly used synthetic fibers on human health and environment has
driven researchers to focus on utilizing natural fibers. The demand for
natural fibers as polymer matrix fillers has seen a steady increase since the
1980s (Ketabchi et al., 2016). Aside from common natural fibers like jute,
flax, etc. more and more new types of plant fibers are being added to the list.
In the recent years, polymer composites reinforced with okra (Santulli et al.,
2014) (De Rosa et al., 2010), roselle (Thiruchitrambalam et al., 2010)
(Nadlene et al., 2015), sunflower hull sanding dust (Sui et al., 2009), date
palm (Al-Oqla and Sapuan, 2014), giant milkweed (Nourbakhsh, Ashori and
Kouhpayehzadeh, 2009), betel nut husk (Yusriah et al., 2012), ferula (Seki
et al., 2013), Phoenix sp. (Rajeshkumar, Hariharan and Sathishkumar,
2016), Arundo donax L. (Fiore, Scalici and Valenza, 2014), Saccaharum

cilliare (Singha and Thakur, 2008), willow bast (Oktaee et al., 2017), linden
(Seki et al., 2014), olive husk (Amar et al., 2011), buriti (Santos et al., 2010)
fibers have been developed and characterized by various research groups.
Another research group has reported that natural fiber composites are
cheaper, lighter, and environmentally superior to glass fiber composites in
general (Joshi et al., 2004). Since the mechanical characteristics of natural
fiber composite are different from synthetic fiber composites, research is
being conducted to overcome the challenges regarding their manufacturing
process (Ketabchi, Hoque and Siddiqui, 2015). The graphical illustration of
the gradual increase of research on natural fiber over time is presented in
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Graphical illustration of the gradual increase of research on natural fiber over
time (Rahman et al., 2015).
The idea of hybrid fiber polymer composites has also gained

considerable attention in recent decades. The hybridization of two or more
types of fibers in a single matrix has shown better properties. Hybridization
can be done between synthetic/synthetic fibers, natural/natural fiber, or even
synthetic/natural fibers in both thermoset and thermoplastic polymers.
Incorporation of synthetic or natural fibers having high elongation into

natural fiber composites has resulted in the improvement of the overall

mechanical properties of the composites (Gupta and Srivastava, 2016). A
study has reported that the properties of bamboo fiber composite improve
when glass fiber is added (Thwe and Liao, 2002).
Researchers are also focusing on other cutting-edge technologies to
develop unique fibers. Nano and micro-scaled fibers have shown promising
results in developing better composites (Njuguna, Pielichowski and Desai,
2008). Super elastic nitinol shape memory alloy (SMA) fiber has been used
to enhance the damping capacity and toughness of thermoset polymer
(Raghavan et al., 2010). Self-healing fiber reinforced polymers is also
receiving acknowledgment but they are yet to reach maturity (Bond, Trask
and Williams, 2008). Natural fiber reinforced conductive polymer
composites (CPCs) is another developing field with a promising future (Al-
Oqla et al., 2015).
Polymers are also being modified to achieve better properties.
Biopolymers are a relatively new class of polymers with environmental
benefits. PLLA, PCL, PVA, PBS, and PHAs are some of the widely known
biopolymers (Rahman et al., 2015).
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Fiber-reinforced polymers have been proven to be the most versatile

material of modern civilization. They have replaced traditional materials in
a wide range of engineering applications due to their economic feasibility
and superior properties. The recent effort to look for eco-friendly materials
has flourished the research on natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
But the challenges regarding manufacturing, bonding, and property
enhancement are still to be overcome. Fiber-reinforced polymers are without
a doubt the most dynamic research sector of modern times with a very
prospective future.

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Chapter 2
NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBERS

IN POLYMER-BASED COMPOSITES
Carlo Santulli
Università degli Studi di Camerino, School of Science and Technology,
Geology Division, Camerino, Italy
ABSTRACT
A brief introduction to the use of natural and synthetic fibers in

polymer-based composites is offered in this chapter. The main objectives
concern the discussion about the differences offered in using natural and
synthetic fibers, as regards especially the need to obtain an effective fiber-
matrix adhesion, and the possible selection of fibers, as well as the
possibilities offered by hybridization and the challenges to improve the
sustainability and the recyclability of the composites. In particular, the
future of polymer-based composites, essential in industries, such as
boatbuilding, automotive, appliance and furniture making, aeronautical,
electrical, etc. is influenced by obtaining higher sustainability, whatever
the fiber(s) used in them. Fiber selection for higher sustainability appears
critical, because a number of aspects have to be considered. These include
in particular raw materials, which recently may include also the re-use of
waste from other processes, the need for treatments for fiber sizing and
improvement of performance. This complexity indicates that a large

46 Carlo Santulli
number of natural or synthetic fiber types and products will remain

available and used in the future, since the objective will rather be to design
the material towards a sustainable end-of-life.
1. INTRODUCTION
Polymers are reinforced using fillers or fibers to improve their strength

and stiffness without excessively increasing their weight. This process
provides an obvious advantage in terms of the most common loading cases
e.g., due to the application of tensile and flexural forces. They also offer the
possibility of withstanding long-term service operation, therefore improving
fatigue resistance as well as sustaining damage e.g., impact conditions by
foreign bodies. All these opportunities make it of interest the production of
polymer composites, which find applications in challenging fields, such as
automotive, building, and aerospace, but also for the most common
commodities.
The most common fibers that are used in composites are synthetic,
although of very different origin among them, in particular carbon, glass,
and aramid (Kevlar). Most of the composites is reinforced with glass fibers,
although carbon and aramid outperform them under many aspects, being
also lighter, although more expensive. Some general data are offered in
Table 1, taken from Ashby 2008. Of course, these values are obtained from
specific types of synthetic fibers that are used in composites, namely E-glass,
HS carbon fiber and Kevlar 49. The ranges are only indicative and it needs
to be clarified that the variability can be very large, depending on some
factors depending on the production method, such as especially for carbon
the heat treatment temperature, for glass fibers the surface treatment, and
Kevlar the degree of internal compaction achieved during polymerization.
However, other fibers are also used, especially in the last decades, which
are of natural origin. In particular, some mineral fibers have been proposed,
among which the most used in composites is basalt, which can be considered
between synthetic and natural ones, because directly extruded from the rock
by smelting, but on the other side they cannot be considered as renewable,

Natural and Synthetic Fibers in Polymer-Based Composites 47
have also been considered as the reinforcement of polymer matrices

(Czigány et al., 2005). Natural and renewable fibers are also increasingly
proposed, most of which are derived from lignocellulosic plants (a not
exhaustive list is reported in Table 2), but in some cases also originating
from animal proteins, which equally have had some limited applications in
composites. The latter has been the case for wool, which also received some
attention in the production of composites, because of some properties, such
as fire-retardant characteristics (Kim et al., 2014). Also, silk has been
proposed for composites, especially in biomedical and bio-engineering
applications, therefore emphasizing biodegradation patterns (Cheung et al.,
2010).
The partial shift towards natural fibers involves the mainly prospective
substitution of glass fibers. That is to say that only in limited cases, such as
for bamboo, they have proposed as an alternative also to carbon fibers. This
can be attributed to a number of factors. In particular, the polymer matrices
used for the fabrication of composites have originally been thermosetting or
thermoplastic polymers (the difference in their structure is represented in
Figure 1) of petrochemical origin. In the case of thermosetting polymers as
the matrix, the recyclability appears particularly difficult, due to inherent
heterogeneity, scarce quality of the recyclates and ineffective end-of-life
management (Yang et al., 2012). Thermoplastic composites, whose matrix
can be molten, could allow recycling at end-of-life, in the particular case of
random mat glass fiber reinforced plastics through hot crushing, with some
dependence over the glass transition temperature of the polymer resin; this
may show some potential with thermosetting matrices as well, however, the
addition of further reinforcement or re-impregnation with more resin would
always be needed. None of the above does appear smoothly applicable to
woven glass fiber composites or even less to carbon fiber composites,
without a very serious loss of mechanical performance, which would affect
the profile of use of the obtained material (Adams et al., 2015). Available
data on composite recycling do still report very low percentages, the
challenge being still the use of thermosetting resins, in which retrieving
fibers more easily than the matrix appears the commonly perceived
perspective so far, and the retrieval of the whole material is still under

48 Carlo Santulli
investigation (Overcash et al., 2018). This is especially critical whenever the

disassembling proves difficult and/or not economically convenient, for
example in automobile shredder residues (ASRs) (Ruffino et al., 2020).
Table 1. Reference tensile properties and density of main synthetic

fibers (Ashby 2008)
Fiber Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile stiffness (GPa) Density (g/cm³)

Glass 700 – 800 70 – 80 2.4 – 2.6
Carbon 1800 – 2100 140 – 160 1.6 – 2
Kevlar 2400 – 2600 80 – 90 1.4 – 1.5
Table 2. A list of some plant fibers used in composites
Plant Botanic name Fibre from…

Abaca Musa textiles Leaf
Areca Areca catechu Fruit husk
Bamboo Various species Stem
Banana Musa sapientum Leaf
Coir Cocos nucifera Fruit husk
Cotton lint Gossypium sp. Seed hair
Curaua Ananas erectifolius Leaves
Date palm Phoenix dactilyfora Leaf
Esparto Lygeum sparteum Stem
Stypa tenacissima
Flax Linum usitatissimum Stem
Hemp Cannabis sativa Stem
Jute Corchorus Capsularis Stem
Kapok Ceiba pentandra Seed hair
Ceiba occidentalis
Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus Stem
Nettle Urtica dioica Stem
Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Fruit husk
Okra Okra bahmia Stem
Phormium Phormium tenax Leaf
Pineapple Ananas comosus Leaves, fruit leaves
Ramie Boehmeria nivea Stem
Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa Stem
Sansevieria Sansevieria cylindrica Leaf
Sisal Agave sisalana Leaf
Sunn hemp (Indian hemp) Crotalaria juncea Stem
Vetiver Vetiveria zizanoides Stem

Figure 1. Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers structure.
Figure 2. The quadrant of bioplastics.
Another drive for the use of natural fibers is the increased demand for
biopolymers as matrices. A more complete classification of plastics, as far
as biodegradability is concerned, is offered in Figure 2. This has brought to
the limelight also the possible use of natural fibers, which are biodegradable
as well. In the practical case of composites, the substitution of glass fibers
with natural fibers may also be partial by the production of the so-called
“hybrid composites”, including two (or more) types of fibers, one of which

50 Carlo Santulli
may be either carbon or glass. It is also worth noting that hybridization is a

really common practice in composites, which, at the expense of a higher
complication of the structure, does on the other side allow easily tailoring
the properties to the real needs of the application. Hybrid composites are
also fabricated including two different synthetic fibers or in another sense,
including two different natural fibers. In the case of hybrids, also nylon
fibers have been used e.g., in combination with carbon (Hine et al., 2014) or
basalt fibers (Dekhordi et al., 2010).
2. THE CONCEPT OF POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES

AND THE ROLE OF FIBERS
The idea of composites is that of a multi-phase material, a matrix and a

reinforcement, bound together so to have a complete physical interaction,
which is defined as “interface”. In practice, composites involve the
combined presence of at least two phases with different density, one of
which, the matrix, has no orientation, whilst the other one, the
reinforcement, is disposed of with different preferential orientations. The
reinforcement is supposed to increase the tensile and shear performance of
the material and is normally formed by fibers.
The shear strength of the interface, which can be improved according to
considerations based, e.g., on acid-base interaction, defines the effectiveness
of fiber-matrix adhesion (Schultz et al., 1987). This aspect reveals the
importance of trying to obtain the best possible compatibility between the
characteristics of the two phases: this objective can be reached applying
different and possibly even joint strategies, such as fiber treatment or
interface modification. This has several consequences: first of all, the
material cannot be isotropic, it will therefore have different properties in
each direction. However, if some conditions are fulfilled, in particular fiber
straightness, perfectly cylindrical shape, therefore with a constant diameter,
and absence of porosity, it can be suggested that along each direction the
properties are constant, which is defined as orthotropy. The concept of

orthotropy was based on the presupposition that composites are made from
layers with unidirectional fibers, as it was the case in early applications, in
particular dealing with carbon fiber composites, where no textile structures
were involved. However, this is still useful for calculation also in the case
that each layer is formed by fibers in two directions, as it is the case when a
weft and a warp are combined.
As suggested above, the interfacial strength is the characteristic that
allows the success of the composite from a structural point of view. The
factors that influence the interface strength are multifold and can be never
be thought to be disconnected from the type and the amount of fiber
introduced and its geometrical characteristics, such as length and diameter.
In practical terms, it can be suggested that the fibers are introduced as a
continuous structure or a discontinuous one. Among the continuous
structure, a further distinction can be applied between textile structures and
non-textile ones, the former requires the use of looms, while the latter is for
example obtained by needle-punching, therefore forming into mats, which
are then bonded together, and not only impregnated, through the use of
adhesive resins. As the consequence, textile structures included in the same
layer fibers with different orientations, simply as warp and weft, or with
more complex structures, including 3D wires, whilst the second is bound to
have unidirectional fibers in every single layer.
In general terms, the number of fibers introduced would need to be as
high as possible, coming to the maximum quantity of reinforcement that can
be fully impregnated by the polymer matrix. Also, ideally, in the case of
fibers produced by extrusion and sizing, such as it is the case for carbon,
glass and Kevlar fibers, those would need to be assumed as perfectly
cylindrical, continuous, aligned, and wound in a helical fashion at 45°
relative to the shaft axis. In this sense, the use of textile structures, while on
the one side improves the performance of the reinforcement phase, on the
other side does require more sophisticated ways for an effective, uniform
and durable resin impregnation. The quality obtained from the whole
composite does depend on the type and geometry of fibers, on their
geometrical arrangement as the reinforcement, their regularity, other than on
the production method for the composite. The ratio between fiber length and

52 Carlo Santulli
diameter is defined as “aspect ratio” and is recognized to have a considerable

effect on the elastic properties of the composite (Tandon and Weng 1984).
It has been also clarified that if the aspect ratio is lower than a critical value,
the fibers cannot be considered in the calculation as a continuous
reinforcement, and therefore are intended as “short fibers” (Kelly and Tyson
1965). This implies in polymer matrix composites that the fibers have a
random orientation (Figure 3). The critical aspect ratio is considerably
influenced by the surface treatment of the fibers, which is an aspect that is
of relevance both on synthetic and on natural one, although the effect of
treatment on it has been mainly studied only on carbon fibers (Duncan et al.,
2010).
The load transfer between the fiber and the matrix occurs through shear
stresses. When the fibers are particularly short, shear stresses tend to become
more significant at both ends of the fibers themselves than in their central
section. The different stresses along the section of the fiber increase the
likeliness of them pulling out from the matrix (Aliotta and Lazzeri 2020).
These ultra-short fibers, with aspect ratio lower than 10, the result often from
industrial (e.g., red mud in Vigneshwaran et al., 2019) or agriculture wastes
(Santulli et al., 2020), and are difficult to be tested experimentally, for
interfacial shear strength, so that analytical models are rather used. In
practical terms, it can be suggested that the increase of end-effects makes, in
the long run, the fibers behave, rather than reinforcements, such as
inclusions or defects, therefore resulting in a decrease of mechanical strength
and possibly only in an increase of stiffness and hardness. This depends on
the regularity of fiber geometry and also obviously by the shear strength of
the matrix.
The interface strength can also be improved by disposing of the
interphase between the reinforcement and the matrix. Several interphases
have experimented with. A possibility is to use the same material, but in a
different size or geometry, such as it is the case for recycled milled glass
fibers in glass fiber composites (Saravanakumar et al., 2020), or carbon
nanotubes in carbon fiber composites (Zhou et al., 2008). This arrangement
has the advantage of increasing the interfacial strength and its resistance to
the propagation of defects in the different modes of opening, yet on the other

side, it reduces the fiber strength in itself (Wang et al., 2011). Therefore,
other operational ways have been attempted, such as it is the case for fiber
treatment, for example through solution growth on whiskers on the fiber
surface (Lin et al., 2009).
An important difference between synthetic and natural fibers is that the
former are used starting from a filament with dimensions spanning from a
few microns for the smallest carbon fibers used in composites to a few tens
of microns in the case of the largest glass fibers. In contrast, the latter is
formed by filaments, or fibrils, which are united with torque through a
microfibrillar angle into a technical fiber, which is the one practically used.
Moreover, in synthetic fibers it is possible to obtain a cylindrical geometry,
resulting in a circular section, which is not possible in the case of natural
fibers, despite using on the treatment for their possible shape regularization.
Treatments on natural fibers will be discussed further down, dealing with
their application. In synthetic fibers, as well as in basalt, cylindrical
geometry is normally achieved in production, in the case of carbon or glass
fibers, through a treatment process, which is referred to as “sizing”. In
carbon fibers, sizing agents are matrix-specific and are needed especially for
the preparation of thermoplastic fiber composites (Duchoslav et al., 2016).
In contrast, for glass fibers, several silane-based sizing agents can be
possibly used, although, in practice, research work usually concentrates on
the four silanes in which the X group contains amino, epoxide,
methacryloxy, or vinyl functionality (Thomason 2019). Silane-based sizing
agents are also used on basalt fibers, for the similarity of their composition
with glass, although more recently more sustainable ones, such as starch
phosphates, have also been used with promising outcomes (Wang et al.,
2020).
The reinforcement can be furthermore used in the form of short fibers,
or of long fibers, which can be arranged in different textile geometries, such
as mats or fabrics, with some possible weave structures, such as plain, twill
or satin weave, some schemes of these are reported in Figure 4. This
provides normally a 2D structure, which is therefore somehow detrimental
for the obtainment of adequate properties in the thickness direction. This can
be modified by other processes, such as stitching, able to provide some more

54 Carlo Santulli
resistance to the whole laminate, effectively impeding or hindering the

delamination process.
Figure 3. Types of reinforcement forms for composites.
Figure 4. Possible weave structures.
3. TYPES OF FIBERS USED IN POLYMER-BASED

COMPOSITES: SYNTHETIC AND NATURAL
3.1. Carbon Fibers
Concentrating initially on synthetic fibers, carbon fibers, which offer the

highest properties in engineering terms, are obtained for their largest

majority from poly(acrylonitrile) (PAN) (Figure 5) precursor, with only a

very limited amount produced instead originating from coal pitch or rayon.
Instead of the above process of heat treatment, it is also possible to have gas-
phase grown carbon fibers, which occurs through the catalytic
decomposition of hydrocarbons, such as methane and benzene in the vapor
phase, a process known for decades, but that never became prevalent (Endo
1988). A significant characteristic of gas-phase grown carbon fibers is
having a central hollow in their section, which obviously reduces the weight
of the composite. In the sense of sustainability, it is also possible to start the
development of carbon fibers from acrylonitrile obtained from biomass, in
particular from glycerol obtained from it, although it does not appear very
sustainable yet, especially due to low yield and costs of catalysts (Grasselli
and Trifirò 2016). Most recently, other precursors have also been proposed
as a replacement for PAN-based ones, such as it is the case e.g., for lignin
(Xu et al., 2020) or viscose fibers (Gorina and Cheblakova 2016), in both
cases aiming at using waste from other production systems, such as furniture
or textiles, respectively.
Figure 5. Poly(acrylonitrile).
Different classifications are possible for carbon fibers, according to their

stiffness and strength:
Ultra-high-modulus (UHM) (modulus > 450 GPa)

High-modulus (HM) (modulus between 350 and 450 GPa)
Intermediate-modulus, type IM (modulus between 200 and 350 GPa)
Low modulus and high tensile strength, type HT (modulus < 100GPa,
tensile strength > 3.0GPa)
Super high-tensile, type SHT (tensile strength > 4.5GPa)

56 Carlo Santulli
Based on the final temperature of heat treatment, carbon fibers are

classified into:
Type-I, high-heat-treatment carbon fibers (HTT), with final heat

treatment temperature above 2000°C, normally associated with HM
and UHM fibers.
Type-II, intermediate-heat-treatment carbon fibers (IHT), with final heat
treatment temperature of at least 1500°C, normally associated with
HT and SHT fibers.
Type-III, low-heat-treatment carbon fibers, with final heat treatment
temperatures not normally exceeding 1000°C, suitable for low
modulus and low strength fibers.
3.2. Glass Fibers
Glass fibers are currently still the most diffuse for use in composites,
and they originate from extruding molten glass into thin fibers. Other uses
are in particular in communication technology as the core for optical fibers,
and as the reinforcement for concrete. The most commonly used glass type,
soda-lime glass, with sodium and calcium oxides, in addition to silica, which
always represents well above 50% of the whole composition of the fibers,
was the first type of glass fiber and lettered as A-type glass fiber.
The most used class fiber type, E-type, has an aluminum boron silicate
structure, although there exist glass fibers, in particular S-type, which
provide higher performance than E-type. This has been obtained by creating
a denser structure for silica. For other specific uses, other types of fibers are
also used, for example, C-type, where the presence of calcium borosilicate
provides structural equilibrium in corrosive environments, D-type, in which
boron trioxide offers a low dielectric constant, making these fibers therefore
ideal for offering heat resistance and electrical conduction, and M-type, with
high beryllium content, to provide considerable elasticity.

3.3. Aramid Fibers
From a chemical point of view, aramid fibers such as Kevlar can be seen
as Nylon fibers with added benzene rings, so that in practice they do not
show any clear melting point, together with a very high glass transition
temperature (360°C) (Mathews and Rawlings 1994). Kevlar fiber had a
considerably anisotropic nature due to its high ratio of tensile to shear
modulus, though high strength and modulus showed scattering due to the
uneven distribution of defects, which worsened with fiber length (Singh and
Samanta 2015). Although many types of Kevlar do exist, the one typically
used in composites is Kevlar49. For applications at higher temperatures, also
basalt/Kevlar hybrid composites have been proposed, also to offer higher 3D
performance with specifically designer yarns (Wang et al., 2008).
3.4. Natural Fibers
As it was the case with glass fibers, natural fibers did not only prove
suitable for insertion as the reinforcement of polymer composites but also
e.g., in the ceramic matrix: work on the role of different natural fibers, such
as flax, hemp, jute, sisal and coir, in the restoration of masonry has been
performed by Codispoti et al., 2015. It is important to notice this, since the
dimensional irregularities do not affect ceramic matrices, such as polymer
ones. In the latter though, these can be determinant into achieving a
successful fiber selection, on which the following brief considerations will
be based.
Once trying to select natural fibers, it is worth noting that their origin,
while on the one side implies renewability, on the other side means that they
do not allow being produced “just in time”, in other words, need to be
available for production once required. This suggests, from an industrial
point of view, that different fibers can be compared for their use in
manufacture. Comparative studies are frequent, an example of which is the
one carried out by Shubhra et al., 2010, which is based on their use in
polypropylene (PP) matrices, aimed at the automotive industry: here, silk/PP

58 Carlo Santulli
composites demonstrated superior as for mechanical performance to jute/PP

ones, also in terms of reduced water absorption. The idea is, appropriately
modifying the geometry of the pieces to be produced, to make them
interchangeable in production, or else to obtain hybrids between some of
them. The consequence of the above considerations is that, as far as the use
of natural fibers is concerned, some characteristics become particularly of
interest, for example, the seasonality, most plants can offer just one crop
harvesting per year, while some are preferable, offering more than this, such
as it is the case for hemp, or not needing eradication for fiber extraction, as
in the case of bamboo (Shah et al., 2016). Another important characteristic
is the local origin of the fibers, which make the use of some of them
preferable in specific regional contexts, such as it is the case e.g., for sisal in
Brazil, also hybridized with other local fibers, such as curaua and ramie
(Pereira et al., 2020), for abaca in the Philippines (Sinha et al., 2018), jute in
India (Singh et al., 2018), etc.
Some of these species are dominant, as being connected to a large
market including various successful products e.g., in the textile or food
sector: this is the case typically e.g., for bamboo. Bamboo represents an
adapted replacement for wood and it is also very flexible in terms of
characteristics since there are 1200 species of this plant known so far, which
represents a large opportunity for development (Chaowana 2013). On the
other side, there are several fibers, which showed potential, yet represent
only a niche in the production so far, the niche that could be developed by
intensifying cultivation, if a productive system is revealed that can diffuse
interest over them: a review on this aspect of less-diffuse fibers for
composites has been provided by Sarasini and Fiore, 2018.
In practice, the starting point for introducing natural fibers in composites
is normally the use of textiles, since the same weave structures that are useful
in that field can also serve as the reinforcement for polymer matrices. This
is particularly suitable dealing e.g., with hemp, flax, kenaf, sisal and jute. It
has been suggested also that the production of natural fibers, apart from
being possibly a by-product of the textile industry, does involve limited wear
of the production equipment, which represents a characteristic sought for
also by exigent industry sectors, such as the automotive one (Neves-

Monteiro et al., 2009). In the specific case of this industry, according to the
early studies carried out by the Ford company starting in 1929 on hemp,
more recent proposals concentrated on the possibility of the application of
natural fiber composites for products, such as door panels, interior trim parts,
structural head-liners, and seatbacks (Shahzad 2011).
3.5. Other Fibers
Polymer matrix composites can also be reinforced by many other fibers,

whose use has however been less significant so far. In particular, the
introduction of metal fibers would increase the thermal and electrical
conductivity of polymers. This has been proposed from the early
applications of polymer composites, using aluminum fibers, and correlating
the aspect ratio of these with the reduction of conductivity (Bigg 1979).
However, some critical aspects have also been observed, such as the very
limited increase of tensile performance in the frequent case that only a few
percent of metal fibers are introduced. Another important question remains
the unsatisfactory impact properties: in the case of polypropylene matrix
composites, this has been resolved with maleic anhydride grafting of the
polymer, a procedure that is applied, as indicated further down in Section
4.2, also for better compatibility of natural fibers with polyolefin matrices
(Tan et al., 1999).
The use of ceramic fibers into polymer matrices is also of some
significance in the case of microelectronics packaging or substrates e.g., to
encase piezoelectric sensors (Bolt et al., 1989). The latter contains typically
as an active element a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) crystal: a PZT precursor
can be applied in fibrous form into a carbon-resin template (Waller and
Safari 1992).
To improve the abrasion resistance, polymer matrices, such as
UHMWPE (ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene), are also reinforced
by needle-shaped wollastonite fibers, which are normally modified by
silane, titanate or a mixture of the two treatments (Tong et al., 2003). More
recently, wollastonite proved also adapted for hybridization with short glass

60 Carlo Santulli
fibers in a polypropylene matrix, allowing the production of the composite

by injection molding, yet with improved wear resistance (Joshi and Purnima
2010).
Another quite obvious and of interest filling of polymer matrices is the
one with polymer fibers, normally based on the same or chemically similar
polymers e.g., polypropylene: these materials are defined as “commingled
composites”, and provide a sounder and more reliable interface to further
reinforcement e.g., formed by glass fibers (Santulli 2002). The use of
perfectly compatible fiber and matrix, such as with polyethylene (PE) is in
general terms useful to ease molding and to allow optimizing material
processing, tailoring it on the performance required (Teishev et al., 1993). A
fiber that is also revealed to be particularly adaptable in combination with
polyolefins is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) fibers, which provides a
higher degree of crystallization (Wang and Liu 1998).
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL FIBERS AS COMPARED

TO SYNTHETIC ONES
4.1. Properties of Natural Fibers
To investigate the potential of natural fibers for their introduction in

composites it is important to start from the evaluation of the properties of
the fibers themselves. This presents several issues, deriving first from the
fact that the technical fiber has to be singled out, which may be not
immediate, due to the presence of loose fibrils and incoherent material, such
as waxes, pectins, etc. which is normally removed by the effect of fiber
treatment, which is the objective of Section 4.2. This influences the accuracy
of the measurement of fiber diameter and consequently of their mechanical
characteristics. In practice, the measurement of the tensile stress of the single
fiber in natural fibers is difficult because of the geometry of the section,
which includes the presence of lumens and whose shape is considerably
removed from a circular one. Attempts for modeling the section, accounting

for its variability and the percent of void present in it, were also performed
e.g., by Virk et al., 2010, in the specific case of jute.
This is due to the hierarchical structure from which the fibers are
formed, comprising many levels from the cell, to nano and microfibrils (or
“elementary fibers”) up to the technical fiber. The technical fiber, whose
diameter may span between a few tens to a few hundreds of microns, is the
one that can be spun to obtain a textile product, or that in any case can
provide a tensile resistance, also once inserted in the composite. This can
show a considerable variability depending also on how mechanical
defibering (also defined in the case of bast fibers as “scutching”) is carried
out (Fernandez-Tendero et al., 2017). In practice, in the technical fiber
different amounts of primary and secondary fibers are obtained, the former
being sclerenchyma cells derived from the procambium, while the latter is
produced by the vascular cambium (Gorshkova et al., 2012).
In practice, natural fibers show considerable variations of geometry
between fibers and within the same fiber, therefore early studies suggested
that Weibull’s “weakest link” theory needs to be applied to these, referring
to start with to wool and cotton, also to better predict the effect of the gauge
length on the tensile strength (Zhang et al., 2002). More details can be
offered in particular types of fibers, such as flax, where it has been reported
as the fracture at the kink band, linked to the presence of nodes, at
particularly regular intervals in flax, has different characteristics than the
internode fracture, which contributes to the variability (Andersons et al.,
2011). Tensile curves of natural fibers can usually be divided into three
parts, the first one showing linearity between load and strain, a second one
attributed to an elasto-viscoplastic behavior of the fiber, whereas the final
one is indicating the breakage of the microfibrils: this has been observed on
flax, hemp and ramie with little differences in Charlet et al., 2009. A
classical way of modeling e.g., the progression of flax fiber fracture
indicates first axial splitting of the technical fiber along its elementary
constituents, then radial cracking of the elementary fibers, followed by their
multiple fractures, which reflect what observed during experimental tensile
loading (Romhány et al., 2003).

62 Carlo Santulli
Some indications on tensile properties of natural fibers are supplied in

the comprehensive review provided by Ku et al., 2011, which offers
comparative indications of the performance of natural fibers concerning the
three main synthetic fibers.
4.2. Production of Natural Fiber Composites: The Treatments
The strong polar characteristics of natural fibers make it necessary to

solve the problem of their incompatibility with most of the polymer
matrices, namely those which are based on hydrophobic polymers. This is
addressed by the application of surface treatments, which may be chemical,
physical or physico-chemical: a comprehensive review is offered, together
with the reactions that are practically produced with the lignocellulose
structure of the fibers, by Li et al., 2007. Some of the treatments mentioned
there though have been in the last few years discontinued or become unusual,
such as the ones with permanganate or isocyanates, in the view of making
the production system as sustainable as possible.
It is noteworthy at this point that most treatments of which in the case
of natural fibers are derived in the first place from the expertise accumulated
in the textile sector, therefore starting with bleaching with sodium
hypochlorite, and alkali treatment, normally with sodium hydroxide.
Bleaching has been recently proposed also on fibers with very high lignin
content, which were therefore in principle not adapted for textile application,
but was subsequently modified to fit that use, such as it is the case for
eucalyptus (Espinach et al., 2017). On the other side, alkali treatment is
considered the standard one to start with for modifying the characteristics of
natural fibers towards their introduction in composites. As the consequence,
many studies are available, which consider the effect of alkali treatment, also
in combination with other treatments e.g., acetylation and benzoylation, on
the tensile properties and water absorption of natural fibers, such as those
reported in the review by Chandrasekhar et al., 2017. These treatments do
also reduce water absorption of the fibers, making them less prone to the
formation of mold and fungi. On the other side, one possibility that has been

investigated on hemp fiber composites, with interesting results, is to directly

promote the formation of fungi in a controlled fashion to improve bonding
of the fiber to the polypropylene matrix, combined with alkali treatment
(Pickering et al., 2007). This was able to reduce the typical problem of
aggressive treatments, such as the one with sodium hydroxide, frequently
leading to non-uniform removal of material from the fiber surface and the
formation of porosities. This aspect has been often solved by another
method, when, by imitation to what performed on glass fibers, also natural
fibers, are coated with silane: this proves of interest especially in the cases
that natural fiber composites are to be applied in outdoor environments (Xie
et al., 2010).
On other occasions, rather than the example of what is usual on glass
fibers, the reference becomes treatment like the one performed on carbon
fibers, therefore matrix-specific. In particular, different types of grafting to
provide interfaces with intermediate characteristics between hydrophilic
fibers and hydrophobic matrices are applied, in particular acrylation,
particularly applied on poly(lactic acid) (Qin et al., 2011). Acrylation
appears as an alternative to the use of “bio-epoxies”, based on epoxidized
acrylated co-polymers, such as those obtained e.g., from castor oil, soy oil
or flaxseed oil (Sahoo et al., 2018). The use of this kind of bio-based
thermosetting matrices is desirable, considering that conventional epoxies,
derived from bisphenol A, are virtually not separable at end-of-life from
natural fibers. However, the application of epoxy does on the other side offer
ground for an initial evaluation of the potential of natural fibers introduced
as filler into them. It needs to be noticed also that acrylation is in principle
inspired to the typical example of esterification of fibers, which can be also
realized by natural products, such as in the case of wax-covering of natural
fibers (Sampatkhumar et al., 2012). Another typical example with a very
wide application is the already mentioned alienation on polyolefin matrices.
This is because especially polypropylene represents a standard for
industries, such as the automotive one, and that it allows, despite the
considerable irregularities encountered in composites, introducing large
amounts of fibers in the matrix, to a level comparable with what can be
achieved in fiberglass (Joel Johnson et al., 2017).

64 Carlo Santulli
Some physical treatments, such as those with plasma, would directly

induce hydrophobicity on natural fibers, such as it was successfully proved
in the case of jute, which is on the other hand one of the most resistant to
any kind of treatment (Sinha and Panigrahi 2009). While plasma can be
considered a rather “niche” treatment, for low-cost materials such as natural
fiber composites, more practical interest has also been obtained by
treatments with other types of irradiation, such as ultraviolet (UV), infrared
(IR) or microwave, which, apart from an obvious effect of fast de-hydrating,
therefore hardening the fibers, may also result in a combined effect of
mechanical degradation, as reported in Figure 6 (Mahzan et al., 2017), which
is likely to be hardly controllable.
Figure 6. Effect of UV radiation on natural fiber composites (redrawn from Mahzan et

al., 2017).

CONCLUSION
In the present situation, polymer composites, which offer considerable

advantages, both in terms of lightweight and mechanical performance, need
to enhance their sustainability profile. This can be achieved by using
synthetic fibers, which can be recently obtained also through sustainable
routes, for example from the waste of agricultural or industrial production
systems, or natural ones. The advantage of natural fibers is the large variety
of their origins, which may make them available at low cost, also as by-
products for example of the textile industry. The use of natural fibers, which
is recommendable for their renewability and compatibility with biomatrices,
which are more recently increasingly introduced on the market, because of
the total biodegradability of the obtained material, faces though some
difficulties. In particular, their irregular geometrical and physical
characteristics, with variable density and presence of internal voids, results
in the large scattering of their properties, often with limited amounts of fibers
possibly introduced with the matrix, in comparison with what obtained with
synthetic fibers. This can be addressed by chemical or physical treatments,
able to increase their compatibility with the matrix, and in any case to reduce
the geometrical variability, to be able to promote the introduction of a larger
amount of reinforcement in the matrix. Another possible route is
hybridization with glass or carbon fibers and with other natural fibers, which
make the final composite more easily predictable, as far as mechanical
performance is concerned.
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Chapter 3
NANO-ENGINEERED FIBERS
IN POLYMER MATRICES
Jitha Santhakumari Jayan1, Gopika Venu1,

Sethulekshmi Anandhavalli Sabarisadanam1,
Appukuttan Saritha1*, Kuruvilla Joseph2
and Gejo George3
1
Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Kollam, Kerala, India
2
Department of Chemistry,
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology,
Valiyamala PO, Kerala, India
3
School of Pure and Applied Physics, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala
ABSTRACT
Fibers are widely used for enhancing the properties of polymer

matrices to make them appropriate for several applications. Fiber
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: sarithatvla@gmail.com.

74 J. S. Jayan, G. Venu, S. A. Sabarisadanam et al.
reinforced materials offer better strength to weight ratio and corrosion

resistance but suffer certain drawbacks like poor impact and tolerance
resistance together with weak fracture toughness that prevent their utility
in high end applications. These can be mitigated by generating better
interfacial interaction between fiber and the polymer matrix. Surface
modification of fibers is a suitable method for enhancing interface
interaction and hence engineered fibers are more compatible with
polymers. Nano engineering of fibers can induce tremendous enhancement
in biomedical, self-healing, electrical and mechanical properties of fiber
reinforced polymers. By an amalgamation of process parameters with
surface modification after fiber preparation, it is possible to selectively
tune the properties of fiber composites. This chapter tries to bring into light
the diverse types of nano engineered fibers, their fabrication methods and
the various applications of the polymer composites fabricated from them.
Keywords: spinning techniques, non-spinning techniques, nanofibers,

applications
ABBREVIATIONS
1D 1 Dimensional
2D 2 Dimensional
3D 3 Dimensional
AIN Aluminium Nitride
CA Cellulose Acetate
CCVD Catalytic Chemical Vapour Deposition
CF Cellulose Fibers
CNF Carbon Nanofibers
CNT Carbon Nanotubes
CNW Cellulose Nanowhiskers
CVD Chemical Vapour Deposition
DC Direct Current
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
HRTEM High Resolution Transmission Electron
Microscopy
IFSS Interfacial Shear Strength
MWCNT Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

Nano-Engineered Fibers in Polymer Matrices 75
MWCNT – EP Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes with Epoxy

PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PCL Poly(ε-caprolactone)
PCNF Porous Carbon Nanofibers
PECVD Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
PET Polyethylene Terephthalate
PI Polyimide
PLGA Poly(lactide-co-glicolide)
PMMA Poly(methylmethacrylate)
PNF Polymer Based Nanofibers
PS Polystyrene
PSF Polysulfone
PVA Poly(vinyl alcohol0
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
PVP Poly(vinyl pyrollidone)
SBS Solution Blow Spinning
SEBS Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
TPS Thermoplastic Starch
TPU Thermoplastic Polyurethane
UV – radiation Ultra Violet Radiation
WPI Whey Protein Isolate
1. INTRODUCTION
Nano fibers or nano-engineered fibers are materials having at least one

dimension in the nano scale and are considered as cylindrical structures
having outer diameter less than 1000nm and a minimum aspect ratio of
50nm [1–3]. Nature encompasses nanotechnology and man by means of his
knowledge and power of observation; mimics its beauty for the creation of
these advanced materials. Similarly, fibers are present in animal and plant
bodies in the form of collagen, chitin, gelatin, and cellulose [4, 5]. The
exceptional strength of these fibers enables it to function as a functional
candidate for advanced applications. [6, 7]. Later with the advent of

nanotechnology, it was realized that the materials can show enhanced

properties in their nano form than in the bulk form [8]. Thus, the possibility
of making nanofibers and their property evaluation became a matter of
considerable research interest [9, 10]. Currently there are various important
methods for the fabrication of nanofibers as shown in Figure 1.
Their remarkable properties like controllable pore size, light weight,
diameter in nano regime and the high aspect ratio has grabbed the attention
of academicians and industrialists [11, 12] and nanofibers are increasingly
employed in different fields like tissue engineering [13] energy storage [14,
15] filtration [16, 17] and biomedical applications [18, 19]. The progress in
the field of nanofibers has widened the possibility for fabricating polymer
composite scaffolds that can mimic the structural design of human tissues.
The microporous nature of the nano fibers favor cell adhesion, proliferation,
migration, and differentiation which are considered as vital parameters for
tissue engineering applications. Applications of nanofibers are
schematically shown in Figure 2.
Nanofibers are also used as fillers in polymer, ceramic and metal
matrices so as to enhance the properties of these matrices via the formation
of fiber reinforced composites [20–22]. The polymer composites made by
the incorporation of nanofibers are showing improved electrical, magnetic
and mechanical properties [23]. Diverse types of nanofibers like carbon
nanofibers, polymer nanofibers, biopolymer nanofibers, metal oxide
nanofibers and hybrid nanofibers are used for this purpose [24–26]. On
account of their fibrous nature, occurrence of size in the nano regime and
enhanced electrical conductivity, carbon nano fibers have gathered attention
as electrode biosensors and could be synthesized biomimetically for
conductive tissue substrates and other biomedical applications. Nanofibers
produced by electrospinning have exceptional properties such as continuity,
diversity in material selection, tailor made diameter, versatility of alignment
and mass production that are not possessed by other fibrous reinforcing
counterparts. Hence, they are considered as potential reinforcing candidates
for next-generation polymer composites. Nanofibers with core- shell
morphology can encapsulate curatives in order to expand the mechanical
properties of laminated composites and to impart self-healing properties.

Nanofiber/polymer composites also find applications in sensing, self-

healing, and super capacitors. This chapter depicts a complete and up-to-
date review of the latest advances in nano-engineering of fibers and the
properties and applications exhibited by incorporating them in polymer
matrices with the objective of stimulating interests in both the field of
industry and academia.
Electro-
Solution spinning
Blow Chemical
Spinning Vapour
Decomposition
Centrifugal Fabrication
Jet Spinning Methods Template
Based
Drawing Self-Assembly
Based
Figure 1. Schematic representation of different methods of fabrication of nanofibers.
Super
capacitor
Energy
Sensors
storage
Nano fibers Water

Solar cell
purification
Wound Tissue
healing engineering
Medical
textiles
Figure 2. Schematic representation of applications of nanofibers.

2. FABRICATION METHODS
Nanofibers can be made-up by following various spinning and non-

spinning methods. Non-spinning techniques are followed for improving the
production yield [27]. This section describes different fabrication techniques
and the characteristics of the synthesized fibers in detail.
2.1. Electrospinning Methods
Electrospinning is a well-known technology for the production of fibers

with a diameter ranging from 2 nm to several micrometers [28, 29]. During
the last few decades, both research and commercial view has been focused
on the fabrication of nanofibers by following the technique of electro-
spinning due to its simplicity and versatility [30]. Electrospinning can be
utilized for making fibers from ceramics, polymers, small molecules and
their combinations with diameter less than 10nm range [10, 31, 32]. This
technique can also be utilized for the production of nanofibers with different
secondary structures like highly porous, core-shell, hollow, etc. [33–37].
Thus, these electrospun structures offer a vast possibility of modification of
both the interior as well as the exterior of the fibrous materials. The
nanofibers are also able to self-assemble into different hierarchical
structures, [38, 39].
Electrospun nanofibers find applications in pharmaceutical field,
sensors, biomedical engineering, etc. The electrospinning technique is based
on electrostatic interaction repulsion between the surface charges and
viscous fluids. The electrospinning apparatus generally consists of a power
supply with high voltage, collecting plates and spinneret and this is usually
operated at room temperature. The solution of a polymeric material is
charged by the application of high voltage, thereby accelerating it towards
the collector which is of opposite polarity [40]. The arrangement is
schematically shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Schematic representation of vertical electrospinning.
Though the electrospinning technique was developed for the

polymerization of polymeric solutions [41], the advantage of sol-gel
chemistry makes it possible to electrospin many composites and ceramic
materials [31, 42]. Composite and ceramic nanofibers can be made by
making a suspension of the precursor in a polymer or solvent followed by
electrospinning. Later the electrospun composite material is subjected to
calcination [43, 44]. Thus, different ceramic materials like silica and titania
can be mixed with solvents in a similar manner to make ceramic nanofibers.
Khorami et al. [45] reported the possibility of making composite nanofibers
by following the method of electrospinning. The nanofibers were
synthesized by electrospinning aqueous solutions containing Polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA)/zinc acetate/stannous chloride and nanofibers followed by
the calcination process at 650°C for 2 h. The nanofibers showed appreciable
sensing behavior.

Generally, nanofibers made using the method of electrospinning are

solid in nature [46], but porosity can be developed in the nanofibers by
selective removal of one component or by the rapid cooling before
solidification process [47, 48]. The nanofibers developed in the collector
may not be oriented in a well-defined manner, when collector is a conductive
material. But by electrostatic or magnetical means, well defined ordered
fibrous arrangements can be attained. Hence electrospinning can be used for
fabricating nanofibers with ordered and hierarchical nanostructures.
Electrospinning carried out at low temperatures can offer higher porosity
compared to the electrospun nanofibers at room temperature. The ice
crystals used in the process can also act as a removable void template [49].
Li et al. [50] described a simple electrospinning procedure for the random
fabrication of nanofibers of nickel ferrite that are aligned uniaxially. These
polycrystalline nanofibers having diameter of 46nm were made by spinning
the solution containing the precursors like alkoxide, polyvinyl pyrrolidone,
Iron oxide and Nickel oxide and the fibers thus obtained were hydrolysed
and calcinated.
Biopolymers can also be made into nanofibers by electrospinning and
the problems in spinning can be avoided by alkali-based pre-treatment [51].
As the concentration of acid decreases, higher molecular mass nanofibers
will be obtained. The possibility of making non-woven electrospun chitosan
fibers was analysed by Ohkawa et al. [52] and the importance of the selection
of solvents and the morphology of the fabricated nanofabrics were studied
in detail. The study by Min et al. [53] shows the ability of the solvent
1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanolas in spinning chitin nanofiber. Recent
study shows that when the radius of the surface becomes nanometer in
length, the force induced by the boundary is high enough to make the
nanofibers adhere and aggregate leading to the formation of membrane. This
is very useful in textile industries and the effect is known as the gecko effect
[54]. Thus, the possibility of electrospinning can be extended to textile
industries also. In another study, by Fini et al. [55] Fe doped cellulose acetate
(CA) nanofibers were made by following the electrospinning process by
dissolving Fe nanoparticle and cellulose acetate in acetone followed by
spinning. Thus, it is possible to make hybrid nanofibers by the judicious

selection of solvents [56]. Co-spun mats can be made by following the multi-
fluid or multi-syringe process. Fiber mats containing different nanofibers
can be made by simultaneous electrospinning of two different materials from
two different syringes in two different solvents as shown in Figure 4. The
figure demonstrates the method of fabrication of co-spun mats of CA and
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN).
The possibility of electrospinning of nanofibers without a carrier
polymer matrix was studied in detail by Celebioglu and co-workers [57].
They investigated the structural, mechanical and thermal characteristics of
the nanofibers which resulted in a free-standing foldable material. The
entangled polymer network is highly essential to obtain nanofibers, but if
the small molecule itself is possible of making aggregates by intermolecular
interaction then there is an equal chance of formation of nanofibers. If low
viscosity and high conductivity solvents are used for polymer free
fabrication, thinner will be the fibers. Once the molecules are not getting
aggregated then the possibility of forming fibers is zero. Talwar et al. [58]
used associative polymers in order to overcome the limiting factor which
restricts the spinning of polymer solutions of low-concentration. Their study
revealed the existence of a new degree of freedom which is necessary for the
construction of submicron fibers. Electrospinning followed by pyrolysis of
different nanofibers could be carried out in order to utilize them in electro
catalysis and in batteries [59, 60].
2.2. Centrifugal Jet Spinning
This method is also referred to as rotary spinning or forced spinning.

This method differs from standard spinning methods by the force of
spinning. In this method, centrifugal force is the driving force. The
advantage of this method over standard spinning technique lies in the fiber
quality and productivity [61]. This method is schematically represented in
Figure 5.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram depicting the multi-fluid electrospinning of

CA-PAN composite.
High Speed motor
Spinning Head
Liquid Jet
Collector
Figure 5. Schematic representation of force spinning set up.

Ren et al. [62] synthesized barium titanate (BaTiO3) ceramic nanofibers

using centrifugal spinning utilizing the centrifugal force derived from a DC
motor in a cost-effective way. Lu et al. [63] proposed a strategic method for
the preparation of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers by the simple and
effective centrifugal spinning technology. Stojanovska et al. [64] prepared
lignin-TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane) polymer blends and studied their
spinnability. The optimization of centrifugal spinning in terms of angular
velocity, working distance, nozzle diameter and other spinning parameters
in producing lignin-TPU fibers were analysed in detail and it was found that
these elastomeric bio nanofibers function as potential membranes for
biomedical applications. Khang and co-workers [65] carried out a first-time
approach of making anisotropic biphasic Janus-type polymer nanofiber by
the centrifugal jet spinning method for fabricating scaffold networks. They
succeeded in fabricating nanofibers with tunable properties using this
method. Hence the jet electrospinning technique can be considered as an
effective way of making nanofibers.
Centrifugal electrospinning is a high-end spinning technique in
fabricating highly aligned nanofibers with high yield and tunable diameter
[66]. This can be considered as a versatile method for producing fibers
regardless of variation in composition of polymer blend or spinneret needle
gauge and it can be used in industries for scaling up the yield. Yanilmaz et
al. [67] prepared and characterized polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)/
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) membranes by centrifugal jet spinning and used it
as a promising separator in high-performance Li-ion batteries. Lu et al. [68]
utilized centrifugal spinning combined with thermal treatment of
polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) solutions for
making porous carbon nanofibers (PCNFs) and used them as binder-free
electrodes. Hence centrifugal spinning is a cost effective and facile method
for the fabrication of porous carbon nanofibers.

2.3. Solution Blow Spinning (SBS)
Solution blow spinning is a modern technique which uses both

electrospinning and melt blowing technologies [69, 70]. This method is
probably used for producing non-woven fibers [71]. The main advantage of
this method is the higher fiber production rate. This technique consists of a
syringe pump for delivering the polymer solution to the apparatus with
concentric nozzles for pumping it into the inner nozzle [70]. Solution
blowing methods are effectively used in making polymer and biopolymer-
based nanofibers, because of the advantage over conventional
electrospinning technique [72, 73]. This technique is also used for making
hybrid nanofibers.
Behrens et al. [74] utilized the method of solution blow spinning for
generating nanofiber mats/meshes over the surface. Santos et al. [75]
discussed the challenges faced in producing fibers from a water-soluble
solution by following solution blow spinning (SBS) accompanied by forced
solvent evaporation. Costa et al. [76] synthesized TiO2 and ZnO based nano
and submicrometric fibers by following the same SBS technique and it was
found to be an effective method of generating metal-oxide semiconductor
fibers in nano and submicrometric regimes with high output rates in
comparison with other spinning techniques. Cena et al. [77] studied the
preparation of PVP fibers by the SBS technique which is not common for
low molecular weight PVP. They concluded that there occurs no significant
changes in the properties of the polymer due to fiber processing. Li and co-
workers [78] used nonwoven membrane made up of free-standing polyimide
having adhesion morphology between interconnected networks and used it
in lithium-ion batteries (Figure 6). Thus, solution blow technique is a facile
spinning method compared to other spinning techniques. Lv et al. [79]
utilized SBS for making composite nanofibrous membranes having
superhydrophobic behaviour for oil adsorption. They dealt with the
characterization of nanofibers and focused on the porosity, morphology,
density, thermal stability, crystallinity, and oil adsorption ability.

Figure 6. Schematic representation of fabrication of PI nonwoven fibers [78].

Reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society [78].
2.4. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
CVD is a distinguished surface treatment method in which the substrate

is treated with precursors which are volatile in nature in an activated
environment [80]. This activation is mostly done by the application of
thermal energy, even though photo and plasma activation methods are also
available [81]. Though this method is commonly used for the fabrication of
thin membranes, it can also be utilized for the fabrication of nanofibers [82].
Hence the CVD process is an important non-spinning and chemical
fabricating technique. The schematic representation of CVD technique is
shown in Figure 7. By adjusting the process parameters, instead of making
films it is possible to make nanofibers and hence it is known as Chemical
Vapour Synthesis [83, 84]. Generally, CVD is followed for fabricating metal
oxide and carbon nanofibers. Arc discharge, catalytic chemical vapour
deposition etc. are commonly used for the fabrication of carbon-based

nanofibers [85, 86]. There are several research works based on the
preparation of carbon nanofibers using catalysts. But among those, the most
reliable one is the catalytic chemical vapour deposition (CCVD) that can
produce helical nanotubes with regular coils. But the disadvantage is that a
low yield is obtained for coiled carbon nano fibers [87–89]. Lee et al. [90]
developed a method for fabricating carbon nanofibers (CNFs) by following
CVD methods using Ni, Fe and Co as catalysts. Manafi et al. [91] used Co
based CCVD method for producing carbon nanofibers and graphitic CNFs
where fabricated using Ni catalyst by Che et al. [92].
Recently, Nitze et al. [94] developed a standard CCVD set up using Pd
nano particles for the production of helical fibers with periodic pitch,
helicity, and narrow diameter distribution. Rizk et al. [95] introduced a
simple and direct method for growing silicon carbide nanofibers in CH4/H2
mixture on silicon substrates covered by Fe thin film catalyst using
microwave plasma assisted chemical vapour deposition. Cheah and co-
workers [96] successfully prepared vanadium pentoxide nanofibers by
electrospinning and it was homogeneously coated by carbon by plasma
enhanced chemical vapour deposition. The nanofibers showed good
electrochemical performance upon carbon deposition. Zhang et al. [97]
reported the in – situ synthesis of carbon coated Li3V2(PO4)3 by the chemical
vapor deposition method. The electrochemical and kinetic properties
revealed that the nanofibers are better in the case of electrochemical
performance. Thakur et al. [98] presented a novel indigenous CVD method
for preparing coiled carbon nanofiber growth on bulk metals without the use
of nano catalyst and morphological studies were done. CVD techniques have
now grown to a level for producing hierarchal nanofibers having branched
and core-shell structure. By following Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour
Deposition (PEVCD), He et al. [99] fabricated Carbon nano trees. There are
two types of carbon nano trees, one in which two CNF branches are attached
to the graphitic nanorod and the other one in which several branches are
lined up in the form of a comb. The breaking up catalyst used is the major
reason behind the branching. The HRTEM images of the carbon nano trees
made by following the method of PEVCD are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 7. Schematic representation of CVD method [93]. Reproduced with permission

from Intech.
Figure 8. HRTEM images of nanotrees made by CVD method First row: bright field
TEM images of branched carbon nanotrees taken at low magnifications. (a) A Y-type
nanotree with parallel CNF branches; (b) a carbon nanotree with three branches;
(c) a Y-type nanotree with one inclined CNF branch; (d) a comb-type nanotree with
eight parallel CNF branches. Second row (e–h): enlarged TEM images of the
branching regions of the carbon nanotrees from the first row. The triangle particle at
the lower part in (g) is tilted to the [110] Ni direction, as seen in the inserted EDP [99].
Reproduced with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.

The combination of electrospinning and CVD is grown up as a method for

fabricating Core-shell structured nanofibers. The inner core is made by the
method of electrospinning and it is followed by the technique of CVD for
making shells. Fragala et al. [100] utilized this method for fabricating core-
shell structured Zn-doped TiO2–ZnO nanofibers. The same method of
PEVCD can be followed for developing branch like arrangements using
nanofibers over fabric mats. The low temperature conditions are very
effective in making modification in polymer matrices and a bamboo-like
appearance can be obtained. Hence polymer composite materials can be
made by following the low temperature PEVCD, and it can be used in fields
like field-emission, electrochemistry and smart textiles. So, the CVD
technique is very effective in making nanofibers over polymeric matrices
and clothes which can be utilized in various sophisticated applications. The
possibility of developing hierarchal strictures can enhance the properties of
nanofibers. Hence CVD is considered a very effective method for the
fabrication of nanofibers.
2.5. Template Based Deposition
Template synthesis is a simple and effective way of utilizing the growth

of nanofibers or nanostructures on the pores of the material which is used as
a host. The template synthesis uses both the metal sputtering technique and
the electrochemical process [101]. Zelenski et al. [102] has reported about
the MoS2 based mono-disperse nanostructure synthesis by thermal
decomposition of the required precursors on the confined voids of the Al2O3
membrane template. The obtained nanofibers had a length of ~30 µm and
diameter of 50 nm with wall thickness of about 10 nm. Ozgit-Akgun et al.
[103] followed template-based synthesis of Aluminum nitride (AlN) based
hollow nanofibers. Tao et al. [104] established a low-cost, rapid, and simple
method for synthesizing nanofibers from biocompatible, biodegradable
polymer poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) by template synthesis and those
nanofibers showed a sustained release as an encapsulating agent. The
template method is having more advantages than electrospinning methods.

Additionally, there is no need for specialized equipment or setup and the

general structure of the nanowires can be controlled by the template design
itself. Wang et al. [105] successfully prepared nanofiber bundles of Ag2S,
Ag2Se, and Ag by using Ag2C2O4 nanofiber bundles, utilizing both anion-
exchange and redox reactions. Using these nanofibers, they manufactured
an electrical transfer and switching device and studied its potential
application in electronics. Wu et al. [106] synthesized a template based on
aluminum oxide for the fabrication of carbon nanofibers of diameter 150 nm
by Nickel catalyzed thermal decomposition of acetylene and analysed the
structure, morphology and electronic properties. Using the template method,
it is possible to control the shape of the fiber by the judicious selection of
the template. Ogihara et al. [107] carried out a shape – controllable template
method for fabricating oxide nanotubes employing carbon nanofibers as the
template. The fabricated oxide nanotubes possessed thick, helical and thin
structures depending upon the type of carbon nanofiber template used. Li et
al. [108] made polyaniline (PANI) nanofiber-based films which are porous
using poly(styrene-block-2-vinylpyridine) diblock copolymer as templates.
Films possessed a high surface area with potential applications in
electrocatalysis, microreactors, and sensors. The template-based synthesis
of polyaniline nanofibers is presented in Figure 9.
A micelle mediated soft template approach for the bulk production of
polyaniline nanofibers was conducted by Anil Kumar et al. [109].
Henricksson et al. [110] investigated on the potential of a new nano-
composite which was fabricated using cellulose nanofiber impregnated with
a reactive solution of reactive hyperbranced polyester. They suggested that
cellulose based nanopaper templates could be recognized as extremely
sensitive reinforcement phases which are unique when compared to aramid
fibers, polyethylene fibers, carbon fibers, and carbon nanotubes. Capadona
et al. [111] demonstrated a simple, versatile procedure for the establishment
of homogeneous polymer/nanofibre composites based on a 3D template for
engineering inaccessible nanocomposites of immiscible constituents.

2.6. Self- Assembly Method
Self-assembly is another non-electrospinning method for fabricating

nanofibers. This is generally a method of forming hierarchical
nanostructures by the organization of molecules into different patterns by
non-covalent forces [61, 112–114]. It is found to be an effective method for
fabricating nanofibers from large molecules. Development of nanofibers
using self- assembly technique is a comparatively new approach [115].
Generally self-assembled nanofibers are having potential applications in the
bio medical field. Utilizing the self-assembly nature of taxol molecule, Gao
et al. [116] made nanofibers for therapeutic applications. The self-assembled
nanofibers of small biomolecules can also be utilized for toxin removal, drug
release, etc. [117]. Biopolymers can also made into the form of nanofibers
by the self-assembly of squid pen β-chitin solution and the prepared
nanofibers can be used for tissue engineering, bio-composites synthesis, etc.
[118]. The ability of coiled, coil R-helical to form nanofibers was utilized
by Dong et al. [119] and the proposed mechanism is depicted in Figure 10.
Nanofibers developed from coiled coils generally aggregate to form
hexagonal 3D fibrous materials. Non-sticky ends of the peptides lead to the
formation of nanofibers which is generally a concentration dependent
mechanism.
Figure 9. Schematic representation of fabrication of porous polyaniline nanofibers

[108]. Reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society.

Figure 10. A Schematic representation of self-assembly method of fabrication of

nanofibers [119]. Reproduced with permission from American Chemical Society.
Some kind of supramolecular amphiphiles also self-assemble into

nanofibers in water solvents due to their hydrophilic and phobic ends.
Moreover, uniform nanofibers can be made into vesciles by UV – radiation
[120].
Ke et al. [121] observed a smooth and revocable transition from
nanofibers to vesicles in an amphiphilic tripeptide–bipyridine conjugate due
to the controlled self-assembly and the structural and morphological
characterizations of the structures were done. The rational design and
programmability of well-defined 1D and 2D structures are a matter of
investigation regarding the formation of nanofibers. Generally, the non-
covalent nature is responsible for the step wise addition of building blocks
which simply decides self-assembly and geometry [122]. Molecular
nanofibers can be developed by the process of enzyme catalysis and self-
assembly, and it can be further utilized in fields of biomedical and
biomaterial development [123].

2.7. Drawing
Drawing of nanofibers is a comparatively new method of fabrication of

nanofibers in which the fibers are synthesized by means of a sharp tip and
then the polymer solution is drawn in the form a liquid fiber [124–127]. The
fiber thus made can be connected to a previously drawn polymer to form
suspended fiber. The drawing method is schematically shown in Figure 11.
The fiber is then allowed to solidify after evaporation of the solvent and the
fibers produced are found to have a large surface area [124].
Continuous nanofibers having different arrangements can be
synthesized by following the drawing method on the condition that only
viscoelastic material is to be used. But precise control of viscosity and
drawing speed are the factors determining the dimensions and repeatability
of the fabricated fibers. This method is usually simple but the yield is very
less [61]. Nain et al. [126] proposed a nano robotic fiber producing technique
using proximal probes for drawing polymer nanofibers by solidifying it by
the solvent evaporation during the drawing process. They utilized nonlinear
viscoelastic finite element simulations to reveal the automation parameters
and its effect on the nanofiber fabrication. Sun et al. [128] reported the
ability of post-drawing in improving the tensile properties of PAN–PMMA
nanofiber membranes made by electrospinning process. Nain et al. [125]
fabricated suspended PS micro-/nanometer scale fibers continuously using
glass micropipettes. They clearly suggested that controlling the weight
before drawing could control the diameter of the nanofibers (Figure 12).
Figure 11. Illustration of the drawing procedure.

Figure 12. Steps of the micropipette-based drawing method [125]. Reproduced with
permission from AIP publishing.
Carbon nanofibers can also be synthesized by following the method of

hot-drawing of Polyacrylonitrile nanofibers made by electrospinning. This
ensures the highest chain orientation of nanofibers in different ways. Cai et
al. [129] demonstrated a new path for developing polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
nanofibers and studied the reinforcing efficiency of the electrospun CNTs in
PAN (PAN/SWNTs).
3. TYPES OF SURFACE ENGINEERED NANO FIBERS

IN POLYMERS
Nanofibers are increasingly used in different fields like pharmaceuticals,

textile engineering and drug delivery systems [130, 131]. Also, nanofibers
are used as scaffolds and as electro sponges for the fast delivery of oral drugs
[132]. Amphiphilic polymers, hydrophobic and biodegradable hydrophilic
polymers, etc. can be used in the synthesis of nanofibers [131, 133]. Dextran,
polystyrene, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinyl alcohol, gelatin, nylon, polimides,
etc. are the most common nanofibers that have been used recently [134,
135]. Their unique aspects like high surface to volume ratio, nano-porosity
with large surface area and mass transfer properties make them appropriate
for different applications [136].

3.1. Carbon Based Nano Fibers
Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) can be considered as another allotrope of

carbon in the fiborous form, having micrometer length and nano or
micrometer diameter [137]. CNFs are also known as carbon filaments, and
are having industrial and technological applications owing to their resistance
to chemicals, high strength to weight ratio and superior mechanical,
electrical and thermal properties [136, 138, 139]. CNFs can be derived by
following different fabrication methods like electrospinning followed by
stabilization of polymeric precursors. Due to the presence of high carbon
content, researchers are focusing more on the synthesis of polyacrylonitrile
(PAN), cellulose and pitch-based CNFs [140]. Methods like catalytic
synthesis, chemical vapour decomposition and heat treatments are followed
by different researchers for the synthesis of CNFs. Carbon nanofibers
possess diverse surface chemistry and morphological characteristics
compared to other allotropes. These features make CNFs to disperse well in
organic solvents and polymeric materials compared to carbon nanotubes
(CNT). More importantly, these CNFs can be prepared cost effectively even
from biopolymers like cellulose and wood[141]. CNFs can be used as
promising materials for electrochemical and storage applications[142].
CNFs can effectively be used in fuel cells as anodic material due to the better
electrochemical performance offered by them. The observed enhancement
is observed by the carbonization of CNFs using Fe3O4 [143]. As described
above, these inherent properties of CNFs can be utilized for enhancing the
properties of polymeric materials. Hence CNFs can be effectively used as
fillers for different polymeric materials. Choi et al. [144] used CNFs as filler
for enhancing the properties of epoxy matrix and their study shows that the
incorporation of CNFs enhanced the strength and slowed down the
decomposition of epoxy. It also reduced the electrical resistivity of the
matrix. In another study, Zhou et al. [145] used CNFs to enhance the
properties of epoxy and it was seen that the CNF content enhanced the
mechanical properties of epoxy. Shi et al. [146] aligned CNFs in the polymer
matrix. It is generally difficult to align low magnetic susceptible CNFs in
any polymer matrix, and hence NiO and CoO are coated over CNFs. Thus,

the polymer showed a pronounced anisotropy in tensile strength. As

dispersion of CNFs in polystyrene (PS) is difficult Shi et al. [147] followed
plasma treatment to coat PS onto CNFs and made CNFs/PS composites. The
increase in interfacial interaction leads to an enhancement in tensile strength.
Polystyrene-CNF foams can be developed by incorporating CNFs in PS.
CNFs were able to show higher nucleation efficiency compared to other
nanofillers. Green et al. [148] used CNFs to enhance the thermo-mechanical
properties of epoxy polymer. Cryogenic fracture surface of the composites
shows good matrix fiber wetting and the flow of resin and impregnation of
fibers were also visible from the SEM images.
Fiber fragmentation analysis of single fibers coated with functionalized
CNF toughened epoxy composites were carried out by researchers in detail,
as the fiber treatment over the fiber surfaces affect the properties of single
fibers. The study compared the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) of sized,
unsized and coated fibers. The sized fragment with CNF coating showed
higher IFSS compared to other samples. This is attributed to the increase in
surface roughness and surface area due to surface treatment. Fiber pull out
is the toughening mechanism behind the toughness improvement of CNF
toughened epoxy systems. Surface treatments and conditions play a major
role in deciding the properties of CNFS. High heat treatment and
graphitization, reduces the IFSS and interfacial fracture energy. The CNFs
have become inevitable fillers for polymer matrices like rubber and epoxy.
The studies reveal that the CNF shows very high reinforcing potential due
to the increase in number of pores and voids which enhances the surface area
[149, 150]. These CNFs are capable of enhancing the mechanical properties,
especially tear resistance, an important property of rubber. A small amount
of CNF is capable of enhancing the mechanical properties of rubber.
Interestingly, the dispersing agents together with the CNF show better
electrical property as well [151].

3.2. Polymer Based Nano Fibers
Polymer based nanofibers (PNFs) is an important group of materials

which are gaining the attention of researchers and industrialists [152].
Polymer nanofibers with diameter in the range of submicrometer (<1µm)
possess unique properties that help in adding different functionalities to the
fibers for making them suitable for many applications. Usually, polymer
nano fibers are synthesized using electrospinning, template synthesis, self-
assembly, force spinning, interfacial polymerization, etc. [153]. But the
commonly used method for polymer nanofibers is electrospinning due to its
ability to fabricate continuous fibers, feasibility, and mass production [10].
PNFs are synthesized by both natural and synthetic polymers. The most
commonly used polymer nanofibres are elastin, alginate, polyurethane,
polyesters, etc. and their blends. The electrospun polymer nanofibers are
mainly used as scaffolds for tissue engineering like bone, cartilage, skin,
blood vessels, etc. [154]. As nanofibers are getting attraction in reinforcing
polymer matrices, our research group has fabricated polyimide (PI)
electrospun nanofibers for toughening the epoxy matrix. The
electrospinning of ploy(amic acid) followed by the thermal treatment led to
the formation of PI nanofibers. The fabrication method is shown in Figure
13. Very low loading (1wt%) of the fibers were capable of showing
enhanced toughness and thermal stability. The PI nanofiber acts as an
obstacle for crack propagation. The inherent properties of the electrospun
nanofibers function as the major factors in determining the toughness of the
matrix [155].
Nanofibers made of poly (styrene-co-butadiene) copolymer by
electrospinning were also used for fabricating nanocomposites by
incorporating them in epoxy. 1wt% of the nanofiber exhibited about 43%
improvement in fracture toughness when compared to neat epoxy. It was
also found that nanofibers paved way towards excellent enhancement in Tg
as well as storage modulus due to the restricted motion of epoxy chains
[156]. Polymer nanofibers are usually incorporated in adhesives like epoxy
in order to enhance the performance of adhesive joints. Generally, polymer
nanofibers have better ductility and adhesive strength to enhance the

mechanical properties of epoxy like polymer matrices. Similar to the CNFs

toughened epoxy composites, the PNFs also enhance the toughness by
toughening mechanisms like fiber pull out and nanofiber breakage.
Moreover, these fibers act as stress transfer agents and reduce the stress
intensity at a specific location leading to uniform distribution of stress [157].
Figure 13. Schematic representation of fabrication Polyimide nanofibers incorporated

epoxy [155]. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier.
Jiang et al. [158] utilized Nylon-6 nanofibers for reinforcing the

thermoplastic poly urethane, by cutting electrospun Nylon-6 mats. As the
refractive index variations between the nanofiber and the matrix were
marginal, the fibers could enhance the toughness, modulus and strength.
Depending on the diameter of the nanofiber, the composite systems exhibit
different tensile modulus and strength. Hence the dimension and other
physical parameters of single nanofibers are important in determining the
properties of polymer matrixes while transforming them into composites.
Nylon-6 nanofibers were also capable of enhancing the toughness of
melamine-formaldehyde composites. Compared to the nylon-6 mat
toughened system, nylon-6 fiber toughened systems demonstrated enhanced
properties due to better aspect ratio. Stachewicz et al. [159] made void free
polyamide-6 nanofibers using Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a matrix and

introduced it in the PVA matrix. The impregnation of PVA in the fiber is

associated with the viscosity of the polymer solution. Less viscosity PVA
forms less voids compared to high viscosity PVA due to the enhanced spread
and easy removal of solvent due to evaporation.
Figure 14. Schematic representation of self-healing concept, (a) the incorporation of

self- healing fibers into a polymer matrix, (b) cracks formation within the matrix due to
the external load and consequent rupture of healing fibers, (c) the discharge of healing
agent into the crack area followed by its polymerization upon getting in contact with
either pre-dispersed catalyst in outer layer of fibers or the hardener released along with
the healing epoxy, and (d) healing of crack region [163]. Reproduced with permission
from American Chemical Society.
Lee et al. [160] fabricated two types of self-healing core-shell

nanofibers, in which one contains resin monomer as core and PAN as shell,
and the other containing resin monomer and its curative as core and PAN in
the shell. Then the two types of materials were electrospun and pressed onto
the polymer polyethylene terephthalate (PET), where PET acted as a
substrate. The release of resin and curative leads to polymerization, which
imparts self-healing property. Schoenmaker et al. [161] used polyamide 6

nanofibers for toughening the epoxy matrix. Thermoplastic nanofiborous

materials are capable of avoiding dispersion issues as they get well
embedded in the epoxy matrix. These fibers enhance the ductility and other
mechanical properties and are capable of reducing the delamination cracks.
Palazzetti et al. [162] used nylon 6,6 for enhancing the interlaminar strength
of the epoxy composite laminates, and got an enhanced mode 1 and mode 2
fracture toughness. Zanjani et al. [163] fabricated tri-axial polymer fibers
having core-shell structure by multi-axial spinning method, and
incorporated them in epoxy matrix to make composites. Healing agent was
also encapsulated in the multiwalled fiber which led to the observance of
high healing efficiency. Fibers with higher diameters showed a higher ability
to heal micro cracks in epoxy. The self-healing property is shown
schematically in Figure 14. Polyacrylonitrile fibers were incorporated in
epoxy and load was applied. Upon the application of load these fibers break
producing cracks, but the removal leads to the release of healing agent and
it heals the crack. Beylergil et al. [164] used polyamide 6,6 for enhancing
the interlaminar toughness of carbon fiber epoxy composites
3.3. Biopolymer Nano Fibers
There has been a sudden increase in the need for sustainable and
environment friendly products during the last several decades in order to
reduce the excessive use of fossil fuels for energy requirements. So
extensive research has been taking place in the field of biopolymers [73].
There are different biopolymers like cellulose, collagen, etc. that already
exist in the fibrous form. Interestingly, other biopolymers can also be made
into the form of nanofibers by various techniques [165–167]. Cellulose,
lignin, starch, etc. are mainly made into fibrous form by making dispersion
in suitable solvents and are widely used for making fabrics and composites
[168–171]. Wang et al. [172] studied the possibility of deriving cellulose
based biofibers from soybean stock by chemo-mechanical treatments for
making composites with PVA and PE. As the mechanical properties of
cellulose fibers are analogous to glass and carbon nanofibers, it enhances the

mechanical properties of the plastic matrix. Recently, Karimi et al. [173]

made a packaging material by incorporating cellulose nanofibers and poly
dextrose in whey protein isolate (WPI). These materials showed a high shelf-
life and excellent antibacterial properties and non-toxicity which are
considered as the prime parameters of packaging materials. Saikia et al.
[174] observed that the hybrid composites of cellulose nanofiber, carbon dot
and polyaniline nanofiber in epoxy were excellent in sensing glucose and
the mechanical properties and biodegradability were superior to that of neat
epoxy. The tensile properties were excellent over neat epoxy due to the
unfolding of hidden molecular chains and slippage of stacked nanofibers. A
highly crosslinked network system also enhances thermal stability.
Abral et al. [175] made ginger nanofibers in a simple way using
chemical and ultrasonication treatments and incorporated it in polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) matrix. Addition of ginger nanofiber to PVA matrix
increased its microbial activity and the mechanical strength and thermal
properties like tensile strength, modulus, moisture and thermal resistance
showed excellent improvement. PVA/ginger nanofiber serves as an
excellent substitute for potential food packaging materials. Fazeli et al. [176]
prepared and characterized thermoplastic starch (TPS) based composites
reinforced by cellulose nanofibers (CNF). CNF was successfully prepared
by a chemo-mechanical process from short henequen fibers which consisted
of almost 60% cellulose. The possibility of deriving cellulose nanowhiskers
(CNW) and cellulose fibers (CF) from mulberry pulp were analysed by
Wang et al. [177] and then it was blended with alginate to make composite
films. The elastic modulus as well as tensile strength of alginate films
showed an improvement of 35% and 25%, respectively.
3.4. Hybrid Nano Fibers
Hybrid nanofibers can be considered as the combination of two or more

components which ensures the combination of properties of the individual
components [178, 179]. These kinds of fillers are having tremendous
applications in the field of polymers for obtaining enhanced mechanical

properties [180]. To avoid the delamination of epoxy composites,

electrospun hybrid mats were used by Filippo et al. [181]. They have
electrospun the blends of acrylonitrile/butadiene/acrylic acid copolymer-
based rubber and the polyacrylonitrile polymer to create the hybrid mats.
Incorporation of these hybrid mats had an effect on the morphology as well
as curing behavior of epoxy resin. The rubber component also had an effect
on the alignment of polyacrylonitrile chains as well as its reactivity. The
nature of solvents, molar ratio of individual components, flow rates and the
viscosity are the factors determining the properties of the synthesized hybrid
fibers. As the hybrid mats swell by the absorption of the resin, only a meek
increase in cure temperature was obtained. Abdelhady et al. [182] made
epoxy composites, by incorporating basalt fibers into the electrospun hybrid
fibers of nylon6,6 and epoxy and observed an increase in mechanical
properties. Li et al. [183] mixed epoxidized MWCNTs with polysulfone
(PSF) and made fibers by following the method of electrospinning. PSF
nanofibers had coarse arrangement and had random distribution, but the
incorporation of MWCNT-EP enhanced the degree of alignment. The
HRTEM images showed that the MWCNT-EP got embedded in the PSF
fibers.
As epoxy is highly brittle in nature, the synthesized hybrid fibers were
incorporated in the epoxy matrix; PSF nanofibers were dissolved in epoxy
whereas MWCNT-EP retained its alignment. Due to phase separation, PSF
start to form spherical shape at the time of cure, so the MWCNT-EP fibers
can be enveloped by PSF or get pinned or bridged by PSF. These effects
helped in enhancing the toughness of epoxy. Later, Li et al. [180] observed
the synchronous effect of these hybrid fillers in enhancing the toughness by
the interlaminar reinforcing ability obtained by the orientation in the
polymer matrix. The toughening mechanisms like crack pinning, deflection,
bridging, etc. observed in the epoxy composite made of these hybrid fillers
were studied in detail. The Ni-Fe coated carbon nanofibers were found
suitable for toughening the epoxy matrix for electromagnetic interference
shielding. The carbon nanofibers can be aligned in epoxy even in a weaker
field by making hybrid fibers by the incorporation of a material with high
magnetic susceptibility. Magnetite carbon nanofibers were able to show

alignment in the applied weak magnetic field and the prepared epoxy
composites were capable of showing electrical and mechanical anisotropic
characteristics. Recently, Sadeghi et al. [184] followed single electro-
spinning method for the fabrication of Core-shell PAN-epoxy fiber based
self-healing materials capable of repairing minor damages by encapsulating
the healing agent. The synthesized mats showed bead like structure and the
releasing and subsequent curing of the core led to a reduction in the tensile
property of the epoxy. Kołbuk et al. [185] fabricated gelatin and electrospun
poly(lactide-co-glicolide) (PLGA) fibers for bone regeneration and the
hybrid fiber scaffold illustrated better crosslinking and better mechanical
properties than bare gelatin.
4. APPLICATIONS OF NANO-ENGINEERED FIBER BASED

POLYMER COMPOSITES
4.1. Biomedical Application
Due to the fascinating properties of nanofiber incorporated polymer

matrices, there are advanced functional application for these materials in
different fields. Cellulose biopolymer nanofibers find applications in food
packaging and biomedical fields [186, 187]. Nanofiber based composites are
also capable of sensing the stress-strain change [188]. Recently, highly
stretchable and superhydrophobic composites were fabricated by Li et al.
[189] to monitor human motion.
By incorporating other fillers along with PNFs in epoxy [190], the
matrix can be made suitable for space applications. Bio and synthetic
polymer based hybrid nanofiborous scaffolds are excellent candidates for
biomedical applications [191]. Electrospun collagen blended polymer based
nanofibers are effective in the field of tissue engineering due to the ability
to mimic extra cellular matrix. The blending of nanofibers in polymer is
capable of enhancing the bioactivity of pure polymer [192]. The enhanced
mechanical strength of the nanofibers, the ability to mimic extra cellular

matrix, bone forming ability and cellular activity are the factors which make
the fibers ideal candidates for tissue engineering. Thus, the composites made
of nano and microfibers made by the two-nozzle electrospinning are capable
of showing enhanced proliferation, adhesion and growth [193]. Bio-
degradable polymer nanofibers containing lignin are capable of showing
better proliferation and are efficient in balancing the cytotoxicity and
antioxidant activity. But the incorporation of lignin adversely affects the
mechanical strength of the biopolymer used [194]. There are wide medical
applications to the nanofibers derived from leaves and these natural fibers
have excellent specific strength and stiffness. The natural nanofiber-
composite can be utilized for making valves having better fatigue resistance,
heamodynamics and biological durability [195]. The natural nanofiber-
composites can be utilized for making different medical apparatus like
surgical gloves, wound dressing material, medical bags, etc. [186]. Blending
and surface modification of nanofibers is an efficient method in improving
the drug delivery application of these fibers [196]. The insufficient pore size
and porosity of nanofibers can adversely affect the biomedical applications
and hence new varieties of nanofibers like scaffolds, aerogels microspheres
are getting high reach [196]. Incorporation of these forms in polymer
matrices can also enhance the biomedical application of the neat polymer.
4.2. Energy Storage Application
Nanocellulose based polymer composites are highly adaptable for

energy applications [197]. Cellulose nanofibers wrapped with block
copolymers are excellent in storing thermal energy [198]. Cellulose, multi
walled carbon nanotubes and Ag based hybrid nanofibers are excellent
antibacterial agents [199]. Feng et al. [200] observed ultrahigh discharge
efficiency and energy density for core-shell structured nanofiber
incorporated polyethirimide composites. The nanofibers of polymers can be
used for making nanocomposites with nafion matrix and the resulting
membranes are highly effective in fuel cell applications. The successive
wetting and evaporation ensure the porous structure of membranes and

ensure an active barricade to methanol used in the fuel cell. Microporous

structure of the developed thin films are capable of reducing the proton
conductivity and methanol cross over [201]. The alignment offered by the
electrospinning of polymer fibers enhances oxidative and hydrolytic
stability of the membrane and reduces oxygen permeability. Moreover, the
alignment enhances the proton conductivity, and the nanofiber composite
membranes can be used as an electrolyte for fuel cell applications [202].
Later, it was observed that composite membranes made from dual-nanofiber
electrospun mats are highly efficient for fuel cell application. The dual
electrospun membranes are capable of showing small in plane water
swelling properties and better mechanical resistance which avoids power
loss [203]. Nafion/Palladium silica nanofiber composites exhibited higher
water uptake and ion exchange capacities. The thermally stable membranes
demonstrate optimum proton conductivity and least methanol cross over at
3wt% of filler loading [204]. Graphite nanofibers and nanofiber scaffolds
are being efficiently used as fuel cell electrodes [205, 206]. Compared to
power-based electrodes, the nanofiber electrodes function better in solid-
oxide fuel cells due to their adsorption properties. Moreover, these systems
are capable of showing better conductivity and reactivity at interfaces.
Composite nanofibers can be utilized simultaneously as electrode,
electrolyte and catalyst and ensures better productivity, surface oxygen
exchange and reliability [207]. Nanofiber composite materials can be
utilized for the fabrication of electrodes for supercapacitor application,
which guarantees the long-term stability and better retention. Hence the
nanofibers are highly effective in energy storage application [208, 209].
4.3. Sensing Application
Electrospinning offers fabrication of highly efficient composite

materials having potential sensing applications. Ultrasensitive pressure
sensors can be fabricated using electrospun polymer nanofiber composites.
Electrospinning offers enhanced piezoactive fractions and outstanding
response. PVDF/graphene nanofiber composite can be considered as a nano-

pressure sensor as it is capable of detecting a pressure of 2Pa [210].

Superhydrophobic strain sensors can be developed utilizing polymer
nanofibers and carbonaceous nanomaterials. These hierarchical
nanostructures are capable of enhancing conductivity as well. The
superhydrophobic nature further enhances anti-corrosion performance [211,
212]. Exfoliated nanosheets can be webbed with the polymer nanofibers and
composites thus prepared can be utilized for the fabrication of electrode for
glucose sensing application. These fabricated sensors were capable of
showing better selectivity and sensitivity; moreover, it could be utilized for
detecting glucose content in human serum [213]. Recently, silica and
nanoparticle decorated polymer nanofibers were utilized for detecting
human motion. The graphene content ensures the conductivity and the silica
content enhances the surface roughness and reduces surface energy;
moreover, it avoids the use of fluorine containing environmentally
unfriendly molecules. Graphite gets easily damaged and can be recovered
and thus efficiently act as sensor and the high roughness makes it
superhydrophobic in nature [214]. Gao et al. [215] recently analyzed the
multi sensing ability of electrically conductive, superhydrophobic and
flexible nanofiber composites. They prepared PU/SEBS nanofiber blend
membrane and modified it with CNT. These composites were highly
efficient in sensing both polar and non-polar solvent vapour. These materials
were highly efficient in showing conductivity and mechanical properties.
Additionally, flexibility and multi functionality makes it a promising
material for wearable electronics. Thus, nanofibers and its composites are
utilized for various sensing applications like strain, glucose and gas sensing.
4.4. Other Applications
Multi composite nanofiber mats are excellent in providing high

mechanical strength, thermal resistance and antibacterial activity.
Hybridized networks of CNFs along with other allotropes of carbon in epoxy
are efficient in piezoelectric sensing [216]. Wang et al. [217] observed that
it is possible to obtain high thermal conductivity, electrical insulating

property and high toughness by the welding effect in the interfacial regions
of polyamide 6 based CNF composites. Nanofibers are highly efficient in
enhancing the structural and other properties of polymer composites [218].
To avoid radiation pollution, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding
materials can be made by cellulose nanofiber composites containing 1D and
2D materials. The paper composites thus fabricated were capable of showing
enhanced electrical conductivity and EMI [219]. Nanofiber composites have
excellent water contact angle, surface stability, durability, electro-thermal
effect and deicing performance [220]. These properties make them ideal
candidates for oil-water separation and anticorrosive coatings.
CONCLUSION
The advances in the development of nanofibers and the increasing

applications of polymer composites containing these fibers are detailed in
this chapter. Various spinning and non-spinning techniques and latest
modifications in the existing methods to develop multi component
nanofibers are also discussed in a comprehensive manner. Methods like
multi fluid spinning, single spinning are the new advents in the field of
nanofiber fabrication which are yet to be explored effectively by the
scientific community. Hybrid nanofibers can offer a high impact in
developing multifunctional polymer composites, due to the combined effect
of individual components present in it. As copolymers are also capable of
forming nanofibers, the electrospun block copolymers and their nano filler
grafted forms could be utilized as fillers in epoxy and other polymer
matrices. The rising demands of self-cleaning and self-healing materials
make nanoengineered fiber fabrication and composite preparation as an
emerging research area; which requires much consideration. Novel self-
healing and superhydrophobic functional surfaces can be made by the
judicious selection and spinning of the nano filler grafted polymeric
materials.

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Chapter 4
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS OF
FIBER – REINFORCED POLYMER
COMPOSITES IN AUTOMOTIVE
Sonia Sathyaraj1,*, John Edwin Raja Dhas2

and Harish Kumar Balakrishnan 3
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education,
Kumaracoil, Tamil Nadu, India
2
Department of Automobile Engineering,
Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education,
Kumaracoil, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering,
Trivandrum, India
ABSTRACT
At present, our world is shifting towards a green era of eco-friendly

material for product development. So today’s attention to our research
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: edwinrajadhas@rediffmail.com.

132 S. Sathyaraj, J. Edwin Raja Dhas and H. Kumar Balakrishnan
community is finding an eco-friendly material that gives high strength at

an affordable cost. The circular economy and sustainability can be
achieved by clean energy production, recycling of materials and use of
green materials from crop residue. Ligno cellulosic fibers are a healthy and
high tech choice for reinforcement in different kinds of polymer matricesto
obtain high-performance composites. In 2015, the NFC market worth was
USD 3.36 million and is expected to reach USD 6.50 billion in 2021. The
market dominance of the natural fiber segment is owing to its advantages
of being lightweight, having environmental benefits and strong mechanical
performance.
The automobile sector uses biocomposites from centuries ago and its
interest increases due to the concerns about sustainable and environmental
issues. As per the demand of European regulations, the automobile industry
took initiative to design and utilization of sustainable, feasible
environment, cost-effective materials for its parts manufacturing dates
back to the 1940s when the first biomaterial component using hemp fiber
produced by Henry Ford. The global trends towards CO2 reduction and fuel
economy have significantly increased the importance of vehicle
Lightweighting. The use of fiber-reinforced composite offers light-
weighting advantages, helping automakers create vehicle parts with
reduced weight and improved performance and strength.50% weight
reduction giving a massive 40% energy saving and reduced CO2emissions.
Bio-based materials can compete with traditional materials and offer
the greatest mass reduction for the equivalent strength and are well suited
for both interior and exterior applications. Therefore the automotive
industry now focused on integrating natural composites into their vehicle
structure. This chapter analyzes a comprehensive review of Natural fiber
composites, car manufacturers, auto manufacturers who make a leading
role and the different institutions budding biocomposite for vehicles.
Keywords: natural fibers, composites, automobile, lightweight,

environmental sustainability
1. INTRODUCTION
The automotive field is one of the best ever-emerging sectors in the

world and it is the main source of macroeconomic growth in urbanized
countries. Government regulations and sustainability concepts create
challenges to automakers and they are searching for innovative lightweight
materials to meet these challenges. Automotive composites mainly polymer

Recent Developments of Fiber – Reinforced Polymer Composites … 133
composites possess some outstanding properties such as lightweight and

better thermal properties than other materials and are widely used in the
fabrication of components of an automobile (Fentahun and Savas 2018). The
lightweight of the material has a large influence on the overall efficiency of
the automobile. Moreover, increased reliability and safety of the
automobiles equipped with composite body structures will contribute to the
growing demand for the product across the world.
Natural filaments are an environmentally friendly substitute for
synthetic fibers. Ligno cellulosic fibers are renewable, biodegradable and
they have low density and low processing cost than synthetic
one(Mohammed et al. 2015). This boosts the need for biomaterials in various
automotive applications mainly for interior components.
This chapter gives an overview of the perception of Lightweighting and
its significance in the automotive industry. A brief description of various
natural fibers along with its chemical structure also presented. The industrial
feasibility of natural composites is presented along with life cycle analysis.
Finally, a detailed review of various automotive manufacturers, models, and
components using natural composite are presented.
1.1. Trends in Automotive Lightweighting
As per the study “Energy savings by Light-weighting”, Commissioned

by the International Aluminium Institute (IAI) lightweight is the best way
for saving energy and greenhouse emissions in the transportation sector. As
per the European Environment Agency (EEA) road transport was
responsible for 27% of total greenhouse emissions in this sector (Fontaras,
Zacharof, and Ciuffo 2017). Light commercial vehicles such as passenger
cars and vans are responsible for around 12% and 2.5% of total EU
emissions of CO2 which is the main greenhouse gas (GHG)(Blok et al.
2020).On 17 April 2019, the Council of the European Union adopted
mandatory emission reduction targets for Automotives from 2021 as an
average emission of 95 g CO2/km (Bielaczyc 2019). Numerous researches
have already been conducted to look into potential energy savings by making

lightweight and it shows that the reduction of the weight of transport

vehicles (e.g., material choices, specifics of component design, etc.) is one
way to save energy and thus minimizes the CO2 emissions (Chebolu
2020)(Aravind Vadiraj 2019). Figure 1 shows the importance of making
lightweight in the automotives.
Lightweighting perception is crucial for maximizing the fuel economy
benefits without compromising performance with the aid of suitable
architectural change, material substitution and advanced manufacturing
process making lightweight of vehicles can be achieved. A 6 to 8% of fuel
economy is attained when the vehicle weight reduces to 10%. Using
lightweight materials like alloys and composites for the automobile’s body,
weight can be reduced by around 50. This reduces the vehicle’s fuel
consumption (Taub et al. 2019). Figure 2. Shows the prospect of lightweight
materials in terms of fuel-saving and CO2 emission saving potential (B. F.
and S. Mazumdar and Lucintel 2018).
Figure 1. Objectives of lightweighting concepts in the automobile industry.

Figure 2. Effect of lightweighting on fuel consumption and CO2 emission (B. F. and
S. Mazumdar and Lucintel 2018).
The lightweight material market for automotive was US$ 82.8 Billion in
2018 and it is expected to reach a value of US$ 124.3 Billion by 2024 (Wood
2019).General Motors (GM) is the major vehicle manufacturer in America
to utilize design optimization techniques for the development of lighter,
more efficient vehicles (Holim 2018). GM engineers use composite
materials to design the 2019 GMC Sierra pickup which reduces the overall
weight of 225 pounds. The popular car industries in Germany initiate a
lightweight concept utilizing bio fiber composites for their auto parts (Ramli
et al. 2018a).
1.1.1. Evolution of Lightweight Materials in Automobiles

The automobile sector uses different metals and nonmetals for its
components from early years onwards. The main factors considered while
selecting the automotive materials include durability, affordability,
chemical, thermal or mechanical resistance and easy to fabricate.
Affordability is an important factor that includes different costs such as life
cycle cost, manufacturing cost, operation and disposal costs (Ghassemieh
2011). Figure 3 shows Material trends in the automotive industry (Lucintel
Mazumdar 2013).

Figure 3. Automotive material trends from 1975-2010 (Lucintel Mazumdar 2013).
Table 1. Comparison of lightweight materials

in the automotive industry
Mode of Current Mass Cost
Material Advantages
Application drawback Reduction (per lb)
Steel and BIW, chassis, Strong and stiff, Heavier than 15-25% $0.35-$0.40
its alloys powertrains, corrosion resistant, other
bumpers and impact energy components
engine parts absorptive
properties, good
formability and
joining capability.
Aluminum engine blocks, Lightweight, Intolerance to 30-60% $0.90-$1.00
and its body panels, corrosion resistant, heat
alloys power train, recyclable, energy
pistons and efficient, safer.
cylinder
heads, etc.
Magnesium Door interior, Lightweight thus Low melting 30-70% $1.70-$2.0
and its steering contribute fuel temperature
alloys wheel, seat economy. (650°C), poor
frame, etc. corrosion and
wear resistance
Composites Body panels, Better mechanical Very expensive, 50-70% $3.0-$9.0
and Plastics interior properties, not recyclable,
components, lightweight, and hard
etc. Chemical manufactory
resistance. process and,
etc.
(composites).

Last decades there were many signs of progress relating to iron and steel
which increases the mechanical and other properties of steel. Iron and steel
form the major components of the vehicle and a comparable mass reduction
of 19% is achieved along with other benefits. By switching the material from
cast iron to aluminum and its alloys for the engine block and automobile
frame, 20–30% of total vehicle weight reduced (Mayyas et al. 2017).
Compared to Al and steel, Mg is lighter. Further weight reduction of a
vehicle is achieved by using magnesium and its alloys for various
components of the automotive (Joost and Krajewski 2017). Table 1 shows
the abstract of automotive materials with its advantages, application, draw
backs, % of weight reduction and cost (Fentahun and Savas 2018) (C. for A.
Research 2011).
1.1.2. Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications

Composite materials are solid material composed of two or more
components which combine macroscopically and have chemical distinct
phases to yield a useful material. The constituent materials, known as matrix
and reinforcement, which have significantly different properties and
combinations and the combination of these materials should result in a single
material with improved properties (Lubin 1982) (Raj, Dhas, 2020). The size,
shape and orientation of reinforcement in the matrix phase determine the
different properties of the composite. Composite materials are extremely
versatile material with typical properties such as light in weight, better
fatigue properties, good thermal and electrical properties and fire and
corrosion resistance. Because of these characteristics, natural composite
materials have wide applications in the fields such as the auto industry,
marine industry, and construction, aerospace, etc. (Rubino et al. 2020).
Figure 4 shows the evolution of bio-based material in car manufacturing.
The evolution of CO2 regulation and the reduction of greenhouse gas in
European Union is the main driving factor for using composite materials in
automobiles. Moreover, composite materials have proven to cause minimal
damage during crashes and accidents due to their high strength, stiffness,
high modulus, fatigue resistance, fire resistance, and resistance against crack
propagation, corrosion resistance and shock absorption capacity (Shah et al.

2019). This, in turn, is expected to offer lucrative opportunities for

composite materials in the automobile manufacturing sector. Figure 5 shows
the global composite materials shipment by application (D. S. Mazumdar
2015).
Figure 4. Illustrates the progress of composite materials in car manufacturing.
Figure 5. Global composite materials market shipment by application (D. S. Mazumdar

2015).
Different composite materials were introduced in the manufacturing of

interior and exterior components. This helps the automotive industry to
create components that have unique characteristics, such as being strong and
light. The global automotive composites market in exterior components
accounted for about 36.9% and interior components of about 32.03% of the
global automotive composites market in 2016 (Prasad 2019). Due to the

aesthetic appeal and attractiveness of automobiles, especially of passenger

vehicles, the automotive composites have a large application in exterior
components. Application in interior components of automobiles include
parts, such as dash panels, floor components (carpet and center console),
door panels, steering wheels, all parts of automotive seats, headliners, traps,
and roll cages. The dashboard components, crash and hit guards, lift gate,
door components are a few applications in both exterior and interior sides.
Also, the application even extended to load carrying members like leaf
springs, driveshaft, pressure vessels.
The composite market in the automobile sector has a share of USD 6.81
billion in 2016. It is predicted that this can grow to a value of USD 13.14
billion by 2022. This high growth in this particular sector is because of the
stringed environment and emission policies and regulations. To fulfill these
government regulations, the manufacturers of vehicles are using new
lightweight materials such as composites for fabricating vehicle bodies.
Figure 6 shows the automotive composite market segmentation.
Figure 6. Automotive composite sector.
The automotive composites market is globally segmented by type of

matrix material, application, manufacturing method and reinforcement.
The automotive composite materials market can be segmented into polymer
matrix composites (PMC), metal matrix composites (MMC), and ceramic
matrix composites (CMC) and hybrid composite according to the type of

matrix material. The automakers were very much interested with PMCs
since it has high insulation properties, lower density, better flexibility and
lightweight than other materials (Eray 2020).
Based on the application, the automobile composite sector is classified
into interior and exterior. The composite for exterior components of
automotive possesses remarkable properties such as lightweight, increased
strength and durable which increases the life cycle and minimizes the
damage and maintenance cost and thereby makes the growth of exterior
composite market size to a great scope (Adekomaya 2020). The
reinforcement in a composite strengthens the matrix material by improving
its properties. Fiber-reinforced composite has better properties than others
and finds wide applications in automotives. Glass fibers, aramid fibers,
carbon fibers and natural fibers are the different material segments. Glass
fibers are lightweight and strong compared to metals and it emerged as the
largest product segment in the global composite market.
2. FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITE
Polymer composite or fiber-reinforced polymer composite (FRP)

belongs to a class of composite material that consists of a hard polymer
matrix (thermoset or thermoplastic) material that is reinforced with fibers
(usually carbon, glass or natural fibers). Fibers which act as the
reinforcement can be in the form of particle or continuous and discontinuous
long threads. The load is mainly distributed by the matrix resin media
between the individual fibers. Matrix media also protect fiber from harsh
environments (Pandit et al. 2019). The molding process of FRP is also
simple. All these factors make the FRP superior to metals in a lot of
applications (Liptáková et al. 2019). Figure 7 shows the overview of
polymer composites in the automotive industry.
FRP composites are directionally dependent due to their anisotropic
nature. The characteristics of composite relate to the type and quantity of
reinforcement and its manufacturing process. The most significant factors
that influence the composite include the nature, amount and alignment of

reinforcement fiber, type of resin, cost of a product, volume of production

and service conditions. (Swolfs, Verpoest, and Gorbatikh 2019).
Figure 7. Overview of polymer composites.
Fiber-reinforced composite materials were successfully used for many

decades in the automotive industry as they exhibit better characteristics such
as improved aesthetics, easy manufacturing, and less weight than synthetic
materials. Compared to conventional steel fabrication, FRP is easy to
manufacture and has a lower investment cost. The main classifications of
FRP based on the reinforcement are GFRP (Glass-reinforced plastics),
CFRP (Carbon-reinforced plastics) and NFRP (Natural fiber reinforced
plastics). Out of these, GFRP is the most generally used in the automobile
sector. This is because of their excellent strength, better durability, thermal
stability, good impact resistance, inert behaviour to various chemicals, high
wear resistance and lightweight. The top automotive manufacturers in
Europe such as BMW, Volkswagen, etc. were implementing fiber class in
their cars which leads to the intensification of the composite market.
Structural components made from glass fiber composites could yield a 20-
35% reduction in the total weight of the vehicle (J. Zhang 2012).

The excellent properties such as high strength, stiffness, and fatigue

strength, etc. Carbon polymer composite have extensive application in the
auto sector. Thus it is ideal to use as a frame structure in the automotive
industry. The McLaren MP4/1 Formula One racing car is the first car use
carbon fiber composite chassis in 1981 (Mustafa A 2012). The carbon fiber
sector in the automobile area is fast growing with a rate of 7,000 metric tons
(MT) per year and is expected to increases to 11,000 metric tons by 2025
(Composites World 2020). When the carbon fiber combined with epoxy it
shows a very high strength to weight ratio without compromising on
strength. By using carbon fibers in the new BMW M3 and M4 model a
weight reduction of about 5% and has improved its mileage over its
predecessors. Audi uses carbon fiber in the rear wall of the space-frame for
its A8 sedan (Lucintel 2015).
2.1. Natural Fiber Composites
The elements of NFRC are renewable cellulosic fibers dispersed in

thermoplastic or thermosetting polymer matrix. Bio filaments are naturally
occurring elongated materials and are renewable. These are the
reinforcement and load-carrying element which are dispersed in the matrix
material. Matrix material performs as a binder material and also transmits
the load to the reinforcing elements (Faruk et al. 2014) (Bajpai, Singh, and
Madaan 2014). Partially biodegradable and completely biodegradable
composites are the two major classifications of NFC (Lotfi et al. 2019).
Figure 8 shows the various polymers commonly available.
The ecological impact of NFC based products needs to be examined for
its better utilization. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is one of the widely
accepted methods to evaluate the ecological effect of during its life cycle
(Hakeem, Jawaid, and Alothman 2015) (Dungani et al. 2016). Figure 9
explains the different stages of the NFC (Mansor et al. 2019).
There is a tremendous increase in the research in cellulosic fiber-based
composites since they possess better properties than synthetic fibers.
Synthetic composites are not ecofriendly, high cost of production and are

not sustainable when compared with biocomposites. (Thyavihalli Girijappa

and Parameswaranpillai 2019). Figure 10 shows the comparison between
lignocellulosic fiber and glass fiber in composite (Faruk et al. 2014).
Starch Plastic
Biodegradable Aliphatic esters

polymers Fully
reinforced Cellulosic esters biodegradable
with natural Soy based plastic composites
fibers
Natural
Polyvinyl alcohols
fiber
reinforced Polylactic acid
composites
Epoxy
Nylon
Non-
biodegradable Polyester Partially
polymers Biodegradable
reinforced Ketone composites
with natural
Polystyrene
fibers
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Figure 8. Types of polymers and composites.
Figure 9. Life Cycle of NFCs (Hakeem, Jawaid, and Alothman 2015).

Figure 10. Comparison between natural and glass fiber (Faruk et al. 2014).
In the last five years, the natural fiber composite market has experienced
enhanced growth. The NFC exhibit specific properties such as desirable
strength and stiffness, available in abundance, renewable, lightweight. This
amplifies the demand for NFC in various applications (Peças et al. 2018).
Wood fiber composites and nonwood fiber composites are the two fragments
of the natural fiber composite market. Anxiety about environmental
sustainability increases the demand for natural composites by most regions
in various applications (Keya et al. 2019). Automotive & construction are
the two important application areas of biocomposites. For automotive
applications, the largest market of the natural composite is Europe followed
by North and Latin America. Asia
2.2. Natural Fibers Used in NFRCs
Natural fiber comprises of complex carbohydrate called cellulose in

plant cell walls, supporting material in the cell wall called hemicellulose and
a phenolic compound called lignin act as a glue which holds cellulose and
hemicellulose together. Because of this plant fibers are known as
lignocelluloses fibers (Friedrich 2015). Protein-based natural fibers such as
wool and silk and cellulose fibers such as cotton and linen have wide
applications in the textile industry (Mohanty, Misra, and Hinrichsen 2000).
Fibers derived from plants shows better properties than other man-made one
and it has a lot of application in automotive, aerospace, packaging and

alternative industrial areas(Ahmad, Choi, and Park 2015) (Fogorasi and

Barbu 2017).
Naturally available cellulosic fibers are classified into five main groups.
Animal fiber, plant fiber, mineral fiber, organic fiber and inorganic fibers
are the different types of fibers. Figure 11 shows the different classifications
of natural fiber.
Fibres
Natural Synthetic
Animal Mineral Organic Inorganic
Silk Kevlar Glass
Wool Polyethylene Carbon
Hair Cellulose Polyester Boron
Silica carbide
Bast Leaf Seed Fruit wood Stalk Grass/reeds
Jute Sisal Kapok Coir Soft

Rice Bamboo
wood
Flax Banana Cotton Oil palm Wheat Bagasse
Abaca Hard
Hemp Loofah wood Barely Corn
PALF
Ramie Milkweed Maize Sabai
Henequen
Kenaf
Oat Rape
Agave
Roselle
Rye Esparto
Mesta
Canary
Figure 11. Types of natural fibers (Khan, Hameed Sultan, and Ariffin 2018).
Bio filaments such as flax, hemp, jute or kenaf are used in large extent
in automotive applications. The greenhouse gas emission of cellulosic fibers
is one-third of the emission values of synthetic fiber such as glass (Nova-
Barth 2019). Hemp and straw fibers were the natural fibers that got the ISCC
PLUS certificate in June 2016 (Carus 2016). Figure 12 shows the
comparison of the carbon footprint of different natural fibers with synthetic
fibers in Kg CO2equ/t (Nova-Barth 2019).
Due to the superior properties such as biodegradability and abrasion
resistance offered by the natural fibers over synthetic fibers increases their

demand in various applications supporting market growth. Over the last 20

years, global fiber production is doubled and it is expected to reach 145
million metric tons in 2030. Cotton fiber dominated the natural fiber market
had a market share of 24.4% of global fiber production (Pepper 2019). Table
2 demonstrates the important fibers used commercially in composites
(Lukaczik 2019).
Figure 12. Shows carbon footprint of different fibers in Kg CO2equ/t (Nova-Barth

2019).
Table 2. Estimated global production volume averages of different

natural fibers (Lukaczik 2019)
Sources of Fiber Fiber Production (Tonnes)

Coir 970,000
Cotton 26,410,000
Flax 310,000
Jute 3,195,472
Sisal 262,000
Clean wool 1,070,000
Others 982,528

Plant-based fibers such as jute, kenaf, coir, flax, sisal, ramie, kapok,
abaca and hemp had a market share of 5.7% of the total global fiber
production volume. Jute and coir fibers have the largest share in the market.
Figure 13 shows other plant-based fiber production (Million MT) (Pepper
2019).
Figure 13. Shows other plant-based fiber production (Million MT) (Pepper 2019).
2.3. Growth Opportunities for Natural Fiber-Reinforced

Composites in Automobile Industries
Wood-Plastic Composites (WPC) and Natural Fiber Composites (NFC)

share the major portions in the total European composite market. Natural
fiber composites are the better substitute for synthetic fibers like glass and
carbon due to its biodegradability and recyclability (Ferreira et al. 2019)
(Michael Carus 2015). The car industry is demanding fuel-efficient and
lightweight automobiles and this increases the demand for NFCs in the

market. Europe is one of the largest constituencies for automotive

applications. Figure 14 shows fabrication of biocomposite in the European
Union (in tonnes) (Michael Carus 2015)
With various Government regulations on Fuel economy and CO2
emission, the car manufacturing industry is forced to implement high
strength lightweight materials for their components (Sanjay Mazumdar
2015). Cellulosic fiber-reinforced composites meet these challenges with
reduced cost and weight of vehicles (S. C. R. Furtado et al. 2014). Figure 15
shows the major factors driving the usage of cellulosic FRCs in the
automobile sector (Huda et al. 2008).
The application of biocomposites in the vehicle manufacturing sector
shows rapid growth in these days. The polymer material reinforced with high
strength and stiff fibers derived from different plants has a lot of interest in
the top vehicle manufacturing companies for interior and exterior
components (Mohammed et al. 2015). Also, the various government rules
on ecological concerns increase the relevance of the biocomposite in
automotives.
2.3.1. Bio-Based Content in Automotive Components

Due to the apprehension about ecological balance, the auto sector is
greatly attracted to the natural-based material for the development of its
components. These include the use of carbon fiber cloth and other natural
fibers. Because natural fibers are often easier to produce than synthetic
fibers, obtaining them is less expensive. This allows vehicle and parts
manufacturers to save money during the production process. When natural
fibers are used in auto manufacturing, they increase the amount of a vehicle
that can be recycled, lowering their impact on the environment during its life
cycle. Natural fibers are naturally lightweight yet strong. When these fibers
are then combined with plastics to create a composite material, car parts can
be made far lighter than if they were made with plastic alone (Ramli et al.
2018b). The appliance vicinity of biocomposites in vehicle manufacturing is
mainly concentrated on the under the bonnet, interior and exterior
components.

Figure 14. Production WPC and NFC in the European Union in 2012 and forecast
2020 (in tonnes) (Michael Carus 2015).
Figure 15. Factors driving the use of natural fiber composite Composites in
Automobile sector.

The introduction of natural-based material for the components of

automotives initiates early by Henry Ford. Hemp and flax fibers were used
as the reinforcement material in the interior components (K. G. A. S. S.
Furtado 2016).Followed by Ford, many car manufacturing industries such
as BMW and Daimler-Benz introduce the natural composite materials for
their vehicles (1994), (1996).The leading automotive industries such as
BMW, Audi and GM show interest in biocomposites for their vehicles’
interior components (Abdellaoui 2018). The long fibers from the stem of
various plants like jute, hemp, etc. were the most excellent option for car
parts. The application of green composites extended to various components
like interior door panels, armrest, seat back and car boot liners.
The lignocellulosic fiber used for manufacture particular component
depends on the availability of fiber. The automakers in Asia and India tend
to use bast fibers and in European countries, they use flax and hemp fibers.
Sisal and ramie are the main bio content in the automotives of South
America. Figure 16 illustrates the chief parts of a vehicle made from natural
fiber composites (Sonar et al. 2015).
Figure 16. Illustrates the parts of a vehicle made from natural fiber composites
(Sonar et al. 2015).

2.3.1.1. Interior Components

Lignocellulosic fibers are the best choice for interior components such
as dash panels, panels, floor pans, etc. (Rohit and Dixit 2016). The main
components of the car like interior door panels, roofs, seat backboards,
trunks, dashboards, hatch, mats, exterior panels, wheels, etc. are fabricated
by natural fibers.
As lightweighting continues to be one of the biggest challenges facing
automakers today, manufacturers are increasingly turning to composite
materials for weight savings, functionality and sustainability. Fiber-
reinforced composites, made with natural fibers, combine the inherent
strength of the fiber with the durability and tenability of the plastic matrix.
The use of lightweight composite materials typically results in 20 to 50
percent weight savings. It also improves the strength-to-weight ratio and
increases part design freedom and material efficiency (Rajak et al. 2019).
Car interiors made from natural fiber composites provide better comfort
along with safety for the passengers. It also improves the aesthetics. Table 3
shows examples of Interior car components from biomaterials (Kerwan,
Kerry 2019).
Table 3. Natural fibers used in automotive interior components

(Kerwan, Kerry 2019)
Vehicle Part Material Used

Glove compartment Wood/cotton fibers molded, flax/sisal
Frame and Panels Flax/sisal with thermoset resin, Kenaf/hemp
Seat Coverings Leather/wool backing
Seat Surface/Backrest Coconut fiber/natural rubber
Trunk Panel Cotton fiber
Trunk Floor Cotton with PP/PET fibers
Insert Wood fiber
Rear parcel shelves Kenaf, flax, wood
Interior Trim Kenaf, flax
Plant fibers reinforced with thermoplastic and thermosetting resins

exhibit high mechanical properties and are used for most of the internal parts
of the vehicle. The hydrophilic nature of the lignocellulosic fiber limits the
application as exterior component (Huda et al. 2008). The alkali treatment

of fibers increases the adhesion between the fiber and the matrix and these
composites can be used in the exterior components also (Ali et al. 2018).
2.3.1.2. Exterior Components

The auto industry uses composites and hybridized composites for the
exterior components of the vehicle. It is expected that the exterior composite
market in the automobile sector will grow to a new milestone of US$
11,928.1 million by the next five years (S. Research 2018). The properties
like better strength to weight ratio, excellent chemical resistance, and good
wear property, high durability, excellent surface finish, etc. are accelerating
the utilization of FRPCs in exterior applications. The typical exterior
application includes crash and hit guards, lift gate, door components,
running boards, decklid, bonnet, etc.
One effective way is to lower gas consumption by reducing vehicle
weight. The first roof frame made of renewable hemp natural fibers was for
the Mercedes-Benz E-class. In comparison to traditional metal frames,
weight was successfully reduced by more than 50% (One et al. 2012). This
success story will now be rolled out to other car series. The requirement of
bio fiber-based composites in the American automotive industry is
drastically increased in recent years and expected to grow more in the
coming years (Rus 2010). This is mainly because of the perception of better
biodegradability and sustainability. Moreover, the improved properties like
high stiffness, strength, sound damping, lower production cost, etc.
compared to usual metals make FRPCs a better choice as an alternative
material. A few interesting cases for the challenging exterior application of
NFCs are underfloor protection covers in Mercedes A-class made with abaca
fiber, classified exterior components for Travego and Top Class models by
Mercedes-Benz used flax fiber (Akampumuza et al. 2017). Table 4 shows
the automotive interior components from natural fiber.

2.4. Automotive Manufacturers, Models, and Components

Using Bio-Fibers
The lignocellulosic fiber reinforced composites are lighter than

conventional materials. This increases the popularity of NFCs in new car
models in the European automotive industry. In the year 2012, European car
manufacturing companies utilize 80,000 t of plant fibers for their
components. The forecasted production of NFCs in 2020 will be 350,000
tons for automotives interior applications (Al 2015). Figure 17 illustrates the
use of lignocellulosic fiber for parts in car manufacturing in 2012 (Elsabbagh
2017).
Table 4. Natural fibers used in automotive exterior components
Automotive Component Materials Used Model

Under floor panel Abaca fiber Daimler Chrysler-Mercedes A -class
Engine/Transmission cover Flax fiber Mercedes Benz- Travego Travel Coach
Floor panel Flax mat with Jaguar F-type
polypropylene
Roof frame Hemp fiber Mercedes-Benz E-class
Figure 17. Natural fiber use by automotive industry 2012, by type in Europe
(Elsabbagh 2017).
The relevance of biocomposites for the exterior and interior components

by top automotive manufactures and their models is explained in detail
below.

2.4.1. Ford
The ultimate goal of any auto industry is to make high fuel-efficient
vehicles with zero-emission and runs on renewable energy. In the parallel
selection of recyclable and sustainable material for manufacturing is also a
big challenge. Henry Ford is the man who took this challenge in Ford’s
“Soybean Car” the first time. The company can reduce the weight of their
car by one third as compared to an equivalent steel-bodied vehicle (Lotfi et
al. 2019). Soy-based bioplastic material reinforced with plant fibers were
used to make the body panels of this car. Presently the company uses 85%
recyclable materials by weight. Figure 18 shows Ford’s famous “soybean
car (Madden, Charola, and Cobb 2017).
Figure 18. Ford’s famous “soybean car” (Madden, Charola, and Cobb 2017).
Ford used the first time a wheat straw-based reinforced plastics in their
vehicle Ford Flex in 2010 (Stewart 2010). Also in 210, another model
Taurus Ford introduced an eco-friendly bio-based cushion from soy
(Agarwal et al. 2019). FRCs find applications on most of all Ford models
including the famous Ford Mustang F150, Navigator, Mercury Mariner,
Lincoln MKS, etc. (Agarwal et al. 2019). Hybrid coir fiber coconut shell-
based reinforced composites were used in the model Ford Focus RS. In 2013

Ford used rubber from shredded tires and coconut shell powder to make a
thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) and successfully applied in their model
Ford F-250 Super Duty pickups (MALNATI 2018). Currently, Ford R&D
is mainly focused on replacing glass fibers with sustainable natural fibers
to make their products more eco-friendly. Also, they are planning to use
bamboo-based biocomposites for the interior application of their vehicles.
Table5shows Ford’s Driving Role in the Bio-Based Materials Age.
Table 5. Ford’s components from bio-based materials
Automobile
Model Material Diagram Reference
Part
Soybean Car soybeans, car (Madden,
wheat, hemp, Charola, and
flax, and Cobb 2017)
ramie (Dada,
Abdulrahman,
and Akinlabi
2019)
Model U. PLA fibers canvas roof and (Madden,

carpet mats Charola, and
Cobb 2017)
(Chauhan,
Kärki, and Varis
2019)
Ford Taurus soy-based seat cushions (Madden,

polyurethane and seat back Charola, and
foams Cobb 2017)
(Reddy B.S.
2020)
Ford Flex bio plastic/ interior storage (Madden,

wheat straw bins Charola, and
Cobb 2017)
(Stewart 2010)

Table 5. (Continued)
Automobile
Model Material Diagram Reference
Part
Focus BEV wood fiber, interior (Agarwal et al.
wheat straw, storage bins, 2019)
coconut coir, load floor, (Bajwa and
soy, rice foam seating, Bhattacharjee
straw headrests, 2016)
headliner
Ford Mondeo kenaf fibers door panels (Reddy B.S.

reinforced PP 2020)
composite (Ferdous and
Hossain 2017)
(Ramli et al.
2018a)
MY Ford F- coconut shell structural (Malnati 2020)

250 Super +shredded guards
Duty pickups rubber
Ford Mustang thermoplastic brackets and (Malnati 2020)

sports cars polyolefin side-door
/coconut shell cladding
powder
2.4.2. BMW
The German automobile industry such as BMW has taken the initiative
to utilize natural fiber-based composite for their interior and exterior parts
due to its advantages over synthetic one (Gholampour and Ozbakkaloglu
2020). Kenaf polypropylene-based composite is used in the door panellings
of the famous BMW i3 (Ahmad, Choi, and Park 2015). This not only
reduced the weight but also gives a better feel of using sustainable materials
in the vehicle visible portions (Interior, n.d.). Figure 19 shows the BMW i3
door panellings with kenaf fiber (Schmiedel et al. 2014).The BMW door
panel with natural fiber material won the Automotive Innovation Award
from the Society of Plastic Engineers. Figure 19 shows BMW i3 door panel
made from kenaf fibers.

Figure 19. Shows BMW i3 door panellings with an enlarged view of the kenaf
structure (Schmiedel et al. 2014).
Figure 20. BMW7 series sedan lower door panel with natural fiber prepreg and BASF
acrylic copolymer (Luisa Medina 2013) (Akampumuza et al. 2017).
Flax and sisal based composites replaced conventional materials in the

interior door linings and panels of their expensive BMW 7 series vehicle.
(One et al. 2012) (Karthi et al. 2020). BMW7 series sedan lower door panel
with natural fiber prepreg and BASF acrylic copolymer is shown in Figure
20.
2.4.3. Daimler Chrysler and Mercedes Benz

Mercedes Benz previously named as Daimler-Benz and Daimler
Chrysler is a German multinational automobile company. They widely use

composites with a natural fiber like abaca, flax, cotton, sisal, hemp, wool,
jute fibers, etc. for more than 50 different interior and exterior components
including load-bearing parts of their various model such as of Mercedes-
Benz A-, C-, E-, and S-Class models (Akampumuza et al. 2017). Also, the
new Mercedes-Benz Travego travel coach uses natural fiber-based materials
for the engine and transmission covers. This is the first exterior application
of natural fiber-based composite. New Mercedes buses use 30% flax fiber
reinforced polyester composite for the rear engine cover. Compared to glass
fiber reinforced composite flax fiber composite reduces gross weight
considerably (Dhanasekaran, Srinath, and Sathyaprasad 2008).
In 2017 Mercedes-Benz E-Class uses a natural fiber-based sunroof
frame, which is reportedly the first automotive roof frame entirely made of
nonwoven natural fiber composites (Verma and Senal 2019). Compare to
conventional metal roof frames, the use of natural fiber composite reduces
the weight by 50% along with improved sustainability. The automotive roof
panel made with hemp fiber for Mercedes-Benz E-class is shown in Figure
21. (One et al. 2012) (Heather Caliendo 2016).
To date, different natural fiber-reinforced materials are present in the
vehicle interior and exterior of different models of Daimler Chrysler and
Mercedes Benz.Table6shows the different interior and exterior components
made from natural based composites in Daimler Chrysler and Mercedes
Benz.
Figure 21. The automotive roof panel made with hemp fiber for Mercedes-Benz E-
class (One et al. 2012) (Heather Caliendo 2016).

Table 6. Automotive components made from natural based composites

in Daimler Chrysler and Mercedes Benz
Natural Fiber
Parts Model Year Reference
Used
interior door E-Class model 1994 flax/sisal fiber (Ramli et al.
panels mat 2018a)(Marsh 2003)
Door panels Mercedes Benz 1996 Jute fiber (Abdul 2017)
E- Class (Barbosa, Pereira, and
Lima 2018)
Engine and Mercedes Evo 2000 flax-reinforced (Abdul 2017)
transmission Bus, Travego,
cover and Setra Top-
class.
A spare wheel Mercedez Benz 2005 Abaca natural (Suddell 2008)
well cover A-Class fibers
Around 21 Mercedes-Benz 2006 Coir, wood (Ahmad, Choi, and
interior B-Class fibers Park 2015)(Holbery
components and Houston 2006)
Panel door, cargo Mercedes-Benz 2006 Wood, cotton (Fogorasi and Barbu
trunk S-Class fiber 2017)(Abdul 2017)
sunroof frame Mercedes-Benz 2017 Nonwoven (Heather Caliendo
E-Class hemp fiber 2016)
2.4.4. General Motors

General Motors Company is an American multinational corporation that
designs, manufactures, markets, and distributes automobile and automobile
parts with global headquarters in Detroit’s Renaissance Center. They also
widely utilize eco-friendly natural fiber composite materials in their
products. Their popular model Opel Astra/Vectra uses hemp, flax and kenaf
fiber-based composite for door panels and seat backs (Mokhoth, Thabang
2017). Cotton based acoustic insulators and kenaf based ceiling liner are
used in the famous GMC Terrain model. Flax fiber reinforced polypropylene
is used in the production of the rear shelf part in Chevrolet Impala. The door
panel component of the Saturn L300 model uses a flax fiber-based
composite. In the Cadillac DTS’s model, GM uses wood fiber-based
composite for the seatbacks (Mokhoth, Thabang 2017) (Kerwan, Kerry
2019). Table 7 shows the application of biocomposites by General Motors
in their automotives.

Table 7. Shows the automotive parts from natural fiber composite by

General Motors in their models
Manufacturer Model Material Used Applications

Opel-C segment Vauxhall bast fiber door panel interior
Astra/Vectra,
Zafira
GM Cadillac DeVille wood +pp seatback
Chevrolet Impala flax pp rear shelf trim panels
General Motors Chevrolet Trail wood cargo space floor
Blazer
GMC Envoy XUV wood composite cargo space floor
General Motors Terrain cotton/polyester acoustic insulator
composite
General Motors Terrain kenaf/polyester ceiling liner
composite
General Motors Saturn- L300 kenaf, flax interior door panel,
package trays
2.4.5. Audi
Audi AG is a German multinational automotive manufacturer that
designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes opulence vehicles.
This company is also a member of the Volkswagen Group. They also focus
their research and development on alternate materials which are eco-
friendly, better weight reduction and improved mechanical properties. The
mid-range model A2 uses polyurethane reinforced with a mixed flax/sisal
mat for the door trim panels to reduce the gross weight considerably
compared to conventional materials (Loureiro and Esteves 2018). Figure 22
shows the side door liner of an Audi A2 made from a natural fiber-based
composite material (Bessy M Philip, Eldho Abhraham 2013). The Audi
Avant A4 model uses flax fiber polypropylene for the hatch door covers
which eventually reduces 30% of weight compared to conventional glass
fiber polypropylene reinforced composite (Sharma 2017) (“Plastics and
Reinforcements Used in Automobile Construction” 2007).
In the Audi A3 model, flax jute reinforced epoxy composites were used
for two interior side panels. This reduces the weight considerably leads to
better fuel efficiency with fewer emissions (Mansor et al. 2019) (La Rosa
and Cicala 2015).

Figure 22. Audi A2 side door liner from natural fiber-based composite material
(Dhanasekaran, Srinath, and Sathyaprasad 2008) (Bessy M Philip, Eldho Abhraham
2013).
2.4.6. Toyota
Toyota Motor Corporation is a Japanese multinational automobile
manufacturer with global headquartered in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. Toyota has
been using bio-based plastics for more than a decade. The popular Toyota
models like Celsior, Brevis and Harrier were using natural fiber-reinforced
composite for various components since 1999. Components like headliners,
floor mats and sun visors are made with PLA/kenaf biocomposite for the
models Toyota SAI and Toyota Prius. Toyota R&D planning to reduce 20%
of conventional plastics with eco-friendly bio-materials shortly (Ray 2015).
Models like Prius, Corolla, Matrix, RAV4, and Lexus RX 350 uses soy-
based seat cushions. A 20-37% starch-based polymer-based biomaterial is
used for vent louvers of the Prius ‘A’ (Thamae 2018). Table 8 shows the
different interior and exterior components from bio-based materials present
in the different models of Toyota (Luisa Medina 2013) (Sharma 2017)
(Loureiro and Esteves 2018) (Kim Hill 2012) (Campilho 2017)
(Vinayagamoorthy and Rajmohan 2018) (Reddy, Kim, and Park 2016).

Other auto manufacturers in Europe like Fiat have much more interest
in natural composite materials for the components in their models. They are
using soy-based polyurethanes and castor oil-derived polyamides to change
synthetic resins in a number of their vehicles. This newly introduced
biomaterial-based fuel line took Fiat to win the Automotive Innovation
Award in the environmental category during 2011 (Akampumuza et al.
2017). Table 9 shows the summary of other manufactures using natural
fibers in their model components.
Table 8. Shows the different interior and exterior components from

bio-based materials present in the different models of Toyota
Company/Brand Models Material Application

Toyota Lexus Lexus- bamboo reinforced storage compartments
CT200h polyethylene
terephthalate
Toyota -Lexus Lexus- corn and sorona floor mats
CT200h
Toyota -Lexus Lexus-ES300 kenaf, and polylactic package trays
acid
Toyota -Lexus Lexus- bioplastic interior parts
HS250h
Toyota Toyota Brevis kenaf fiber, door panels interior
polypropylene parts
Toyota Toyota Camry end tank of radiator
Toyota Toyota- kenaf reinforced interior components
Celsior polypropylene
(Lexus LS)
Toyota ES3 concept sweet potatoes, sugar interior components
cane bioplastic
Toyota Toyota- kenaf based interior parts,
Harrier polypropylene seatbacks
(Lexus RX)
Toyota Toyota-Prius corn and sorona ep instrument-panel, vent
of air-conditioner
Toyota Toyota-Raum kenaf and starch floor mats and interior
composite material components
Toyota Toyota-Raum kenaf based starch spare tire covers
composite material
Toyota Toyota-SAI corn/sorona ceiling surface, sun
visor, pillar garnish

Table 9. Shows the outline of the consumption of biocomposite

in other automotive industries
Manufacturer and
Components Constituents Reference
Model
Fiat-Albea, Punto, housing of oil filter, castor oil-derived (Beyanagari
Punto, Bravo, electrical junction long chain Sudheer Reddy
Marea, Alfa Romeo, box, bumper, box, polyamides 2020)
FIAT—146, 156, 500 roof cover, arm rest (Sharma 2017)
and headrest
Volkswagen -Passat seat back, door flax fiber/ PP (Ray 2015)
Variant, Golf, A4, panel, boot-lid composites
Bora finish panel, and
boot-liner
Peugeot -406 interior - (Fogorasi and
components, and Barbu 2017)
parcel shelf (Campilho 2017)
Saturn -L300 storage trays and kenaf/flax (Sreenivas and Al
front door panels 2020)
Volvo -V70, C70 seat padding, polyurethane (Calistor Nyambo
natural foams, and /sisal /flax 2014)
storage floor tray
Saab -9S interior components cotton/pp (Nazar 2017)
Citroen -C3 Picasso, front and rear door flax (Ilyas et al. 2019)
C5 interior panellings,
storage shelves
Lotus -Eco Elise interior panels, floor hemp (D Dai 2014)
(July 2008), Elise S mats /unsaturated
polyester
Rover -2000 and interior biotex /flax (Faruk et al. 2014)
others components, material (Mohammad
storage shelf/panel Jawaid 2016)
Honda -Pilot storage area, wood fiber-based (Rahman 2015)
interior components composites
CONCLUSION
The lightweight automotive composites industry has an indisputably

dazzling future. Demands budding from customers’ expectations and legal
necessities drive the material selection in the auto sector. The requirement
of eco-friendly, affordable and energy-efficient materials in this sector has
enormous significance. Recently various natural and synthetic based
composite materials were implemented for components manufacturing in

the automotive sector. Environmental legislation in different countries is

becoming much more stringent leading to better exploitation of biomaterials
for interior and exterior components than synthetic materials in automotive
construction. Bio fiber polymer materials offer an exceptional prospect to
retain ecological concerns. Therefore cellulosic filaments are a hopeful
material (Giampieri et al. 2020). Numerous studies are going on hybrid
composite materials and their application in automotives.
Most of the car manufacturing sectors searching for innovative and
sustainable materials for their components. A growing interest in the green
composite is mainly due to the strict government rules and regulations on
ecological concerns. The main challenge faced by automotive manufacture
while using natural fiber-reinforced composite is its durability with
biodegradability. Currently, a lot of researches are going on new coating
technologies to improve durability without compromising biodegradability.
This can extend the applications of natural fiber reinforced composite to
various exterior automobile components also. Now various studies
happening on the agro-waste reinforced composite areas. This can be an
alternative to expensive conventional natural fibers. All these researches and
developments promise a dazzling future for natural fiber reinforced
composite as an alternate sustainable material in the automotive sector.
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Chapter 5
FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER
COMPOSITES IN AVIATION
Mostakima Mafruha Lubna1, Zaheeruddin Mohammed2,

Manik Chandra Biswas1,2, and Md Enamul Hoque3,†
1
Department of Fiber and Polymer Science, Textile Engineering,
Chemistry and Science, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, US
2
Department of Material Science and Engineering,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, US
3
ABSTRACT
The aviation industry is the constantly progressive and most adaptive

one towards the use of advanced materials to improve performance and
safety. Broadly the aviation industry includes commercial airlines, private

Corresponding Author’s Email: mbiswas2@ncsu.edu.
†
Corresponding Author’s Email: enamul1973@gmail.com.

178 M. Mafruha Lubna, Z. Mohammed, M. Chandra Biswas et al.
aircraft, and military aerospace. One of the major factors that dictate a
profitable aviation business is the use of stronger lightweight materials for
aircraft components without compromising the safety and reliability of the
structure. The use of fiber-reinforced polymer or plastic (FRP) composites
is considered a very dependable solution to fulfill such demands. This
chapter gives a brief overview of the history, types of FRP composites used
for aviation application, their general production methods, and recent
development in materials and manufacturing technologies. A summary of
the major market scenario in the field of civil, military, and recreational
aviation is discussed, along with the current and future trends for
developing FRP composites. To achieve the ultimate goal of saving fuel to
increase flight time and payload, FRP composite has already proven to be
the best material choice. FRP composites also give flexibility in designing
future aircraft structures that can mitigate the challenges currently being
faced by the aviation industry.
Keywords: aviation, composite, fiber, polymer, lightweight structure,

mechanical strength
ABBREVIATIONS
AFP Automated fiber placement

ATL Automated tape lay-up
BMI Bismaleimides
CF Carbon fiber
CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites
CNTs Carbon nanotubes
FRP Fiber-reinforced polymer or plastics
FRPC Fiber-reinforced polymer or plastic composites
GF Glass fiber
GFRP Glass fiber reinforced polymer composites
IR&D Innovation, research, and development
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PEEK Polyether ether ketone
PEI Polyetherimide
PPS Polyphenylene sulfide

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites in Aviation 179
RTM Resin transfer molding

Tg Glass transition temperature
TPCs Thermoplastic composites
UAV Unmanned aerial vehicles
VARTM Vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding
1. INTRODUCTION
The high specific strength and stiffness of fiber-reinforced polymer

(FRP) composites arise from the infusion of reinforcing fibers namely,
natural fibers (NF), carbon (CF), glass (GF), aramid (AF) etc. The structural
properties of FRP composites are mainly controlled by the strength of the
fibers, their volume fraction, orientation, and length. Owing to the merits of
these attributes, FRP composites have been used in various promising areas
such as aerospace, automotive, construction & buildings, petroleum
industries, and so on. Additionally, recent technological development,
materials engineering, and polymer science allow for the state-of-the-art
fabrication of polymer composites (Lu et al., 2019; Manik Chandra Biswas,
Bush, and Ford 2020; BISWAS 2017). The aviation industry is one of the
highly progressive industry which profoundly embraces the use of fiber-
reinforced polymer or plastic (FRP) composites since the 1940s. The use of
FRP as an advanced engineered material provides significant benefits as
FRP offers higher mechanical strength with lighter weight meaning more
fuel efficiency and longer flight time. Nowadays FRP composite’s use in
aircraft parts and body structures had increased from nearly 30% to more
than 60% of the aircraft’s total weight. The FRP composites are typically
20% lighter than aluminum; a report from a Federal Aviation Administration
Advanced Materials Research Program found that there is a US $100-300
cost-saving per pound of weight saved on a commercial aircraft over the
service life of that aircraft (Werfelman 2007). Various FRP composites are
used in designing different parts of the aircraft focusing not only the
strength, durability, and fuel-saving but also ensuring greater safety. Among
all of them, carbon fiber (CF), aramid fiber and glass fiber (GF) are the major

types of fibers used in aviation FRP composites. The first aerospace use of
FRP composites is in military aircraft during World War II; nowadays
commercial aircraft, helicopters, and private jets are also using a wide
variety of FRP composites in different parts of the structure. FRP composites
are used in making the all-composite aircraft body, propeller blades, aircraft
doors, control panel surface, flouring, wind box, fuselage, etc. The wide
variety of engineering design choices can satisfy a wide range of desired
criteria for different aircraft components. For example, today’s FRP
composite aircraft (Boeing 787 Dreamliner) is 10,000 lb lighter, as a result,
uses 20% less fuel than a comparably sized all-aluminum aircraft
(Massengill 2005). The use of FRP composites is growing fast and replacing
many metal parts in the commercial, private, and military aviation sectors.
The wide range of selection options of reinforcement fiber and matrix
polymer materials, the ability to change fiber orientations in structures, and
hybrid structure formation capabilities offer a degree of freedom in
designing various FRP composite aircraft parts with specific requirements.
Moreover, FRP composites have performed very well under both static and
dynamic loading conditions as well as large complex parts can be fabricated
as one-part (without welding or rivet joints) thus provide additional
advantages over traditional metal structures.
Advantages of FRP composite over conventional metal used in
aviation–
 Reduce weight, increase fuel efficiency

 Superior mechanical properties; higher strength, higher stiffness,
high impact resistance
 Low thermal expansion
 Provide Radar stealth quality
 The streamlined shapes that were not possible to make using wood
or metal
 Reduce maintenance cost as FRP composite parts are better
corrosion-resistant
 The CFRP composite structures have an increased resistance to
penetration compared with aluminum structures

 More tailored design flexibility

 Some limitations of FRP composites –
 Higher non-recurring and recurring engineering cost
 Challenging to detect non-visible impact damage
 Difficult to damage repair
 Higher processing cost
In the commercial aviation sector, Boeing and Airbus are pioneers of

FRP composite usage in aircraft. FRP composites of GF and CF are
extensively used not only in the aircraft’s external structures panels,
fuselage, wings, ribs, and fins also used in the interior side-walls, ceilings,
luggage compartments, cargo liner, bulkheads, etc. The newest Airbus
A350XWB consists of 53% of FRP composites (Jacob 2013) and Boeing
787 airframe are made of more than 50% CFRP composites. Hexcel is a
major CFRP supplier for both these aircraft projects (Mrazova 2013).
Although the FRP composites used in military aviation are given very
high requirements, not only higher mechanical, thermal, and chemical
properties but also often good aerodynamic lifts and ballistic performances.
Additionally, the uses of FRP composites in the military aviation sector not
only focus on the higher performance in weight to fuel ratio also consider
the Radar stealth capability. All these needs can be perfectly fulfilled by
selective engineering design with FRP composites; that’s the reason behind
a significant increase in research, and simultaneous use of FRP composites
in military aircraft through the last decades (Bielawski 2017). Some
examples of the use of FRP composites in recent day military aircraft are the
Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and tactic fighter jet F-22 Raptor,
Boeing AH-64 Apache helicopter, Black Hawk helicopters, B-2 Spirit
stealth bomber, etc. (Bielawski 2017; Ghori et al., 2018).
Innovation, research, and development (IR&D) of FRP composites can
be divided into two broader sections; innovation in fibers and matrix
materials, and development in manufacturing techniques. Worldwide
government agencies, research labs, universities as well as private
companies are involved in the IR&D processes. In the US, government
institutions like the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA), Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL), US Army research laboratory,

etc. as well as many private companies like Boeing, Airbus, Lockheed
Martin, Cytec Solvay Group, Dupont, Hexcel Corporation, SGL Group,
Toray Industries Inc., ZOLTEK Carbon Fiber, etc. are involved in the IR&D
of FRP composites. Advanced FRP composites are pivotal material for the
current and future aviation industry due to their unique and versatile
characteristics. Thus, a continuously evolving IR&D in materials, design
approach, manufacturing, and the supply chain is observed which is also
very adaptive with time.
2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF FRP USE IN THE

AVIATION INDUSTRY
Even though composites were being used for the development of

structural components for a very long time the first recorded use of
composites for aircraft was in the 1950s, Glass fiber was reinforced with a
thermoset resin matrix for developing Boeing 707 passenger jet. Later in the
1960s to improve the fatigue performance of compressor blades, Rolls
Royce used carbon fibers in RB211 jet engine. From the 1970s most of the
military and commercial aircrafts started using fibrous composites in small
proportions for developing lightweight components. From the 1980s
composites were being used extensively for the development of secondary
wing and tail components such as wing trailing edge panels and rudders.
Aramid fibers due to its flexibility are used for constructing very stiff, very
light bulkheads, fuel tanks, floors, etc., they are also very useful in
developing leading and trailing edge wing components.
Airbus one of the major aircraft manufacturer first developed aircraft
with composites in their A310 carrier, which was released in 1987. Around
10% of the aircraft’s components were developed using composites. Later,
in 1988 Airbus A320 had a tail made out of composite materials including
horizontal and vertical stabilizers. Airbus A380 which was introduced in the
year 2006 had about 25% of its weight was made of composites. The major

composite components were central torsion box, rear-pressure bulkhead,

tail, and flight control surfaces, such as the flaps, spoilers, and ailerons
(Soutis 2005).
In 1995 Boeing 777, started making use of composites for about 10% of
its total weight. Major components made out of composites were
empennage, most of the control surfaces, engine cowlings, and fuselage
floor beams. Today composites are used widely for developing major load-
carrying primary structures of the aircraft. For example, Boeing’s latest
commercial aircraft 787 Dreamliner has about 50% composite materials, and
this trend is expected to only increase in the coming days. Current aircraft
structures mostly have carefully designed sandwiches and hybrid
components instead of regular carbon/glass fiber laminate structures.
Table 1. Early applications of composites in commercial

and military aircraft
Aircraft Type Name Component % wt. Reduction

Military F-11 Under the wing fairings <10
Military F-14 Skin on the horizontal stabilizer box 19
F-15 Fin, stabilizer skins and rudder 25
Military F-16 Skins on vertical fin box, fin leading 23
edge
Military F/A-18 Horizontal and vertical tail boxes, Wing 35
skins, wing and tail control surfaces, etc.
Military AV-89 forward fuselage, flaps, horizontal 25
stabilizer, Wing skins and substructures,
ailerons
Commercial Boeing 727 Elevator face sheets 25
Commercial Boeing 737 Horizontal stabilizer 22
Commercial Boeing 737 Wing spoilers 37
Commercial Boeing 756 Ailerons, rudders, elevators, fairings. 31
Commercial DC-10 Upper rudder 26
Commercial DC-10 Vertical stabilizer 17
Commercial L-1011 Aileron 23
Commercial L-1011 Vertical stabilizer 25

3. FRP MATERIALS FOR AVIATION
The primary reason for using composite materials in aviation is for

weight reduction to save on operating costs by accommodating higher
payload. The main components of FRP based composite materials are fibers
that are used for reinforcements and matrix which is generally used to hold
the fibers together in the desired position and orientation.
The most common fiber types used for aviation applications are Glass,
Carbon, Aramid fibers. Figure 1 shows a comparison of different properties
of fibers used in the aviation industry (Mallick 2007). A brief introduction
about each of these fibers with its major mechanical properties is given
below.
Figure 1. Tensile stress-strain graphs for different fibers used in the aviation industry
(Mallick 2007).

3.1. Carbon Fiber
Carbon fibers are the most used fibers for aviation applications because
of their exceptional high tensile strength to weight ratios, high tensile
modulus to weight ratios, very low coefficient of linear thermal expansion,
high fatigue strengths and thermal conductivity. Structurally, carbon fibers
consist of a blend of amorphous carbon and graphitic carbon. Because of the
graphitic carbon, a high modulus of carbon fiber is achieved. Here carbon
atoms are arranged in the crystallographic structure of parallel layers. The
distance between layers is 3.4 A˚. There is strong covalent bonding between
the carbon atoms of each layer, however, the layers are held together but
weak Vanderwall forces. Because of this, the final fibers have highly
anisotropic physical and mechanical properties. Carbon fibers are generally
prepared from two types of precursors PITCH and (polyacrylonitrile) PAN.
The kind of precursor used dictates the properties of final fibers (Donnet and
Bansal 1984).
3.2. Glass Fibers
Glass fibers are generally used in aviation applications primarily due to

its high tensile strength, high chemical resistance, low cost and excellent
insulating properties. The most commonly used glass fibers in the fiber-
reinforced plastics are (FRP) industry are E-glass and S-glass. E-glass fibers
are relatively less expensive. S-Glass fibers were originally developed for
aerospace and military applications. They have the highest tensile strength
among other fibers (Macdowell, Chyung, and Gadkaree 1985).
3.3. Aramid Fibers
Aramid fibers (e.g., Kevlar) are very useful due to their high crystalline
aromatic polyamide fibers. They have very low density and high tensile
strength-to-weight ratio among the current reinforcing fibers. Aramid fibers

have lightweight, high tensile strength and great resistance to impact

damage, which makes them an excellent choice for Aviation applications
(Morgan and Allred 1989).
Table 2. Properties of fibers used in aviation applications
Fiber Density Tensile Modulus Tensile Strength Strain to Failure

(g/cm3) (GPa) (GPa) (%)
Glass E-glass 2.54 72.4 3.45 4.8
Glass S-glass 2.49 86.9 4.30 5.0
PAN T-300 1.76 231 3.65 1.4
PAN T-40 1.81 290 5.65 1.8
IM-7 1.78 301 5.65 1.81
Pitch P-55 2.0 380 1.90 0.5
Pitch P-100 2.15 758 2.41 0.32
Kevlar 49 1.45 131 3.62 2.8
Kevlar 149 1.47 179 3.45 1.9
Table 3. Thermal properties of common polymers used as a matrix

for aviation application
Type Polymer Tg (C) Maximum Service

Temperature (C)
Thermoset DGEBA epoxy 180 125
Thermoset TGDDM epoxy 240-260 190
Thermoset Bismaleimides (BMI) 230-290 232
Thermoset PMR-15 340 316
Thermoplastic Polyether ether ketone 143 250
(PEEK)
Thermoplastic Polyetherimide (PEI) 217 267
Thermoplastic Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) 85 240
The matrix materials generally used for composite materials are

thermoset resins and thermoplastics. In a typical thermoplastic polymer,
molecules are not joined chemically but rather held together by weak
secondary bonds or intermolecular forces, like van der Waals bonds and
hydrogen bonds. Once heat/energy is applied to the system the secondary
bonds temporarily break and molecules can move relative to each other
which allows forming new configuration if pressure is applied. Once the

system cools down the molecules freeze accordingly and new configurations
will be formed, which will result in new shape according to molds. Because
of this property thermoplastic polymer can be melted and reshaped as many
times as desired. However, in the case of thermosets, the polymer molecules
are joined by the formation of cross-linking chains. Once these chains are
formed due to polymerization it cannot be melted by application of heat.
The most common thermoset polymers used for aviation applications
are polyester, vinyl ester, and Epoxies.
3.4. Epoxies
Epoxy materials originate from the starting materials of low molecular

weight organic liquid resin, which consists of several epoxide groups. The
epoxide groups consist of rings of one oxygen and two carbon atoms. The
important properties of the thermoset resins like tensile modulus, glass
transition temperature and thermal stability highly depend on the cross-link
density of the resin. The optimum cross-link density gives the best properties
to epoxy resin. Upon further increasing of cross-link density strain to failure
and fracture toughness, might decrease. High chemical resistance is also an
important property of epoxy resin. (Recker 1989).
3.5. Polyesters
Polyester materials are made from the starting material of unsaturated

polyester resin which consists of C-C bonds. They are made by reacting
maleic anhydride with either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. In some
cases, saturated acids like isophthalic acid or orthophthlatic acid are also
added which modifies the chemical structure and increases the cross-linking
sites within the structure. This resultant polymeric liquid is dissolved in
styrene, which is a reactive diluent. Like epoxy resins properties of
polyesters are also heavily dependent on cross-link density. By improving,
cross-link density properties like modulus, glass transition temperature and

thermal stability can be improved. However, strain to failure and fracture

toughness might be reduced with very high cross-link density. The number
of unsaturation points is the major factor influencing the cross-link density
in an uncured polyester molecule.
3.6. Vinyl Ester
Vinyl esters are generally made from the starting materials of reacting
unsaturated carboxylic acid like methacrylic or acrylic acid and epoxy,
which form unsaturated vinyl esters. The double bonds of C-C, which occur
at the ends of the vinyl ester molecule. For this reason, cross-link takes place
only at ends. So relatively a cured vinyl ester resin is more flexible and has
more fracture toughness than a cured polyester resin. Another great
advantage of vinyl esters is that they have hydroxyl bonds as their side
chains, these hydroxyl bonds can be very useful to bond with the fibers
resulting in good interfacial adhesion if used in composites.
Table 4. Typical properties of thermosets cast at 23C

for aviation applications
Polymer Density Tensile Tensile Elongation Cure

(g/cm3) Strength Modulus (%) Shrinkage (%)
(MPa) (GPa)
Epoxy 1.2–1.3 55–130 2.75–4.10 - 1–5
Polyester 1.1–1.43 34.5–103.5 2.1–3.45 1–5 5–12
Vinyl- 1.12–1.32 73–81 3–3.5 3.5–5.5 5.4–10.3
ester
3.7. Polyether Ether Ketone
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) is a linear aromatic thermoplastic. At

normal cooling rates, the crystallinity achieved in this could be a semi-
crystalline range of 30-35%. The highest crystallinity that can be achieved
in this polymer is around 48%. A mostly amorphous polymer can also be

achieved through sudden quenching. With the presence of fibers used for
composite fabrication, the crystallinity can be further increased as fibers act
as nucleation sites helping in crystal formation. (Nguyen and Ishida 1987).
An increase in crystallinity increases both modulus and yield strength of
PEEK but reduces its strain-to-failure. PEEK has a glass transition
temperature of 1438°C and a crystalline melting point of 3358°C. The
outstanding property of PEEK is its high fracture toughness, which is often
50–100 times higher than epoxies. This is the unique advantage of PEEK
which makes it attractive for aviation in the marine environment due to its
low water absorption.
3.8. Polyphenylene Sulfide
Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) is another semicrystalline polymer. It has

a melting temperature of about 2858°C which is very high compared to
epoxy resin, however, they have a low glass transition temperature of 858°C.
The lower glass transition temperatures could be due to flexible sulfide
linkages between aromatic rings. The crystallinity is relatively higher mainly
due to chain flexibility and structural regularity within the molecules.
Processing of PPS through melting requires heating polymer in a
temperature range of 3008°C–3458°C. The operational temperature is
2408°C and it also has excellent chemical resistance.
3.9. Polyetherimide
Polyetherimide is a linear polymer made from condensation

polymerization of a polyamic acid and an alcohol. Various thermoplastic
polyamides can be made depending on the types of polyamic acid and
alcohol. In presence of a solvent, the polymerization reaction takes place and
produces water as its by-product. As a result, a polymer with high melt
viscosity is produced which can be processed at relatively high temperatures.
Unlike other thermosetting polyimides, they can be reprocessed by the

application of heat and pressure. PEI is an amorphous polymer with high

glass transition temperatures around 2178°C.
4. MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES
Most of the FRP composites for aviation industries are made from
prepregs supplied by reinforcing fiber (CF, GF, aramid fiber) manufacturers
(Soutis 2005). Aviation FPR composite parts are fabricated in the following
common techniques:
4.1. Hand Lay-Up Technique
The hand lay-up process is the oldest FRP making one; this process
started with the cutting of the prepreg in the desired size, removal of backing
paper followed by placing the prepreg plies onto the tool surface by hand.
The accuracy of prepreg positioning in this process is not very consistent
because of human error and it is really difficult to produce very large
components using this technique. After the prepreg placement, vacuum
bagging is done to remove air then autoclaved to cure the components. Both
primary and secondary aircraft composite parts are made using the hand lay-
up which has a higher fiber content of 60-65% by volume.
4.2. Automated Tape Lay-up (ATL)
In the ATL process, prepreg tapes are placed onto the component
structure by a computer-controlled automated process and the tapes are
automatically cut by blades within the tape laying head. Then the prepreg is
consolidated and cured. For slightly curved profile parts this process is
appropriate. Parts like spars, I-beam stiffener, ribs, etc. are made using ATL.
This is a fast process with great accuracy.

4.3. Automated Fiber Placement
For more complex, curved, and large composite parts are produced using
the automated fiber placement process. In this computer-assisted automatic
process, tows of prepreg tapes are pulled and fed into the placement head
and then the lay-up is done according to the programmed design. Large-high
contoured aircraft parts like the fuselage, cowls, barrels, etc. are made by
this process.
4.4. Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
RTM (also called resin infusion) is a closed process and mostly

moderate size aircraft components like fan blades, engine box, ribs, etc. are
fabricated by this process. In this molding process, there are two match
molds where the inner mold surface has the shape of the desired component
and reinforcement fabric (GF or CF) is placed inside the cavity between the
two molds, stacked according to the design thickness. Then the molds are
sealed and clamped followed by resin injection filling inside it by a pump.
After that molds are heated for curing the parts, next the cured final solid
parts are de-molded and often the edges are trimmed afterword for ultimate
proper finishing. Propeller blades, engine cowling (outer shell), panels, etc.
are produced using the RTM process.
4.5. Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)
In some cases the FRP composites fabricated by the RTM technique

suffers from the low mechanical performance issues due to the presence of
void inside the cured composites; these voids are caused by trapped air
inside the structure during placement of plies or prepreg tapes. The use of a
vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding process (VARTM) solves this issue.
In the VARTM technique, a vacuum pump is used to evacuate air from

molds then the resin is drawn through the molds under the differential
pressure created by the vacuum.
4.6. Filament Winding
For making cylindrical-shaped FRP composite parts the filament

winding technique is mostly used; where resin-impregnated reinforcement
filaments are winded over a rotating mandrel after passing through a resin
tank and the winding angles can be controlled between 25 to 80 degrees.
Aerospace components like Delta rockets, Atlas, motor cases, and missile
tubes (Lubin 2013).
4.7. Pultrusion
Pultrusion is the continuous and automated FRP composite fabrication

technique and uniform cross-section composite parts are made by this.
Continuous fibers, fabrics, or prepregs are pulled through a resin bath and
passed through the heated die. The die has the shape of the final parts and
the curing takes place inside the heated die. This process can produce very
long solid or hollow FRP composite parts with variable wall thicknesses.
Figure 2. Wing structures of The Airbus A220 using CFRP (Photo Courtesy: Teijin).

Airbus has recently increased its resin infusion and thermoplastic FRP
composite fabrication technologies for the next generation aircraft. Boeing
has expanded their CFRP composite manufacturing program partnered with
Toray to increase the CF production of capability for fuselage manufacturing
and has a massive manufacturing plant with the world’s largest autoclaves
in Everett, Wash., U.S. (Francis).
5. FRP MANUFACTURING FOR

AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
The majority of composites production in the aerospace industry today

involves carbon-fiber-strengthened prepreg fabrication using thermoset
epoxy resins by hand layup method.
The specific requirement for specialized parts of CFRP in aerospace
industries was much smaller earlier and used slower manufacturing methods
like wet layup of CF and hand layup of prepreg. However, as recently the
CF composites usage increases in larger parts and greater volumes, new
manufacturing techniques emerged that could cope up with the pace of
production demand. The automated tape layup and fiber placement are the
major aerospace CF composites manufacturing methods today.
The resin transfer molding (RTM) and the out-of-autoclave composite
processing techniques are very highly efficient in particular for complex
aerospace parts and cost-effective (“Strategic Alliance Global RTM to Meet
Aerospace Needs,” Mark Holmes, March 24, 2014, Accessed March 28,
2016, http://Www.Materialstoday.Com/Composite-Applications/News/
Strategic-Alliance-Global-Rtm-to-Meet-Aerospace/).
The FRP composites demand in aerospace is a major driver of CF
manufacturing research and innovation. The major researches are focused
on finding new methods for curing so that the capital-intensive autoclaves
can be avoided and the automation in the CF lay-up process so that wastage
can be minimized. According to the estimation of NASA, an autoclave to
cure launch-vehicle barrels would cost $100 million to build and install

(Gardiner 2011a). Moreover, the autoclave curing process is very energy-

intensive and slow which limits the manufacturing rate.
Currently, the industry is seeing increased adoption of carbon fiber
thermoplastic composites (TPCs) for larger parts and structural components.
Trends seem to indicate we will continue to see more thermoplastic
composites in a variety of applications.
Source: Red 2013.
Figure 3. A visualization of the change in CFRP manufacturing methods over time as

compared to the composite content of the aircraft.
Source: CW news report 2020.
Figure 4. a) Spirit’s A320 spoiler production line starts with CF cutting and kitting by
an ABB multiaxis robot, b) The Irkut MC-21 features fully infused and integrated wing
box, wing skins, fabricated by Moscow-based Aero Composite which feature one-
piece construction, and c) cured CFRP shells are loaded onto handling tools and
transported through assembly steps by STELIA Aerospace.

6. RECENT ADVANCEMENT IN FRP COMPOSITE

MANUFACTURING (MATERIALS AND PROCESSING)
Development of reinforcement fiber and matrix materials as well as

exploring hybrid composite concepts introduce the ideas of metal-matrix
material, sandwich metal-FRP structure, nanomaterials incorporated FRP
composites, FRP-metal laminates, CF-graphite-polymer matrix, FRP-
ceramic hybrids, etc. The majority of the development in aviation materials
researches is driven by the approach of achieving a higher specific strength
to weight ratio, better damage tolerance, high corrosion resistance, and high-
temperature resistance. Thermoplastic resin systems are getting popularity
in aviation FRP composite parts manufacturing as they offer a certain degree
of recyclability. Additionally, the development of dynamic load resistant and
easy curing adhesive systems for combining different FRP composite parts
are ongoing; as crack formation is a very common problem during the rivet
joining (Zhang, Chen, and Hu 2018; Aly, Lubna, and Bradford 2020).
Recently researchers are investigated in designing conductive hybrid FRP
composites with carbon nanomaterials and graphite to introduce an
embedded electro-thermal heating system in the structure to solve two of the
most difficult problems in aircraft; the ice accumulation and lightning strike.
The electrically conductive nanoparticles in the hybrid FRP structure can be
capable of real-time-deicing using the Joule heating effect and transmit the
impact of lightning strike current (Guadagno et al., 2020; Alemour, Badran,
and Hassan 2019).
In recent years, collaboration and partnership between FRP
manufacturer, supplier, and consumer aviation industries are the most
recognized business strategy for sustainable production, reduction in
production delay risk, and open doors for future growth. As examples,
Airbus and Boeing partners with Toray-Zoltek and Hexcel for the
production of CFRP aerospace composites; GKN Fokker has a supply
agreement with Pratt & Whitney for advanced composite parts for the F135
engine, which powers the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft
(“Delivering the Global Composites Market | Composites World”).

Advanced military aviation research has also focused on developing

electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials which will provide
the Radar stealth capability to the aircraft. Conductive nano-carbons like
carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene can be incorporated in the CFRP
hybrid structure for EMI shielding (Cao et al., 2015). The fabrication
processes of these futuristic specific properties driven FRP composites
varies a lot, although the main challenge is establishing a cost-effective
production system.
Automation is the only solution for the successful manufacturing of FRP
composites which is recognized and embraced by the aviation FRP industry.
Nowadays during the development and production process of FRP
composite parts, computer modeling and simulation are done using
CAD/CAM or similar software design and ANSYS or similar software
analysis suites. These early-stage conceptual computer models and analysis
help manufacturing engineers with the decision making in materials choice,
processing route prediction, understanding the difficulties in complex
geometric parts fabrication, effective tooling, mechanical performance of
the FRP composite, potential impact damage forecast, etc. Most of the
aviation FRP composite parts manufacturers are successfully using
CAD/CAM tools in designing systems and applying 3D printing technology
(Biswas, Jeelani, and Rangari 2017; Biswas et al., 2019; BISWAS 2017;
Judson et al.,) in producing complex structures to investigate properties
before pilot scale production (Chakraborty and Biswas 2019; 2020). .
Currently, the inclusion of continuous fiber and fabrication of continuous
fiber-reinforced polymer composites via 3D printing got much attention due
to ease of fabrication of complex structure, tailoring freedom based on
design, mass minimization, waste remediation, and production cost (Rangari
et al., 2019; da Cruz 2019)(Manik C. Biswas, Jeelani, and Rangari 2017;
Rangari et al., 2019; Judson et al.,; Chakraborty and Biswas 2019). The 3D
printing technology, also termed as additive manufacturing, is the three-
dimensional fabrication approach where materials are fabricated in a layer
by layer fashion instead of molding or cutting materials, reduce materials
loss, waste and thereby cost (Chakraborty and Biswas 2020; da Cruz 2019;
Manik C. Biswas et al.,). Fused deposition modeling (FDM) and SLS are the

most commercially used 3D printing technology among SLA, Binder jet,

Multijet, Polyjet, Selective Deposition Lamination, etc. (Chakraborty and
Biswas 2020; 2019; da Cruz 2019). Computer design assisted automated
fiber placement and tape lay-up machines have overcome the limitations of
the precision problem in the manual layup as well as reduce production time
significantly (Beaumont, Soutis, and Hodzic 2016).
Some advantages of automation in FRP composite parts manufacturing
is the reduction of labor hours and cost, optimize materials utilization and
reduce materials waste, reduce in-process inspection needs, high quality and
highly repeatable parts production, etc. However, the total cost projection is
difficult in the computer-simulated models as they often assume 100%
material usage, non-destructive after curing inspection is always essential to
detect voids and micro-cracks created during consolidation, and much
development is still needed in finite element-based simulations to perfectly
predict the performance of the final products. Although when it comes to
fabricating very complex FRP composite parts with high contour the manual
lay-up of reinforcement fiber or prepreg remained unrivaled. The larges
concern in FRP composite production automation is the capital investment
issue, as a significant investment is needed in detailed design, specific
equipment tooling, and product performance analysis. As the aviation
industry unlike the automotive is considered a low production sector for FRP
composite parts extensive automation is not yet believed feasible (Ward,
Hancock, and Potter 2008).
After curing non-destructive testing techniques like ultrasonic C-scan
testing, infrared thermography, etc. are commonly used for the inspection of
primary and secondary structures, aero-engine parts, and other components
made from FRP composite. Voids, delamination, and micro-cracks can be
easily detected by this method. The major concern with FRP composite
aerospace parts is the detection of the delamination during parts joining or
assembly, fatigue cracks, barely visible impact damage, core crashing, etc.
after assembly and during service. The current approach to solving this
problem is an electrically conductive sensor material embedding inside the
FRP composite which can detect cracks and damages. These damage sensing
mechanisms can be based on the thermo-resistive radiation or piezo resistive

responses (Ciampa et al., 2018). The development of advanced damage

detection methods can provide an accurate and reliable assessment of
delamination and cracks in aviation FRP composite components and offer
better safety.
7. GLOBAL MARKET STUDY
Carbon, glass, and aramid fiber-reinforced composites are regularly

used in the main body and tail boom of many commercial and military
aircraft to reduce weight, vibration, and corrosion resistance as well as to
increase structural performance (Younossi, Kennedy, and Graser 2001).
CFRP Composites are being used increasingly to replace aluminum to
prolong the operating life by improving resistance against fatigue.
Historically aerospace industries have been the primary driver of the carbon
fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. The reason for this
development is to be found in the superior material properties of CFRP
compared to standard aviation aluminum materials (Younossi, Kennedy, and
Graser 2001).
Source: Lucintel 2012.
Figure 5. Demand of CF in various section of aerospace.

Although, currently the construction and industrial sector buy more CF

by weight than the aerospace industries regarding the high demand for
lightweight and tough structures for turbine blades and non-corrosive
pressure vessels for the oil-gas sector. At the very beginning, the first CFRP
usage in aerospace structures had started from the U.S. Department of
Defense, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA);
where the high price of CF and CFRP were justified by the value of their
extraordinary mechanical properties per capita weight of the structure.
Source: “Carbon Reinforced Composites: User Sectors (Continued),” July 29, 2013,
accessed January 21, 2014, http://www.pluscomposites.eu/content/6-carbon-
reinforced-composites-user-sectors-continued.
Figure 6. Increasing demand CF composite content (wt.%) in Boeing

and Airbus aircraft.
Airbus had already started their production of CF composite-heavy jet,

the A350 XWB, giving it a 25% reduction in fuel burn versus its aluminum
competitors, and the five modified A300 Belugas had increased their flight
time. Also important is the fact that Boeing and Airbus both prefer the
durability and ease of maintenance of composite structures compared to
traditional aluminum structures — this fact in and of itself might be enough

to compel continued use of CF composite materials in large aerostructures,

regardless of size or configuration.
(a)
(b)
Source: Boeing commercial magazine and Airbus news 2017.
Figure 7. a) Boeing 787 and b) Airbus A350XWB aircraft; most of the external
structure such as the wings or body is made of CFRP composites.
Besides commercial aircraft, CFRP composites are heavily used in

military aircraft, regional and general aviation, helicopters, and UAV
(unmanned aerial vehicles). The CFRP composites in the aerospace and
defense market are expected to reach an estimated $1.56 billion by 2025
with a CAGR of 4.2% from 2020 to 2025. The analyst forecasts that
commercial aerospace will be the largest aircraft by value and the UAV
aircraft will witness the highest growth by value during the forecast period.
[Source: https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports, May 2020].

Figure 8. CFRP composites are used in these; a) US Army’s V-280 Valor military
aircraft being developed by Bell and Lockheed Martin, b) F-35 fighter jet
manufactured by Meggitt PLC, and c) US Army’s S-97 RAIDER helicopters
development by Sikorsky Aircraft [CompositeWorld news, 2020].
The wings of V-280 Valor are made of a single section of carbon fiber
reinforced thermoplastic polymer composite, which has significantly
reduced weight, cost, production time, and parts count. The F-35 fighter jet
(which is about one-third composites by weight) manufacturer Meggitt PLC
(Dorset, U.K.) has signed a $15 million contract with Chemring Australia
Pty (Anakie, Australia), for the continued supply of flare countermeasure
assemblies on the F-35 fighter jet which will be boosting sales for carbon
fiber materials from companies such as Cytec (Solvay) and Hexcel. The
assembly uses Meggitt’s advanced composite processes, which produce a
component capable of withstanding extreme temperatures. The US Army
deploys FRP composite materials in both the aircraft fuselage structure and
rotor blades in the light tactical S-97 RAIDER helicopters. [Source:
CompositeWorld news and marketresearch.com]. CFRP composites are not
only used by the military or larger aircraft companies also used by the
relatively smaller aircraft manufacturer in medium to small private aircraft
and helicopters.
Figure 9. CFRP composites used in a) Bell Helicopter 206L built by Van Horn
Aviation (AVH), b) DA50 RG aircraft by Diamond Aircraft and c) E1000 aircraft by
Epic Aircraft [CW news].

The Bell helicopter 206L features tail rotor blades fabricated from CF
composites which replace the original metallic design and were designed
and built by Van Horn Aviation (AVH). Diamond Aircraft (Wiener
Neustadt, Austria) partnered with Continental Aerospace Technologies
(Mobile, Alab., U.S.) reported in June 2020, that it is offering its all-carbon
fiber DA50 RG aircraft to the market. The company says its spacious cabins,
retractable gear, and 300 horsepower Continental CD-300 jet fuel engine
redefines expectations for single-piston aircraft in terms of space, luxury,
efficiency, and comfort. Another Private aviation company, Epic Aircraft
(Bend, Oreg., U.S.), confirmed in May 2020 the completed delivery of its
first two all-composite, single-engine turboprop E1000 aircraft. Offering a
full-fuel payload of nearly 1,100 pounds, Epic’s aircraft can cover U.S.
coast-to-coast travel with one fuel stop.
Because of the lightweight and higher strength FRP composites
structures based on carbon, glass fiber manufactured by vacuum bag
technique (which minimizes the creation of voids, bubbles, and wrinkles)
are used in UAVs for civilian and military applications. This reduces the
overall UAV weight by 15-45% depending on the extent of composite use.
Figure 10. Unmanned composites market, by region.

Recent innovation and research in advanced aerospace FRP composites

have focused on nanomaterials (silicon carbides, carbon nanotubes,
graphene, etc.) incorporation into the matrix for solving several problems
facing by aircraft such as lightning strikes, ice accumulation on aircraft
surface, testing the fitness of FRP composites during service, etc. This
nanomaterials incorporation increases the conductivity, gives ultra-high-
strength, lower the density, and increases high-temperature resistivity of the
FRP aerospace composites which can contribute to solving the most
important problems in aviation (Aly, Lubna, and Bradford 2020; Alemour,
Badran, and Hassan 2019).
Figure 11. a) Surveillance drone, b) UAV in Agricultural use and c) US Air Force’s
Predator XP [ASD news, 2018 and Composite Media news, Sep 2019].
8. CHALLENGES
Although FRP composites offer the great benefit of stronger, lighter

aircraft, cutting the fuel consumption, and CO2 emission, and despite all the
innovations, advancements, and achievements, FRP composites for
aerospace applications still facing some key well-known challenges; as –
 Higher initial investment

 Lengthy research and development process
 Very low to no recyclability of FRP composite parts
 Higher maintenance and repair cost
 Difficulties in non-visible damage detection
 Longer manufacturing cycle time

The post-COVID-19 plan for aviation:
The COVID-19 pandemic greatly hit the aviation industry which is

much greater compared to the events of 9/11 and the financial crisis in 2008,
together (“The Post-COVID-19 Flight Plan for Airlines” 2020). Airlines
start following new guidelines to adjust to new normal and back to in
business. Though it is sufficiently dynamic to adapt to new circumstances,
it offers stable guidance when it comes to fundamental, structural changes
in the size and shape of an airline (“The Post-COVID-19 Flight Plan for
Airlines” 2020).
CONCLUSION
In summary, for the aviation industry, quality, responsibility, and

efficiency are the key assets regardless of the aerospace company and
improved performance with weight reduction is one of the key driving
factors of FRP usage. The demand for FRP composites in the aviation
industry is rising progressively along with the development of materials,
manufacturing processes, and performance testing techniques. Although the
computer design assisted predictive and analytical tools for FRP composite
parts manufacturing still has not reached its fullest potential use; broader
understanding and more insight studies for FRP structure-property
relationships have been needed for the intelligent application. Automation
and use of robotics in production have proven to be the future for FRP
composites fabrication and yet going through a learning curve. The market
growth of FRP composites will remain guaranteed for another upcoming 50
years and as partnership research is boosting up, more exciting innovative
applications are expected to be on the horizon.

Source: BCG analysis.
Figure 12. Exhibit 1 | Flight plan to succeed in the new normal.

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Sciences 97: 22–34.

Chapter 6
FIBRE SELECTIONS IN POLYMER MATRICES

FOR PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
M. Ramesh*, C. Ramkumar and Arivumani Ravanan

Department of Mechanical Engineering, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi
Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
ABSTRACT
The extensive applications of sophisticated fibre reinforced polymer

composite materials (FRPC) have encompassed almost all fields such as
aerospace, automobile, agriculture, construction, medicine, marine,
industrial and consumer products. The aim of this chapter is to discuss
selection of the fibres for protective structures according to the category of
fibre materials than by applying sectors or by services. This chapter
summarizes about significance of fibres reinforced in polymer matrices
including bio-fibres and also deals with variety, combination, attributes;
and finally addressing demerits of fibres such as moisture content, UV
radiation absorption, fire retardant aspects, biological features and
dimensional inconsistency. Even the behaviour of fibres based on various
properties such as physical, mechanical, thermal and biological aspects are
considered in the margin of discussion. The selection of fibres, with
essential properties and fabrication techniques are highlighted optimal

212 M. Ramesh, C. Ramkumar and Arivumani Ravanan
preference in fibre selection depends upon various criterion and factors are
disclosed.
Keywords: fibre selection, polymer matrices, nano-fibres, bio-fibres, nano-

composites, engineered composites
1. INTRODUCTION
FRPCs have been widely used in almost all fields of engineering as

material for structural components. In so many instances, FRPC materials
are being progressed and applied to dismiss the metal elements, especially
in corrosive environments and fire-retardant applications. The primary
merits of the FRPCs are based on weightless nature, high strength, stiffness
and corrosion protection. Maximized specific stiffness, minimized spectral
reflectance, flexibility to new technologies FRPCs as a favourable
alternative material for the massive, modern applications irrespective of the
field. Variety of imperfections and defects occur in these composites are
highly varied from other materials because its heterogeneous structure and
fractural inconsistency is complicated. FRPCs deliver distinct attributes
because of their superior synergistic integration of fibre and matrix. The
fibres render greater-modulus and reinforcement; where the matrices
distribute loads and protection from corrosion and atmospheric condition.
The different types of fibres used as reinforcements in composites are
presented in Figure 1.
Among other matrixes, epoxy is a superior matrix due to its properties
benefits and higher degree of resistive thermoset polymer. Generally,
hardening plays a primary role in determining characteristics and the shape
of the end product. By incorporating hardener and on certain occasions
enforcing heat over epoxy. It is a good resistive nature for all acids and
solvents. At the same instant epoxy is inadequate resistance to chlorine
mixed solvents and bases. Epoxies are employed to provide adherence
between the matrices and fibres. Also, to act as filling components for the
mold/dies and good protective element on steel and concrete. Motavalli et

Fibre Selections in Polymer Matrices for Protective Structures 213
al. (2010) studied several practical applications of FRPCs for construction

and interior infrastructure industries. The perspective on FRPC laminates,
emerging constituent candidates, multilayer laminate theory, life time and
progress in terms of forth-coming challenges. Furthermore, this work
describes design rules followed in structural installation selection and role
of strengthened concretes, timbers, ferrous and non-ferrous metals as
reinforcement and their bonding with the polymer matrices.
Figure 1. Types of fibres used for reinforcement in composites.
2. FIBRE SELECTION
There are various factors to be considered for the selection of the fibre
for a specific purpose to be reinforced into composites. There are two
popular existing methods for material selection: (i) multiple criteria
decisions making (MCDM) method and (ii) preference selection index (PSI)
method. PSI is a simpler and easiest method aids in material selection, since
this method does not warrant assignment of weight to each of the criteria
considered. Many researchers have attempted MCDM methodology for
appropriate material selection (Maniya and Bhatt, 2010; Shanian and
Savadogo, 2006). Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) used for structural
applications reinforce either synthetic or natural fibres as reinforcement.
Selection of appropriate fibres as a reinforcement in composites for a

particular application is a tedious task for researchers. Impact loading has

emerged as the serious threat for the composites used in primary or
secondary structural application and demands the usage of appropriate Fibre
and matrix combination to enhance energy absorption and mitigate failure
(Mahesh et al. 2020). Pertaining to fibre selection, the designer must choose
an appropriate constituent, volume fraction of the selected constituent,
stacking sequences of the composite since these parameters affects the
performance of the end product (Jahan et al. 2010; Rao, 2006). The selection
parameters of fibre for the composite reinforcement are totally dependent on
practical application of the product is intended to perform. Fibre has been
traditionally categorized based on the source as synthetic fibres and natural
fibres.
2.1. Natural Fibres
Bio-compatible and bio-degradable attributed natural fibres are attracted

many analysists to investigate into prospective applications in versatile
fields; where abundant availability and less price support the same for
surplus usage. Bio-fibres are developing as an economic, affordable, lesser
weighted and eco-friendly replacement in PMCs. It is one of the critical
urges to retrieve applications of synthetic fibres served as protective layer
from the natural counter parts (Ramesh, 2016). Numerous researches
throughout the globe in this topic with support of unique characteristics of
natural fibres. Severe environment rules and thirst to save nature have
emphasized the composite sector to investigate environment friendly
constituents.
It is necessary to know the primary group of bio-degradable polymers,
their fabrication methods and properties. Several surface modification
techniques were associated to enhance the fibre-matrix adhesion turning up
to improvement of mechanical strengths of bio-composites. The descriptive
methods generally applied in the alteration of cellulose fibres for potential
employment in various fields including automotive, aerospace, etc. In
general, due to hydrophilic properties of the fibres possess relatively poor

adhesion with polymer matrix. Hence to get rid of this problem, several
surface alteration techniques have been implemented. These techniques
make better wettability and minimize moisture absorption. Moreover, it
offers some unique attributes and makes processes simple. Chemical,
physical, mechanical and physico-chemical are some properties of the
composite that are necessary for the practical application initiated by several
analysists.
2.1.1. Selection of Natural Fibres

Though the current usage is restricted to challenging synthetic fibres. In
relation to selection of natural fibres, a few studies witnessed about
capability and advantages of applying natural fibres as reinforcement for
polymeric matrices through processes of compression moulding and
injection moulding. An investigation dealt with the impact of injection
moulding preparation over mechanical behaviour of hemp fibre reinforced
composites (Myers et al. 1991). The possibilities of preparing the irregular
profiles with functional groups and in large quantities through injection
moulding. When related to compression moulding, injection moulding
process is more beneficial for fibre as reinforcement to renewable polymeric
components mainly because of its negligible shrinking, maximal bonding
and lesser production cost. Such studies also covered the fibre processing,
alteration on fibres, evaluation of strengths through models and the optimal
selection of fibres.
In other methods of processing, fibres have to attain less than one
percent moistening before reaching the last extrusion process. Hence
transferring fibre to matrices has to be regulated with higher attention.
Extrusion method of fabrication is more favorable, on account of the
processing temperature of wooden fibres; where temperature maintained for
fabrication process (140-150°C) does not disturbs the flowing of polymer
matrices. Moreover, the damages of fibres can be regulated by adjusting the
screw rod and keeping it under critical magnitude. The extreme acceleration
of extrusion will lead to harm to the fibres, air traps, and excess molten state.
The misalignment in dispersion and positioning of natural fibre in
composites is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Misalignment in dispersion and positioning of natural fibre on processing of

composites.
Fibre attrition is nothing but physical damage to fibres, occurring

frequently in injection moulding. The intensity of attrition is based on
process variables of the moulding type and physical parameters of fibres.
The method of mixing is playing a major role in determining optimal
distribution of fibres. The incompatibility of fibres with polymer matrices
have frequently work more with the variation in diverseness (Ho et al. 2012).
A few fabricating methodologies for natural fibres led to fibre attrition.
Especially, the fibre-matrix combination that is subject to mix-up and
granulation process indicates a considerable decrement in fibre length
(Ramesh and Sudharsan, 2018). After so many investigations, a team of
researchers confirmed changes in the sizing of cellulose fibre is depends
upon the molecular weight of PHB (Gatenholm et al. 1992). During the
process we observe physical reduction and chain scission of PHB. As an
outcome, crotonic acid is generated to decompose by reacting with water.
Though the result indicated fibre attrition, it led to well distribution of fibres.
The result of jute Fibre reinforced composite tensile specimen produced by
fused filament fabrication method is presented in Figure 3 (Matsuzaki et al.
2016).

Figure 3. Result of jute Fibre reinforced PLA (polylactic acid) composite tensile
specimen produced by fused filament fabrication method (Matsuzaki et al. 2016).
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of injection moulding technique.
For attaining prolonged stableness and operations, natural fibre

reinforced composites (NFRCs) must indicate the powerful application
aspects, several constituent components, fabrication-oriented demands and
disputes have to be dealt. The distinct need for fibre surface alterations to
attain improved fibre-matrix binding is considered. Most of the existing
fabrication techniques are used to produce NFRCs through moulding
methods such as vacuum infusion, compression, resin transfer, injection and
hot pressing. The scheme of the injection moulding process is presented in
Figure 4.

The application of additive manufacturing techniques to produce

NFRCs is exceptional. In an investigation, jute fibres are applied to
strengthen PLA matrix using fused filament fabrication method (Matsuzaki
et al. 2016). These products reported the strength and modulus are exceeded
by 2.7 and 3.1 times as compared with PLA. At the same time, the tensile
strain registered as least from 0.05% to 0.25%. Eventually suitable pre-
tensioning of jute fibres could support in attaining consistent moulding and
enhanced mechanical characteristics. Hydroxyl group is converted as
alkoxide in which the fruitful process is based on time span, temperature,
and kind of concentrated solution used (Li et al. 2007). As resulted, hemp
fibres possess protective film over its outer faces majorly comprising of oil
and wax. Nevertheless, the consumption of sodium hydroxide eliminated
this dirt and contaminant over the surface which led to better compatibility
of the polymer matrix (Lu and Oza, 2013).
The authors (Debnath et al. 2013) deliberated about present and future
role of NFRCs for turbine blades extensively. They accomplished non-
biodegradable materials enable the lifespan of about 20 years. The research
community on NFRCs as a potential and replacement to the traditional
material of turbine blades used in the industrial sector. While discussing
about implementation of NFRCs, the authors highlighted different
difficulties, challenges and also the two significant secondary fabricating
methods; are adhesive joining and machining. In adhesive joining of
polymers, they recommend microwave joining as a solution. Oil palm empty
fruit bunch fibre-reinforced polymer composite (OPEFRPC) materials
deserve broad applications when related to conventional FRP as a result of
its specific attributes (Bakar et al. 2010). The mechanical properties of these
composites have changed noticeably due to several aspects. The barriers
about basic and employed areas to be eliminated before the progressing of
oil palm fibres and its polymer matrices. The sophisticated properties lead
to an upgraded end product for real time application. The behaviour of heat
declining at lower temperatures prevents its employment in various sectors.
Moreover, OPEFB fibres imbibe the water which affects synergistic binding
with polymer matrices; as-resulted to defective mechanical behaviour. It
indicates the interrelation between absorption and mechanical behaviour.

These fibres are suitable for reinforcing with synthetic polymers and bio-
resin combination with thermoplastics and thermosets. Hence in the nearer
future, it can be expected the OPEFRPC based products will be fabricated
such as fibre mat, density board, etc. Strengthened date palm fibres
reinforced in polymer matrices and its various properties and behaviour were
observed and registered (Hammami et al. 2005).
2.2. Synthetic Fibres
Synthetic fibres for polymer matrices are polymeric (petroleum-based

polymer), glass and carbon/metal fibres. Synthetic fibre reinforced polymer
composites enable higher strength and stiffness products are greatly
recognized in aerospace and automotive sectors. Glass, carbon, and
polymeric fibres have been seeking more attention over the last twenty-five
years. Natural fibres in composites are experiencing sound challenges with
synthetic fibres; for instance, glass/PP and glass/epoxy. Majority of
structural reinforcements have encompassed application of steel, glass or
carbon fibres. The progress of greater modulus synthetic fibres, for instance
polyesters, polyaramid, permits the feasibility of substitution. However, an
expensive synthetic fibre for major reinforcement is quite impossible due to
the availability of resources and the economy. On the other hand, mechanical
characteristics and reinforcing attributes of infinite nano-fibres are
appreciably varied from limited sized normal/traditional equivalent
synthetic fibres that are applied to reinforcements in progressive preparation
of composite products. The wide aspect of proportion on length to diameter,
extensive surface region and nearer equivalent distribution of nano-fibres all
over the matrices project nano-fibres as a desirable stuffing in polymer
matrices.

2.3. Selection of Synthetic Fibres
2.3.1. Polymeric Fibres

Natural fibre has its own demerit in various applications because of its
high moisture absorption and low thermal resistivity. Selection of polymer
matrix with fibres must usually be taken in account, since polymers engage
a significant key part of affinity with fibres and capacity to withstand and
durability. Due to the characteristics of powerful inter-molecular forces
between the chain, polymer fibres are widely applied; as well as its
outstanding surface-area-to-volume ratio and durability in most of the
applications. While relating the special attributes of polymer fibres with
others, can derive the following mentioned essential facts like incorporation
of variant characteristics of fibre fillers and binders permits to fabricate the
composite with limitless features and obtained products are technologically
efficient to fabricate than numerous metals and ceramics. It also has
excellent specific mass properties, and greater reliability on functioning. The
fabrication of composites with polymer fibre reinforced, thermoplastics and
thermoset fabrication methods are hand lay-up, compression molding for its
flexibility, widespread and largely recognized unlike pultrusion. These
highly developed processes and modification methods support attaining
favorable characteristics in outcomes.
In several important applications, drug delivery is one of the most
significant applications amongst others important usages. The
implementation of electrospun fibres as drug vehicles will be promising in
future trends of biomedical tasks. The implementation of electro-spun nano-
fibres for sustained discharge of a modal drug tetracycline hydrochloride
through PLA and their blending as polymeric matrices (Kenawy et al. 2002).
Electro-spun nano-fibres have been possibly applied to attain various
regulated drug discharge profiles, such as slow, fast, medium, pulsatile and
biphasic discharges (Prabaharan et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2005). Externally
bonded FRP sheets are recently supported in the constructional field in order
to strengthen the concrete infrastructure and fire retardant. Williams et al.
(2006) investigate by conducting the numerical and experimental study on
the behaviour of fire while using insulated fibre reinforced concrete slabs.

As-resulted, enabling enough insulation thickness is a highly concerned in

reducing the crack and to avoid feasible delamination of fire protection film
and wrapping of concrete. A developed heat transfer model enables sensible
temperature calculation occurring in the internal part of the insulated fibre
strengthened concrete slabs. Promoting and refining heat transfer behaviour
of material along with moisture transformation is highly important to
enhance corresponding measured values. Suitable design and sufficient
insulation of fibre strengthened concrete members, enable fire-retardant
operation.
Through the previous fire-retardant activities, the result provides better
ideas to apply the same on polymer matrix composites to get the unique
results through variant approaches. This chapter throws light on those
investigations to motivate the research community to convert such ideas and
suggestions to the polymer matrix composites as medium or carrier for the
successful implementation. Halogen and phosphorus are well known for
fruitful results when combining with antimony and bromine respectively.
However, such combinations are applied in limited usage because of some
demerits and environmental withstanding issues. Phosphorus–nitrogen
formulations, halogen with either tin or antimony, and tribomoneopentyl are
some of the developed efficient combinations in PP as fibre. In order to
maintain thermal stabilities, polymer-clay nano-composites were fabricated
60 years ago (Blumstein, 1961). Followed by PMMA (Blumstein, 1965),
polydimethylsiloxane (Burnside and Giannelis, 1995) and polyimide (Yano
et al. 1993) are various polymers layered with clay and nano-composites
were produced to enhance the thermal stability. Further investigations
reported that the existence of nano-clays enhances flammability
characteristics in relation to polymer matrices.
Investigations on characteristics of flammability of various kinds of
polymer/clay nano-composites have disclosed behaviour under the
circumstances of burning (Gilman et al. 1997). Hence a set of modern range
of flame-retardant modules for polymers has developed through nano-
composites. Especially organically altered clay distributed in listed polymer
matrices provided more attention over the product. Montmorillonites
(Lepoittevin et al. 2002), Titanium dioxide (Li et al. 2003a), Antimony (III)

oxide (Ye et al. 2002) are a few amongst nano-components in flame

retardancy. Either bulk or blending methods are generally applied to produce
such nano-composites. PP and boroxosiloxanes are also highly notable
nano-components (Marosi et al. 2002). A form either intercalated or
exfoliated is followed by them where the loss of registry and lamination
through the incoming component is occurred; as outcome, along with silicate
layers totally distributed all around the ground substance (Becker et al.
2002). Further analysis reported exfoliated types provided greater
mechanical behaviour whereas intercalated components ensure the most
effective fire-retardant attributes (Gilman et al. 1999). PP nano-composites
offered the exfoliated structure and a few successful combinations are PP
with montmorillonite, boroxosiloxanes, calcium carbonate, silicate and
sodium bentonite Kaempfer et al. 2002; Li et al. 2003b; Lopez et al. 2003).
Cone calorimetric experiments are usually conducted to determine thermal
distribution, in which bulk specimens registered the behaviour of minimal
heat release. Also, the investigations revealed the betterment on
flammability attributes were due to the variations in condensed phase
decomposition (Gilman, 1999). Hence further investigations suggested the
polypropylene, combination of boroxosiloxanes with flame retardant added
components have provided better results. Moreover, researchers have been
involved and succeeded in the production of flame-resistant polyolefins
through nano-technology (News and views, 2002).
Many combinations of halogen compounds have been developed in
relation to the flame retardancy of PP. The tendency and range of
discharging the halogen depends upon the inherent capability of halogen
compounds (Lyons, 1970). Aliphatic halogen compounds are well efficient
components because of its least bond energy and ease of discharging
halogen. Most of the halogen groups also comprise the components
phosphorus, boron, nitrogen and especially brominated compounds
(Georlette et al. 2000; Georlette, 2001). Such brominated compounds must
be in the range of 30-40% without the integration of other elements for
attaining UL94 V-0 passes in PP. In order to apply in the addition polymers
such as polypropylene, a set of copolymers and reactive monomers are
simply accessible to use. Even though these reactive varieties possess a

sufficient degree of flame retardancy which generally minimizes the

attributes of fibre. Hence such are not employed as principal components for
textile requisition. At the same time, this would not be an issue when using
the PP retardant varieties with the bromine proportions around 36% (Great
Lakes, 2019). It indicates incorporation of bromine with PP homopolymer
in greater intensity to attain the desirable flame retardancy. As a result of
such higher concentrated usage likely influences ultraviolet stability of the
derived fibres in a negative way.
When employing the PP fibre, about of 39% of bromine contained
variant is able to attain melt-dripping stage of flame retardancy. In general,
to attain the melt-dripping levels by bulking or by fibre employment
(Georlette et al. 2000) in nano-composites. Halogen containing retardants
has a good profitable business when applying in polypropylene fibres. The
combination of halogen–phosphorus retardant was converted to bromine
band which includes tribomoneopentyl or tris-phosphate (Camino et al.
1991; Georlette et al. 2000). Such bromine bands are incorporated to PP
fibres with 70% and 3% of bromine and phosphorus respectively. In
addition, it possesses greater ultraviolet stability and compatibility along
with halogen stabilizers.
The implement and usage of FRP strengthened members is beginning to
evolve in most of the industry and also the field of fire retardation. One of a
research tasks in this field examined the reinforced concrete on FRP
(Williams et al. 2008). In which, a couple of flexural T-beam specimens
were taken and endured with FRP; and insulated. Followed by, under the
total working load applied, those were projected to the fire system. The
required data has been recorded for further analysis. A thermal exchange
model was applied to forecast thermal condition within the specimen at the
time of firing. Later on, predicted thermal readings of the fire tests were
related; eventually obtained the agreeable result. The outcomes reported that
FRP reinforced concrete beams could attain fire endurance within four
hours.

2.3.2. Glass Fibres

A research team investigated the impact of absorption of sea water when
preserving the mechanical attributes; where nano-TiO2 powder materials
with various constituents blended with epoxy polymer matrix (Nayak and
Ray, 2018). Earlier, nano-fillers are reinforced with glass fibres reinforced
epoxy polymer matrix composites to improve the mechanical property. The
nano-composites were produced through hand lay-up techniques and kept
under the sea water tank for 40 days. The results indicated that seawater
diffusivity was enhanced about of 15% for each supplement of 0.1 wt. %
nano-TiO2. The detrimental effect was due to the accumulation of nano-
materials.
In order to improve the impact strength of the laminated composites the
thermoplastic matrix has been adapted. However, the various ranges in the
ductility of taken matrices would make changes in damage process of
thermo-polymer composites. The study was conducted by investigating
quasi-static indentation to analyze the consequences of ductility of matrix
(Yudhanto et al. 2018). The analysis of continuous glass fibre/PP
thermoplastic composites discloses that the homopolymer /PP and
copolymer/PP possessed good and lesser ductile matrices respectively. The
study revealed that phenomenon of damage is contrasting between the
matrices of ductile glass fibre/PP and lesser ductile glass fibre/PP. As
resulted the matrices of ductile glass fibre/PP shows littler damage zone
when related to lesser ductile glass fibre/PP. A lesser magnitude of
delamination was found in the higher ductile matrix materials; it is due to
the phenomenon that the development of ply cracking was occurred together
with fibre. Moreover, the impact of stacking sequence was comparatively
lesser in the higher ductile matrix specimens.
(Francois et al. 2002) have investigated different types of glass fibre
composite bars fabricated using various proportions combination of
constituents, fabrication techniques, physical variations, variables and
coatings. Listed specimens were undergone a few of sustain tensile load
testing through sodium hydroxide, simulated pore solution and planted in
concrete where applied load was maintained between 22 to 68% of strength.
Inherent strength, stress corrosion mechanisms with the support of different

microstructural studies. As-resulted, alkaline ions and moisture can

outspread through the microvoids, cracks and resins finally reach the fibres.
In addition, it has been noted glass fibre bars are dominated to imperfections
due to the crack propagation, stress and diffusion when such Fibres are
planted with moisture-concrete subjected to different ranges of constant
stresses.
An advanced extended basalt fibres are known as a new kind of silicate
fibre characterized and enhanced protection towards acid and alkali was
noticed (Dalinkevich et al. 2009). Its mechanical properties are nearer to E-
glass fibres with better young’s modulus and as like the magnesium
aluminosilicate S-glass fibres, it possesses a greater range of modulus and
reinforcement abilities. Mechanical attributes of epoxy basalt to polymer are
as same as S-glass fibre-strengthened polymers and exceeded the level of
electrical graded glass fibre-strengthened polymers. E-glass fibre is known
as alkali free and S-glass fibres for its higher tensile modulus. Whereas the
fibres with the combination of epoxy basal to polymer possess higher level
of protection from heat and humidity; and enhanced alkali free
characteristics when compared to the epoxy composites made through E and
S-glass fibres. These attributes are obtained due to explicit adherence
characteristics of basalt roving as fibres.
2.3.3. Carbon/Metal/Ceramic Fibres

In space application, integrated circumstantial determinants are heat
cyclic loading and vacuum. In this study unidirectional carbon fibres
reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites were taken and investigated about
its consequences under earth orbit (Park et al. 2012). The physical, thermal
and mechanical reactions of the candidate components about of 2000 cycles
in the determined temperature limit (120–175°C) under the vacuum
atmosphere was registered. It has been noted during the initial states,
integrated activities of vacuum and cyclic heat were the reason for the
collapsing of development of micro-viods and intermittent sliding at carbon
fibre epoxy matrices interfaces. Further, it has been analyzed the impacts of
such down fallen process with respect to the characteristics of composites
on thermal cyclic loading and vacuum (Ye et al. 2004).

Electro-spun nano-fibres can be oriented to fabricate the distinct

operational nanostructure like nanotubes and nanowires. Single-walled
carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) can possibly be planted on polyethylene oxide
matrices by electro-spinning method (Salalha et al. 2003). Few researchers
(Ali et al. 2002; Ko et al. 2003; Ye et al. 2004) on double steps of rupture
behaviour CNT and polymer nano-fibres registered the withdrawing of
CNTs a crazing of polymer matrices when subjected to tensile load. They
recommended that the reinforcement of CNTs in polymer matrices by
obstructing expansion of microcracks, minimizing the stress concentration
and energy dissipation through taking back. There are two primary aspects
which decide the reinforcement effect of CNTs in polymer fibres which are
dispersion of NTs in the polymer matrices and synergistic adherence
between NTs and polymers (Ko et al. 2001). CNTs and PEO solution are
mixed-up through co-electrospun. This course of action orients the CNTs in
the outcoming nanocomposite fibrils. Based on models, the mechanical
characteristics of CNTs reinforced polymer composites are greater than
regular composites.
The work of Sen et al. (2004) shows tensile property of the ester
functionalized single walled CNTs-polyurethane thin films was improved
nearly twice when related to electrospun pure polyurethane thin films. The
single walled carbon nanotubes were associated with polyurethane matrices,
which provides the increment of about 46% only. The tangent modulus of
as-taken and ester functionalized single walled carbon nanotubes-
polyurethane thin films reported about 4.3 times and 5 times greater,
respectively, when compared with control polyurethane thin films. Heavy
mineral oil and an ethanol solution of PVP and titanium (IV) isopropoxide
are applied as the components for inner and skin respectively (Li and Xia,
2004). Titanium (IV) isopropoxide was incorporated into the PVP/alcohol
solution in order to prepare the stable jet. Raising in viscosity and regulating
the viscoelasticity of the solution by PVP. After the electrospun, the alkoxide
suddenly accelerated to hydrolyze by the moisture of that atmosphere for
producing an uninterrupted gel network into the polymer matrices. As an
outcome, nano-fibres comprising of inorganic/polymer composite were
received.

Magneto polymer matrix composites are combination of properties of

fibre/particulate strengthening and magnetic, which lead towards designing
effective forthcoming space composite materials. A study in this field
discussed the surface functionalities, alteration, mixing, combining, fusing,
phase transformation and controlling the variables (Rafique et al. 2017).
This research task was initially started by testing the magnetic particles,
nothing but ferrites, for applying in polymer composites. This was well
known in the names of FRPC namely, ferrite particulate reinforced
composites about 63 years ago. Such magneto particles are comprehensively
investigated and applied in conducting and non-conducting polymer
matrices. It is also known as ferrite polymer composites. Its applications are
highly extensive in several technological fields in the form of magnetic
sensors, biomedical markers, etc. Nevertheless, their demerits in fluidity,
fabrication, mechanical behaviour and corrosive properties limits their
magnetic detection and implementation in aerospace structures. Magnetic
confinement, interaction with air bubbles, etc. are some of the problems
encountered by magnetic particles as fibre in polymer matrices.
3. APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES FOR

PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
FRPCs, promoted in major for defense sector, which are higher grade of
materials with greatest prospects to use in construction and building sector.
The composites obtained with geological technology have a much more
developed surface than traditional materials. The regularities of the structure
formation processes are revealed and the principles for increasing the
efficiency of non-autoclaved aerated concrete due to application of
composite binders and the development of technological methods for the
production of protective structures are developed (Fediuk et al. 2017).
Potyrala (2011) described about FRPCs with the aid of the key data; as a
constructional material, the author reported about its properties, codes of
structures/designs, making of structural elements, fabrication processes,

classification of constructional designs, tendons, bridge deck systems and

techniques of connecting the constructional elements. Also, the author
related the behaviour and attributes of FRPCs to traditional elements.
Eventually he presented about 355 structures made of FRP across the globe
along with the fundamental selective information and necessary remarks.
Hollaway (2013) studied the different methods of channelizing the
renewable energies as electrical power, implementation of polymer matrix
composites along with recycling, repair and maintenance of wind turbine
blades. Also, the author discussed the latest trends in design attributes,
fabrication methods of such fibre-polymer combinations which are applied
in fabrication of machines bring on sustainable energy. Eventually, the
author added the part of polymer/fibre composites along with its fabrication
techniques in forthcoming sustainable energy systems.
It’s interesting to know about the effort on externally bonded FRP
composites. A study on estimating the lifetime of such externally bonded
fibre-reinforced polymer composite arrangement indicates potential of the
candidate component to render improved constructional properties of the
taken FRPC over time span of interest (Boothby and Bakis, 2008). Several
interrelated aspects played a major role in determining the lifespan
behaviour of FRPCs with taken substrate material. Concrete, wood, brick,
stones and ferrous materials are the usual substrates where difficulties are
found on durability for wet-laid and pre-cured thermosetting fibres; also,
synergistic combining troubles between materials. In order to understand the
durability complications, experiments were conducted by the specimens as
FRPCs bound with slots cut inside the substrate; which were looked
forwarded to coincide with the internal FRPCs and externally fused FRPCs.
The information received through accelerated tests likely not showed the
forecasted field behaviour of the FRP substrate hybrid arrangement.
Electrospun polymer nano-composite fibres are one of the well
advanced and emerging products in thin film preparation. In order to
produce such kinds of thin nano-composites, electro-spinning technologies
are used (Teo et al. 2010). This technique applies a powerful voltage to
provide enough charges to the solution to such an extent a jet emits from the
edge of the spinneret. Due to the rushing of jets against the collector, the

solvent vaporises hence the nano-fibre is precipitated on the electric

collector. Whenever the charges are electro-spinning, nearly all the solutions
that stretch. Hence, versatile candidate materials can be included in the
solution to be electrospun. In order to form the composites and to need to
act as the reinforcement in a matrix, electrospun nano-fibres feasibly be
employed. Several alterations to the arrangement can be configured to
produce the nano-fibres with various frameworks and morphology to
reinforce with polymer matrices which facilitate tissue engineering and the
preparation of thin film nano-composites.
A study discussed preparation of nano-composite with the support of
electrospun nano-fibres (Behler et al. 2009). A 4/5 proportions in weight
percentage on polyacrylonitrile and 2/5 proportions in weight percentage of
polyamide 11 are applied in which nano and micro sized fibres comprises a
huge loadings of 5 nm sized diamond materials. Electrospun nano-fibres are
acted as the supplying agent where a powerful charge of nano-diamond in
the polymers were bonded with the fine transparent layer, which possessed
the supreme mechanical characteristics. As resulting, a betterment of four
times of the modulus of elasticity, and two times of the hardness was
registered when comparing to the 20 wt. % nano-diamond in polyamide 11.
These nano-composites of thin films enable the ultraviolet protection and
preventing layer from scratch for versatile outer faces; significantly, in the
applications which require the integrated characteristics of dielectric,
mechanical and thermal.
CONCLUSION
The expanding perception and awareness of ecology and environment

has motivated the novel to progress the novel, innovative materials for
versatile technological implementations. Synthesizing of polymeric
candidates available from nature has obtained a significant level of research
attraction in the last few years, which ends in multiple categories of bio-
composites. Implementations of bio-Fibered polymer matrix composites in
practical applications are limited by its moisture absorption, swelling

heterogeneous behaviour, inadequate fire resistance, difficulties in

synergistic integration and compatibility issues between the fibres and the
polymeric matrices. Besides, an economic influence and future way of such
components to be highly reviewed. It is concluded bio-composites are one
of the developing sectors in polymer science that obtains spotlight to employ
in different areas such as automotive and construction fields. The different
surface modification techniques involved in enhancing the adherence
between the fibres and the matrices were reviewed. By considering the
future requirements and demands in aircraft frame and structural design, a
modern grade of magnetic polymer materials is being progressed which will
hopefully fulfil the gap of potential candidates. When focusing on
reinforcement of carbon fibres in PMCs, orientation in matrix is the other
primary complication due to the property of anisotropic possessed by CNTs.
In order to achieve supreme mechanical attributes, it is necessary to be
properly oriented in composite matrices. Interfacial integration with
matrices is also other demerits as the CNTs possess inert graphite faces.
Hence, further investigations and analysis are required to disentangle several
difficulties with CNTs embedment in polymer matrices nano-composites at
the time of mass production and processing.
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Chapter 7
MANUFACTURING METHODS OF
Syed Waheedullah Ghori and Vineet Tirth

Mechanical Engineering Department,
College of Engineering, King Khalid University,
Abha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
Composite Materials are favored mainly because of their sustainability

and green image. They also exhibit excellent thermal and mechanical
properties. Fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) are found to have wider
applications ranging from aerospace, automotive, sports, utensils, etc. due
to their better strength to weight ratio, low cost, and ease of manufacturing.
The techniques used to manufacture FRPs are based largely on
reinforcement and application used. This chapter includes different
manufacturing techniques used for making FRP products and components,
in detail. The authors have attempted to embrace all the existing fabrication
techniques in the composite industry in the present context. This chapter
acmes the evolution of FRPs and presents a comparative overview of the
different techniques available.

Corresponding Author’s E-mail: waheedullahghori@gmail.com.

238 Syed Waheedullah Ghori and Vineet Tirth
Keywords: composite, sustainability, green image, mechanical properties,

sports goods, utensils
1. INTRODUCTION
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites can be produced using a wide

variety of polymer matrices andprocessing techniques. The incorporation of
fiber-reinforcement into a resin or plastic yields FRPs [1]. Polymer
composites are made from two or more dissimilar constituents, the bulk
material is a continuous matrix in which natural or synthetic fibers are added
as reinforcements [2]. The components made from FRP exhibit encouraging
properties over customary materials such as low density, superior strength,
non-corrosive, high impact resistance, durability, and functional stability,
etc. This chapter examines the manufacturing techniques including their
potentials and limitations [3].
FRPs products are employed in enormous uses in different fields
extending from offshore platforms, aircraft, spacecraft, helicopters, ships,
boats, automotive interiors, chemical processing equipment, sports goods,
and in the construction industry. The application of FRPshas increasingly
penetrated new avenues and scope, in particular in the construction and
biomedical industry. Owing to their instability during processing, the
manufacturing of natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs) is
challenging. The conventional polymer making processes, for example,
injection molding, extrusion, vacuum infusion, and compression molding,
etc. are quite versatile and have been successfully used for the fabrication of
NFRCs.However, the thermal instability and inferior mechanical properties
pose a serious consideration on the compatibility of these materials with
conventional polymers such as thermoplastics [4]. A thorough
understanding and analysis of the behavior of the natural fibers hence are
important to predict their behavior and design a composite system. Chemical
treatment is often used as an essential step in FRP processing to improve the
interfacial bonding of the fibers with the polymer matrix. A sound bonding
renders sound mechanical and physical properties. The adoption of the

Manufacturing Methods of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 239
technology of NFRCs in automotive industries is governed by the objectives

to achieve lightweight, recyclability, and low cost. In the past decade, the
automotive industry embraced NFRC components for both interior and
exterior applications. The utilization of natural fiber reinforced bioplastics
has gained increased importance due to the waste disposal issues and threats
to the environment [5].
2. EVOLUTION OF FIBER REINFORCED

COMPOSITES (FRCS)
The use of composites dates far back into ancient times in 1500 BC.
When the Mesopotamian and Egyptians colonizers used to build huts with
clay and straw mixture. Later in 1200 AD., a composite bow was designed
by Mongols, which was adopted for dominance in battles [6]. The
composites attracted material engineers and gained momentum after the
incarceration of plastics started in the nineteenth century. In 1907, the first
plastic Bakelite was investigated which was a thermoset polymer. Soon after
other polymers such as polystyrene, polyvinyl, and polyester were
developed. In 1935, the development of the first glass fabric initiating the
beginning of the FRP industry. World War II (1939 - 1945) accelerated the
transfer of composite technology from the laboratory to the industry. Henry
ford employed FRP in the automobile industry in 1941 [6]. In the 1940s, flax
reinforced Spitfire fuselage was made at Duxford, Cambridgeshire U.K [7].
In 1942 - 1944, the “Gold Worthy” father of composite build glass
laminates. In 1946, the foremost boat hull was made using the glass fibers.
However, from the 1960s to 1970s, FRP composite research drew increased
attention. From 1960 onwards, the aircraft industry started using FRP
composites for the production of parts like floorboards, fairings, and spoilers
of aircraft. Carbon fibers were introduced in 1963, with better strength and
durability [8].
Gotch introduced a vacuum impregnation process using a single solid
tool comprising of a diaphragm bag made of silicone rubber in 1980 - 1985.

Covington and Bavmgardner developed rotor blades of the helicopter by

filament winding process using glass fibers in 1980. The father of
composites, Gold Worthy introduced the Pultrusion process in 1982. In the
same year, the Indian Institute of Composite material was established [9].
The resin transfer molding was introduced in 1985, followed by the tape
winding process for making the parts of motor blades in 1986 by Hold [6].
The Advanced composite manufacturing center was established in 1987 to
offer courses on composites to encourage research and development. The
large diameter pipes were extensively fabricated by centrifugal casting in
1988. Boyce introduced the fiber reinforcement of stock before compression
molding using robotic winding. The composite industry has gained a thrust
after the concept of fiber reinforcement was introduced [31].
3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR COMPOSITES
Countless processes are available to manufacture products with fiber-

reinforced polymer composites based on reinforcement and application.
Figure 1 gives the classification of manufacturing processes used to fabricate
the FRCs.
3.1. The Hand Lay-Up Method
The most commonly used method for making FRP composites is hand
layup, which generally comprises of laying successive layers of dry fabric,
manually onto a tool to build a laminate stack. After layup is complete, the
resin is applied to the dry (e.g., through resin infusion).
Several types of curing methods can be used. The most common method
is to allow to cure at room temperature. The hand lay-up setup is shown in
Figure 2. FRP composites are cured in kilns under high temperature, under
suitable mechanical pressure [10].

Figure 1. Classification of manufacturing processes used to fabricate FRCs [6].
Figure 2. Hand layup process (https://www.eppcomposites.com/hand-layup-

process.html).
3.2. Spray-Up Processes
The spray-up technique is an advanced version of the hand lay-up

method. In this technique, resin and reinforcements are sprayed onto a mold
with the help of a chopper gun. Simultaneously, a roller rolls the sprayed
material to fuse matrix material with these fiber reinforcements. Figure 3
illustrates the spray-up process. Spray lay-up is an open mold process. This
process is quicker than the hand lay-up method as chopped fibers provide
greater conformability [11].

3.3. Vacuum Bagging Processes
Vacuum bag molding uses a flexible film made from a polymer such as
polyethylene, nylon, or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to isolate the material from
air, simultaneously, compacting it. Generally, vacuum bag molding is used
in concurrence with the hand lay-up method. The laminate is prepared by
hand lay-up method and then it is placed in the vacuum bag under vacuum
to remove the air and squeeze the matrix and fibers together [12, 13]. The
vacuum pump removes the trapped air while the atmospheric pressure
compresses the composite simultaneously, as demonstrated in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Spray-up process (http://www.gunungputri.com/whywhalefrp.php?language=

id).
Figure 4. Vacuumbagging (https://www.anatomynote.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/

01/18407/Vacuum-bagging-diagram.gif).

The laminated composites can be prepared using vacuum bagging where

multiple layers of similar or dissimilar fibers can be combined and defects
such as incomplete impregnation of multiple reinforcements and porosity
can be avoided.
Such composites offer better inter-laminar shear resistance and sound
flexural properties [14].
3.4. Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM)
RTM is a closed mold process. The RTM die contains two halves
(molds) with an internal surface having the impression of the final part.
Fabric is positioned in the space between the molds and is piled to prescribed
orientation and thickness. The two die halves are shut and fastened.
The required amount of resin is inoculated into the mold with the help
of a pump. Finally curing is down to polymer matrix by heating the mold to
form solid composite [15].
It produces a component with excellent mechanical properties and the
finishing matching with the mold surface [16]. Figure 5 illustrates the resin
transfer molding process.
Figure 5. Resin transfer molding (http://www.plastech.co.uk/Mtrtm.html).

3.5. VARTM Process
VARTM is an extension of resin transfer molding. The major problem

with RTM is the air left in the cavity when the die is closed. Since that air
cannot escape, it ends up inside the composite, leading to voids in the
composite after curing. Further, due to the high pressure of resin transfer,
the architecture of the fiber fabric may be disoriented. To overcome this
problem, vacuum-assisted RTM is used. The process involves the use of a
vacuum pump to clear air from the mold and to assist resin flow into a fiber
layup. Now the curing of lay-up is performed under vacuum. The
atmospheric pressure forces the sheet used to separate the lay-up with the
surroundings and seals it properly. After the impregnation, the part is cured
at room temperature. High flow resins are used in this process. VARTM
setup is revealed in Figure 6. The air is removed and the cured composite is
free from porosity.
Figure 6. VARTM Process (http://www.futuremediacreations.com/technoire/

vartm.htm).
The most common products made by VARTM are blades of wind

turbines, and hulls of boats [17, 18].
3.6. Pultrusion Process
This process is restricted to constant cross-section profiles for example

tubes, channels, and rods.
The Pultrusion process consists of pulling a continuous fiber bundle
through a bath of liquid and is drawn across a heated die, custom-designed

for the shape of the product. The main components of the Pultrusion
equipment include a delivery platform for reinforcement, a container for
resin matrix, a forming die and a curing die, a drawing mechanism, and a
cutting blade. The schematic Pultrusion process is depicted in Figure 7. It is
a low-cost method for high production volumes with the same cross-section.
The process finds wide applications in the production of aircraft
stringers [15].
3.7. Compression molding
Compression molding is the most common method to fabricate fiber

reinforced polymer composite products.
Figure 7. Pultrusion (http://pultruder.blogspot.com/2014/05/what-is-pultrusion.html).
Figure 8. Compression Molding (https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/

doku.php?id=closed_mold_fabrication_of_polymer_matrix_composites).

In compression molding, the required amount of material is positioned

amid two parts of the mold, and the material then is hard-pressed against one
another to obtain the final contour of the mold as illustrated in Figure 8.
The basic phases in the compression molding technique consist of a
charge preparation and placement, mold closure, curing, and part release
[19].
3.8. Injection Molding
Injection molding is the most common and fast process to make polymer
products.
It has the potential to fabricate polymer composites also with quite a low
cycle time and a high degree of precision. In a characteristic injection
molding method, granular molding material in the form of pellets is loaded
into the hopper and is fed into a heated barrel by a rotating screw, from which
the hot liquid mixture is injected into the mold until the cavity of the mold
is filled.
Then the polymer melt is cooled until solidified and the pressure is
maintained from the injector screw.
Figure 9. Injection molding (http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/ doku.php?id=

injection_molding_of_polymers).

The mold is then opened to withdraw the final part and the process is
repeated [13] as depicted in Figure 9. This process is quite effective in
making the electronic components from thermoplastic materials for medical
equipment [20].
4. ADVANCE MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
4.1. Electrospinning Process
Evolving nanotechnology has attracted investigators to pursue novel

nanoscale fiber making methods for the development of composites.
Electrospinning or electrostatic spinning is an efficient technique for the
fabrication of polymer nanofibers, which uses electrostatic forces for
making long fibers ranging from sub-micrometers to nanometers [9]. In the
electrospinning process, high voltage induces the electric charge on a
polymer liquid with an external electric field and a capillary pump is used to
control the feed rate.
Figure 10. Electrospinning (https://www.oxolutia.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/

electrospinning-1.jpg).
Once the critical point of the electric field is attained, the repulsive
electric force incapacitates the surface tension of the liquid polymer, which
is then driven out from the tip forming a continuous fiber, deposited on a

collector, as illustrated in Figure 10 [21]. The fibers possess good

mechanical and physical properties, a higher ratio of surface area to volume,
and greater flexibility of process variables.
It has significant applications in a variety of fields such as drug delivery,
tissue engineering scaffolds, wound healing, like a membrane, biosensors,
and cosmetics, etc. [20, 22, 23].
4.2. Filament Winding
Filament winding is one of the oldest production process widely used to

produce circular components by dipping the reinforcing filaments under
tension in polymer resin and winding the impregnated fibers over a rotating
mandrel. The fiber orientation and density are accurately controlled. After
applying sufficient layers, the laminate is cured on the mandrel itself under
heat and finally, the molded part is stripped. The winding angles can vary
from 25° to 80°. It is a low cost, self-automated, and uninterrupted process,
depicted in Figure 11. The products such as aerospace parts like motor cases
for Atlas and Delta rockets, side raft, Titan IV, missile launch tube, heavy-
duty industrial and underground pipes, agricultural pipes, etc. are made by
this process [24]. Recently established robotic filament winding (RFW)
method provides an industrial robot armed with a deposition and feeding
mechanism for better quality control.
It offers benefits like accurate process control, a high degree of
reproducibility, and less time compared to the manual or semi-automatic
process [25].
4.3. Automated Fiber Placement (AFP)
AFP is an innovative method for fabricating composite structures. In this

technique, a numerically controlled fiber engagement machine is used for
making both flat and cylindrical surfaces.

AFP is the most well-known additive manufacturing process [26],

consisting of a fiber engagement head and robotic arm, controlled by
cutting-edge software suites [27, 28].
Figure 11. Filamentwinding (https://www.pinterest.com/pin/311803974194885142/

?autologin=true).
Figure 12. Automated fibre placement (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/

pii/S0010448510001788).
The manufacturing stages include lay-up, curing/melting, and

amalgamation, grouped in the lay-up head, thereby reducing the time and
cost of manufacture [29]. Figure 12 shows the AFP process. During the lay-
up process, the engagement head presses the thin Prepreg tape surface under

heat. A roller compacts the Prepreg and removes the trapped air out of the
composite laminate using mechanical pressure and a hot gas torch (HGT) to
cure the prepreg simultaneously. Applications on AFP is in making precise
components such as load-bearing propellant casing for rockets and space
crafts, nose cones, wing skins, barrels, and fuselages of commercial aircraft
like Airbus, Boeing [30].
5. SUMMARY AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
An extensive review of FRP making processes and the materials used

reveal that the characterization of these materials has not been done
exhaustively. A proper understanding of the properties and behavior of the
polymers is of utmost importance in the selection of process and associated
parameters. Material and process selection is the basic step in the process
design for FRPs. The volume of production is a deciding factor in the cost
of the products. Desirably, the high volume will lower the material and
machine costs and increase profitability. The production volume is also a
key factor in deciding the cycle time and the rate of production. To date,
extrusion, injection molding, resin transfer molding, etc. have been typically
used to make the polymer components. These can be successfully used to
develop FRPs and FRCs. The extension of applications of the polymeric
materials has been increasingly observed in the biocomposites fabrication
for biomedical applications. Newer auxiliary and downstream processes are
under development, which includes controlled heating, in-process drying,
spray cooling, and employing a range of vertical crammer and gravimetric
process configurations. A combination of the two individual processes such
as injection-compression molding etc. generates new possibilities in process
and die designs. Conventionally, thermoplastics are preferred polymers, but
a combination of thermoplastics with thermosets or elastomers may be
interesting to explore. Filament winding is another versatile process, which
opens new avenues for the innovations in materials and process design.
FRPs and FRCs have enormous potential to challenge the cost and
performance of metallic materials.

The innovative materials selection and process design open many

opportunities to replace the energy-intensive metallic materials and explore
the undiscovered applications of the polymeric composites.
CONCLUSION
This chapter presented a comprehensive review of the evolution and

methods of making fiber-reinforced polymers and composites used to date.
The contents include the recent state-of-the-art and prospects of applications
and the need for FRPs and FRCs. There are vast opportunities in the
fabrication and applications of FRPs, a few major areas are in military and
defense equipment, construction, automotive, aerospace, electrical
appliances, and household utensils. FRPs and FRCs have the potential to
support the economy of the developing countries, significantly since these
materials are neither energy-intensive, nor they require sophisticated
machinery or a highly-skilled workforce. The polymer industry is at its
maturing stage. It is an important commodity, which attracts future research
and explorations in design and processing to lead the frontiers in research.
Plastic waste is an important consideration of the environment's perspective.
Accordingly, the process design is considered. The recent process
design for FRP/FRC making necessarily includes materials, process steps,
and parameters following a systems approach. Each iteration is carefully
designed and controlled. The implementation of the systems approach in
contrast to the conventional sections approaches yields identification and
control of the critical factors related to material, composition, and machine
parameters, during the processing.
The scope of further research in revealing new compositions of polymer
composites, process parameters, and exploration of new avenues of
applications is an open domain.

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Chapter 8
MACHINABILITY OF
H. Mohit1,*, G. Hemath Kumar2, M. R. Sanjay1,

Arul Mozhi Selvan3, Suchart Siengchin1
and R. Ruban3
1
Natural Composite Research Group Lab, Department of Materials and
Production Engineering, The Siridhorn International Thai-German
Graduate School of Engineering,
King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok, Thailand
2
Composite Research Center,
Ambattur, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
3
National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, India
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: hemathmohit@gmail.com.

258 H. Mohit, G. Hemath Kumar, M. R. Sanjay et al.
ABSTRACT
Presently, the demand for plant cellulose fiber-reinforced polymer

(PCFRP) composites has increased PCFRP composites are now becoming
a prime alternative to synthetic fiber-reinforced polymer composites in
different industrial applications such as automotive, aerospace, marine, etc.
The machining process is often an essential parameter that helps assemble
of parts in the final product. In the present investigation, machining
parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, and coolant flow rate on
sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC (Aluminum Silicon Carbide)
reinforced polyester hybrid nanocomposites have been studied using
circular saw arrangement. The experimental design was chosen as per the
response surface methodology (RSM-Box Behnken Method) to optimize
the effect of cutting speed (50 to 200 m/min), feed rate (0.15 to 0.45
mm/rev) and coolant flow rate (100 to 200 ml/min). From the ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance) results, it is found that the cutting speed, feed rate,
and coolant flow rate played an essential role in the materials removal rate.
By simultaneously increasing the materials removal rate, the optimum
values of cutting speed, feed rate, and the coolant flow rate were 200
m/min, 0.15 mm/rev, and 150 ml/min. From the normal probability of
materials removal rate graphs, it is found that there is a good agreement
between the developed model and the confirmation experiment. It is
noticed that the dimensional quality of machining the PCFRP composites
also improved under the optimum condition.
Keywords: aluminum silicon carbide, cutting speed, feed rate; optimization,

response surface methodology
ABBREVIATIONS
AB Interaction of feed rate and cutting speed

AC Interaction of feed rate and coolant flow rate
Adj MS Adjusted Mean Sum of Squares
Adj SS Adjusted Sum of Squares
Al Aluminum
Al-SiC Aluminum Silicon Carbide
ANN Artificial Neural Network
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

Machinability of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 259
ASE Average Squared Error

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BBD Box Behnken Design
BC Interaction of cutting speed and coolant flow rate
D Desirability
d Desirability formulation relates to the response (materials
removal rate)
DF Degree of Freedom
Dhd Finished hole diameter
Drd rod diameter
F- value Fischer Value
MATLAB Matrix Laboratory
MLA Multiple layer approach
MRR Materials Removal Rate
NaCl Sodium chloride
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
PCRFP Plant Cellulose Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
P-value Probability value
R Regression
RSM Response Surface Methodology
SiC Silicon Carbide
T Thickness of the composite sample
tm Time for machining
1. INTRODUCTION
The utilization of polymer-based composite materials has significantly

improved in recent decades (Bahramian et al. 2016; Singh and Zafar, 2019).
Because of the enhancement in mechanical characteristics, the need for these
composite materials has shown interest in many industries such as
appliances of household, automotive, and coating (Sung et al. 2019; Correa
et al. 2020). In the transportation manufacturing industry, the polymers are
a broadly utilized material, because of technological and economic reasons

with the necessity for more efficient and safer cars, and advancement of
engineering plastics, which turned into a vital component for automotive
(Patel et al. 2017). In the year 1970, nearly 30 kg of plastics were applied as
useful materials in the fabrication of every car. After 1990, plastics’
utilization has increased to almost 180 kg (Hemais et al. 2003). Among the
different types of engineering plastics, some materials have been utilized in
automobiles are polyesters, polycarbonate, polyoxyphenlene, polyacetal,
etc. (Lyu and Choi, 2015). There is a massive dumping of polymer-based
materials that can be reutilized and recycled as an outcome of the discarding
and substitution of components in automobiles. Reutilizing that type of stuff
is essential when plastics have substituted the different classic materials
from various automobile industries (Schmitt and Lebienvenue, 2003). This
reutilization process can be performed in different methods, and among them
is the fabrication of polymer-based composites (Holbery and Houston,
2006).
The polymer-based composites are a comprehensive type of material.
Hence, these composites’ fundamental characteristics are to comprise,
under, macro or micro or nano level, where more than two different
components, namely reinforcement and matrix. In recent years, a
requirement for plant cellulose fiber reinforced polymer composites
(PCFRP), which has improved rapidly. PCRFPs can also be suitable for
different applications such as packaging, automotive panels, and others
where they need for developed mechanical characteristics, which is lower
essential (Prabhakaran et al. 2014). Carbon or glass fiber reinforced polymer
composites are spectacularly distinct from recycling, up to the extent that
direct dumping in incineration or landfill is favored (Netravali and Chabba,
2003). The utilization of well-known bio-composites with a lower effect
from the environment will become necessary to reduce these issues. PCFRPs
have many benefits: first, the usage of natural materials in substituting
conventional minerals permits a substantial reduction in the usage of non-
biodegradable materials. Plant fibers in PCFRPs are generally drawn from
plant cellulose fibers, producing environmentally sustainable and
economically feasible plants. The fabrication methods contained in the
fabrication of PCFRPs are lower dangerous and possess a lower endanger

for handling the composite material (in this same context, the fillers/ carbon
fibers possess a hazard of breathing problems during their fabrication). Also,
PCFRPs can be arranged to occur advantageous characteristics such as
acoustics and thermal insulators and reduce specific weight compared with
filler reinforced components (Joshi et al. 2004).
Among plant cellulose fibers, sugarcane nanocellulose fiber is an
absolutely lower cost to fabricate and method, which is promptly abundant
in Asia in massive amounts. It is observed as primary fiber, which consists
of higher content cellulose, with excellent mechanical characteristics,
producing from a unique reinforcement for different fiber-based polymer
composites (Pil et al. 2016; Izani et al. 2013; Dittenber et al. 2012;
Panthapulakkal and Sain, 2006). In these materials, it is probable to collect
synergistic features, which their elements do not have in separation (Mohan
et al. 2005; Gaitonde et al. 2008). To be utilized as a component in different
conditions, they should be subjected to different machining processes. From
the development of polymers and their respective composites, it is essential
to develop the information about the characteristics of fabricated composites
during the process of machining, to collect a higher performance, and hence,
create the parts which meet the essential requirements of the market (Costa
et al. 2019). From the principle, composites are contained dissimilar
materials (reinforcement filler and matrix), producing it challenging to
collect higher quality bearing surface, little complexity, geometric tolerance
with better dimensional stability (Correa et al. 2020).
Among the different machining methods found in the factory, drilling is
possibly and broadly applied in fiber-reinforced polymer-based composites
(Uhlmann et al. 2016; Karata and Gökkaya, 2018). Other cutting techniques,
such as milling, parting, and planning, are also widely used in aerospace
sectors (Okzan et al. 2019). Although some new methods have been
developed to drill polymer-based laminates, the process of mechanical
drilling from a conventional drill is a typical application (Liu et al. 2012).
During the process of drilling, the fiber-reinforced polymer-based
composites act quite separately from that generally examined in the metal
cutting process (Quadrini et al. 2007). These dissimilarities fundamentally
obtain from the heterogeneity of the reinforced materials associated. In

stock, the polymeric matrix has a lower melting point, lower value of elastic
modulus, and endure the structural change when transfer of heat to the
component, which is more than the glass transition temperature. In the same
manner, the reinforcement of fillers has higher strength, comprised of higher
elastic modulus, which is greater refractory than the polymeric matrix (Che
et al. 2014).
To simplify the assembly of useful parts, machining of PCFRP
laminates is obligatory in different conditions. This machining process is
well-known to reduce different mediums of damage in the fabricated
composite parts like fiber pull-outs, inter-laminar propagation of the crack,
and delamination, leading to errors in the developed roundness. Many
parameters share the intensity of damage in fabricated composite materials
consisting of tool geometry and factors of cutting applied during the
machining process. A general perspective is the necessity to decrease the
machining loads as a method to decline the damage on the composite surface
(Wang et al. 2019). Specifically, limited investigation on the drilling of
natural fiber composites occurs. Generally, they suggest a lower rate of feed
and a higher range of cutting speed to decrease the delamination (Babu et al.
2013). A few investigations on hemp-fiber incorporated vinyl ester polymer
composites exhibited that factors of machining and fibril characteristics need
to influence the machining damage (Ismail et al. 2016). Li et al. (2005) in
their investigation examined an enhancement of nearly 50% in the materials
removal rate when compared with diamond drilling process during the
machining of ceramic matrix composites. Wu et al. (2011) reported that the
feed rate is an essential parameter for machining alumina composites. Feng
et al. (2012 a) observed that the lower feed rate and higher spindle speed can
improve the machining capability of carbon fiber reinforced polymer
composites.
In a few decades, significant research investigations have been
performed to enhance the method’s drilling behavior. The machining
process has been optimized for either single or multi targets from many
investigators with the help of different optimization techniques like response
surface methodology, grey relational analysis, Taguchi, particle swarm
optimization, genetic algorithm, etc. (Antil et al. 2018; Subramanian et al.

2014; Canakci et al. 2014; Katal and Narayan, 2017). The characteristics of
any type of machining method based on the optimized factorial quantities of
process factors. RSM (Response surface methodology) is an optimization
method that can be applied to evaluate and model a single response of
machining techniques. Different researchers have investigated the
proficiency of different experimental formulations to determine the quality
of output feature during machining. These combined formulations depend
on the RSM and innovative finite element formulations for measuring the
targeted response (Feng et al. 2012 b). The technique intensified on RSM
was observed to be capable as a formulation can be produced with lower
processing knowledge that tends to save experimentation and time. The
formulation collected from RSM is specifically lonely for a slight dimension
of input factors. In the same manner, the production of higher-order RSM
equations requires a large quantity of experimental works to be conducted.
This restriction has lead to the development of a model focused on ANN
(Artificial Neural Network). An ANN is a training scheme based on the
computational method to reproduce the brain’s neurological disbursement
capacity (Sagbas, 2011). The human approach has been repeated from ANN
for decision making and describing the conclusions when exhibited with
extraneous, intricate, restricted evidence, and loud. Before assassinating
ANN, previously restricted acceptance is need around the technique below
research studies. The ANN can determine any logical formulation randomly.
ANN’s capability to examine and streamline the characteristics of any
sophisticated and non-linear techniques is produced from a vital modeling
tool (Zain et al. 2010). Many investigators have conducted a mixed study on
ANN and RSM. Patel et al. (Kiran and Pragnesh, 2016) forecasted the
surface roughness during burnishing via rollers with the help of ANN and
RSM formulations. Song et al. combined RSM with ANN to evaluate the
cutting loads when machining fused silica using a laser-assisted machining
process (Song et al. 2019). Kumar and Singh (2019), Vijayabhaskar and
Rajmohan (2018) applied the RSM based desirability technique to optimize
the process factors of rotary ultrasonic drilling and wire cut electric
discharge machining process. The influence of SiC particle reinforcement
on thermoset polymers shows attention in different applications like

construction, aerospace, shipping, etc. Furthermore, the constituents in these

functions require appropriate drilling activity for holding schemes. The
exact drilling in these types of polymer-based composites is demonstrated
as a critical pressure in the part’s operational characteristics.
Hence, the literature review affirmed the availability of previously
published research investigations on composite materials machining.
Furthermore, there is a lack of investigation on the machining of hybrid filler
reinforced polymer composites with a broad range of applications. It has also
been examined that some investigations occur corresponding to the
machining of plant fiber-reinforced polymer composites from drilling
(Wang et al. 2019), but systematic studies have not been pursued factor
optimization of sugarcane nanocellulose/Al-SiC polyester composites. In
specific investigations, experimentation is carried out using one parameter
at a time system, which does not offer the vital information of interaction
influence of all the factors involved in the machining process. Hence, in the
present research investigation, an attempt has been designed to examine the
effect of processing factors such as feed rate, coolant flow rate, and cutting
speed along with their interactional effect on machining assignments as
material removal rate of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC polyester
composites. RSM has been applied to design the experiments and for single
objective (materials removal rate) optimization. The mechanical
characteristics of fabricated sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC polyester
was also performed additionally.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials
A polyester resin consists of three constituents: (i)) polyester resin, (ii)

accelerator (Cobalt Octoate), and (iii) catalyst (MEKP) were procured from
Sakthi Fiber Glass, Inc. India as a polymer matrix. The silicon carbide (SiC)
particles (150 ?m) and aluminum (Al) (15 ?m) were purchased from

Carborundum Universal, Kochi, and Ganapathy Colours, Chennai, India,

respectively.
2.2. Preparation of Sugarcane Nanocellulose Fiber
The sugarcane bagasse was obtained from different sugarcane mills around
northern India. The sugarcane waste was washed entirely from tap water to
discard the dirt particles, followed by drying in sunlight for two days. After the
drying process, the sugarcane samples were soaked in sodium chloride (NaCl)
solution with tap water in the ratio of 1:10 for 48 hours. Finally, the sugarcane
bagasse was chemically treated with a 1 N NaOH solution at 90°C for 240
minutes. The chemically treated fibers were converted into nano form using an
industrial grinder and separated from a nano sieve of 70 nm mesh size.
2.3. Preparation of Al-SiC Nanoparticles
The ball milling process was conducted in a high energy ball mill setup. A
3 wt.% of silica gel was discharged into the Al and SiC components during the
mechanical alloying process to prevent severe cold welding. The ball milling
parameters, such as balls to powder weight ratio, milling speed, and milling time
as 10:1, 180 ± 5 rpm, and 240 minutes with an interval of 20 minutes for every
60 minutes, respectively were employed during the milling process. The ball-
milled Al-SiC nanofillers were collected from a nano sieve of 55 nm mesh size.
2.4. Fabrication of Sugarcane Nanocellulose Fiber/Al-SiC

Polyester Composites
The Al-SiC and sugarcane nanocellulose fiber were dispersed in

polyester resin matrix using the Ultrasonicator probe machine (Model no.
UP400ST, Hielscher). 5 wt.% of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber, 2 wt.% of
Al-SiC nanofillers and polyester polymers were carefully weighed and

combined in a 1L cylindrical container with an ultrasonication time of

120min. During the ultrasonication process, the vessel was immersed in a
cold water bath to avoid overheating on the nanofillers surface. The
accelerator and catalyst were mixed with the resin mixture with the help of
a mechanical agitator vigorously for 2 minutes. The complete mix was
shifted to the steel die mold cavity and then transferred to the vacuum
chamber for 10 minutes to decrease the gaps and entrapped air. The
fabricated polyester composites reinforced with sugarcane nanocellulose
fiber and Al-SiC nanofillers were post-cured with 80 ± 2°C for 24 hours to
release the residual moisture content.
3. METHODOLOGY
In the present investigation, the experiments were performed based on

the Box Behnken design (BBD) of RSM. Generally, known statistical
analysis software, MINITAB-21, was applied for selecting the experimental
runs. The pilot experiments were carried out by changing the single
parameter at one time while performing alternate parts to be steady with a
particular target to determine the level and range of the specific process
factor. Indeed, from pilot experiments and the restriction of machines, the
standards and ranges of process factors have been established and displayed
in Table 1. According to the scheme of BBD, a total of 15 rungs were
performed in a randomized order. All the experimental runs were repeated
for five samples, and the mean value of the examination was considered for
the analysis to reduce the errors.
The materials removal rate of the fabricated composite was calculated
by employing time for machining (tm), rod diameter (Drd), the thickness of
the composite sample (t), and finished hole diameter (Dhd) using the equation
(1) (Sindhu et al. 2019; Sindhu et al. 2020). The working of the drilling
machine with coolant flow within the fabricated composite sample is shown
in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic of drilling on sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC polyester

composites.
The materials removal rate of the fabricated composite was calculated by

employing time for machining (tm), rod diameter (Drd), the thickness of the
composite sample (t), and finished hole diameter (Dhd) using the equation (1)
(Sindhu et al. 2019; Sindhu et al. 2020). The working of the drilling machine
with coolant flow within the fabricated composite sample is shown in Figure 1.
𝜋×(𝐷2 ℎ𝑑 −𝐷2 𝑟𝑑 )×𝑡𝑚

𝑀𝑅𝑅 = (1)
4×𝑡
ANNs are numerical formulations that voluntarily determine the

capability of usual neural schemes. The multiple layer approach (MLA) is a
feed-leading ANN consisting of a minimum of 3 layers of neurons, with the
first layer of neurons exhibiting the self-governing inputs. Every single
neuron in the underlying layer is assigned with one thickness of covered
neurons, which conveys nonlinear capabilities. Therefore, these neutrons are
entrusted with the last thickness of response neurons and utilizing training
determinations, the effect of every input neuron, and their sophisticate
association on the observed output can be determined. An MLA was
produced in MATLAB software with three input neurons: feed rate, coolant
flow rate, and cutting speed, establishing the materials removal rate. The
representation of MLA design can be observed in Figure 2.

Table 1. Experimental design of machining process with their levels
Level of Parameters
Parameters
-1 0 +1
A: Feed rate in mm/rev. 0.15 0.30 0.45
B: Coolant flow in ml/min. 100 150 200
C: Cutting speed in m/min. 50 125 200
The neuron’s number need in the unknown thickness was examined

from error and trial method to reduce the variation of outputs from the
experimental outcomes. The minimum 10 neurons were essential to
establish the final function from the knowledge abundant to construct the
RSM, and the extension of higher neurons initiated the prospect of extra-
fitting the formulation (Cheok et al. 2012; Madadlou et al. 2009). An
accumulation of preliminary results was used to produce the scheme, with
the balance of effects separate equally between testing and the system’s
approval. The procedure for determining the fitting issues requires a neural
network to outline between the numeric targets and input data. The network
characteristics are determined from regression function and average square
error via the neural fitting, which provides the training and production of the
system. The two layers of the neural network with the consolidation of
output and hidden layers can fit the single objective outlining issue relevant
for offering appropriate neurons and data in the unknown layer.
Figure 2. Architecture of artificial neural network.

4. MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION
The flexural and tensile characteristics of fabricated polyester

composites were conducted at room temperature with the help of Tinius
Olsen Universal Testing Machine of 50kN capacity load cell. To verify the
repeatability of the outcomes collected, five samples concerning every
weight percentage was performed. As per the ASTM D 3039/D3039M-14
standard, the tensile experiment was conducted on fabricated samples, with
1 mm/min of crosshead speed (Vignesh et al. 2017). The flexural research
was carried out from a three-point bending method with 1 mm/min of
crosshead speed for the fabricated polyester composite samples as per the
ASTM D 790-10 standard. The capacity of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/
Al-SiC reinforced polyester composites to consume energy from the impact
force with cracking is assigned to impact strength. The impact strength value
primarily depends on the interfacial adhesion within the matrix and filler,
effect of filler type, testing conditions, and presence of void content. The
impact strength was measured from the Izod test procedure according to
ASTM D 256 standard. Besides, the hardness was determined from Vicker’s
hardness tester as per the ASTM D 2583-13 standard.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Effect of Process Variables on Material Removal Rate
The experimental results were investigated for the process property as a

materials removal rate. The complete experimental summarized with the
average quantity of chosen response (Materials removal rate) is given in
Table 2. The ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test was conducted to verify
the contribution and significance of factors in terms of the developed model.
Table 3 displays the ANOVA test outcomes for materials removal rate with
p-value (less than 0.05) for the model statistically confirmed the necessity
of model coefficient under a 95% confidence level. However, the lack of fit

for the present model (0.225) was observed as not significant for the
interpretation and determination of the outcomes. Also, it affirmed that the
model had fitted well for all the points of observation in design. The
generated model from the RSM method is shown in equation (2), without
eliminating the model’s not significant parameters.
Table 2. Experimental runs of machining process
A: Feed rate in B: Coolant flow in C: Cutting speed in Material removal

Runs
mm/rev. ml/min. m/min. rate
1 0.45 150 200 1.48
2 0.45 200 125 1.33
3 0.15 200 125 1.45
4 0.15 150 200 1.76
5 0.45 100 125 1.17
6 0.3 100 200 1.52
7 0.3 150 125 1.46
8 0.3 200 50 1.12
9 0.15 150 50 1.08
10 0.3 150 125 1.46
11 0.3 200 200 1.63
12 0.3 100 50 1.06
13 0.15 100 125 1.22
14 0.3 150 125 1.46
15 0.45 150 50 1.02
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = −0.501 + 0.000637 ×

𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 + 2.736 × 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 0.01188 ×
𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 3.67 × (𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)2 − 0.000034 ×
(𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)2 − 0.000008 × (𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)2 −
0.00489 × 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 + 0.000003 ×
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 × 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 0.00233 ×
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (2)
It can be examined from Table 3 that the single and second-order factors
of feed rate, coolant flow rate, and cutting speed have a significant influence
on materials removal rate on the fabricated composites. The two parameters
interaction of feed rate with coolant flow rate (AB), coolant flow rate with
cutting speed (BC), and feed rate with cutting speed (AC) was also examined

as significant in the generated model of materials removal rate. The main

effect of the input factors on materials removal rate are shown in Figure 3.
It can be examined that the materials removal rate improves sharply with the
increase in cutting speed from 60 to 180 m/min, and it is also observed to
decrease in higher feed rate and lower coolant flow rate. Figure 4 exhibits
the normality graphs of residuals for materials removal rate, and it can be
observed that the plotted data is dispersed uniformly near the straight line,
hence, accomplishing the hypothesis of normality.
Table 3. ANOVA results for the model of materials removal rate
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Model 9 0.693765 0.077085 29.03 0.001
Linear 3 0.628225 0.209408 78.87 0
A: Cutting speed in m/min 1 0.556512 0.556512 209.61 0
B: Feed rate in mm/rev 1 0.032513 0.032513 12.25 0.017
C: Coolant flow rate in ml/min. 1 0.0392 0.0392 14.76 0.012
Square 3 0.05159 0.017197 6.48 0.036
Cutting speed in m/min*Cutting speed in 1 0.006669 0.006669 2.51 0.174
m/min
Feed rate in mm/rev*Feed rate in mm/rev 1 0.025131 0.025131 9.47 0.028
Coolant flow rate ml/min. *Coolant flow rate 1 0.026677 0.026677 10.05 0.025
in ml/min.
2-Way Interaction 3 0.01395 0.00465 1.75 0.272
Cutting speed in m/min*Feed rate in mm/rev 1 0.0121 0.0121 4.56 0.048
Cutting speed in m/min*Coolant flow rate 1 0.000625 0.000625 0.24 0.036
ml/min.
Feed rate in mm/rev*Coolant flow rate 1 0.001225 0.001225 0.46 0.045
ml/min.
Error 5 0.013275 0.002655
Lack-of-Fit 3 0.013275 0.004425 2.41 0.225
Pure Error 2 0 0
Total 14 0.70704
R2 0.9812
Adjusted R2 0.9474
Predicted R2 0.9312

Figure 3. Main effects of input parameter on material removal rate.
Figure 4. Normality test graph for material removal rate.
Figure 5. Residual versus fitted value graph for material removal rate.

Figure 6. Residual versus observation order graph for material removal rate.
Figure 5 and 6 illustrate the residual versus fitted and observation

graphs, respectively. It was found from the figures that data has produced a
random pattern of scattering around the residual zero-lines with no specific
outlines. Hence, it can be declared that the generated model is significantly
fitting. The combined effects of AB (feed rate and cutting speed) and BC
(cutting speed and coolant flow rate) on materials removal rate are given in
Figure 7 (a) and (b), respectively. The higher material removal rate is
examined with the decrement in the feed rate. As the rate of feed is decreased
and the coolant flow rate is increased, subsequently, the depth of indentation
also reduced, which decreases the time of machining and enhancement in
materials removal rate is examined (Wang et al. 2016). Similar kinds of
examinations have been recorded by other investigators (Li et al. 2005). As
the cutting speed is improved from 60 to 180 m/min., the materials removal
rate is also observed to be improved.
This is assumed the method that as the cutting speed increases, the
distance of the tool and fabricated composites increments with the lower
time of machining, and thus, more tremendous materials removal rate is
examined (Komaraiah and Reddy 1991; Sindhu et al. 2020). Similar
investigations of feed rate and cutting speed on materials removal rates have
been observed from other scientists (Hu et al. 2002; Liu et al. 2012). The
interaction effects of feed rate with cutting speed are shown in Figure 7 (c).

It can be examined that as the feed rate is raised from 0.15 to 0.3 mm/rev,
the materials removal rate decreased rapidly. In the same manner, the
materials removal rate displays an increment when the cutting speed is raised
from 50 to 200 m/min.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7. 3D surface graph of interaction of two different variables on material

removal rate (a) Feed rate x Coolant flow rate, (b) Coolant flow rate x Cutting speed,
and (c) Feed rate x Cutting speed.

Also, a higher range of cutting speed enhances the efficient flow of

debris and swarf with the proper coolant flow rate between the fabricated
composites and drill tool bit, which leads to a higher materials removal rate.
The outcome collected in the present investigation is in better agreement
with other researchers (Singh and Singhal 2016). The response is maximized
simultaneously, and the function is changed as single desirability
formulation, which varied between 0 and 1. The unique case for single
desirability of response is one, but in this case, the composite’s desirability
also one, which can be estimated from equation (3).
3
𝐷 = √𝑑(𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑥)) (3)
Where D explains the composite’s desirability, d is the desirability

formulation relates to the response (materials removal rate), x is a vector of
the designed parameter. The best case of the composite’s desirability (D =
0.947), values of feed rate, coolant flow rate, and cutting speed as 0.15
mm/rev., 150 mL/min., and 200 m/min. respectively for machining the
fabricated polyester composites and the optimum material removal rate as
1.72 mm3/min. However, the single desirability characteristics are most
efficient for increasing the materials removal rate of sugarcane
nanocellulose/Al-SiC polyester composites. After the optimization process,
the confirmation experiment was performed under the optimum case, and
the materials removal rate was obtained as 1.75 mm3/min. The materials
removal rate derived from the confirmation experiment is correlated with
the optimized condition, as gathered from the RSM model.
5.2. Modelling of ANN
The neural scheme formulation is stimulated from the brain, which can
master within the observation of a researcher. During the modeling, the
researcher signifies the upgrade opinion to the input criterion. The neural
scheme can study without a researcher, which depends on the specifications
of self-assignment. The neural scheme display is mainly established from

scientific formulations. It may be speculated a scheme of neurons gathered

from different layers to specify the input, output, and unknown neurons.
ANNs have developed as a broad spread and revolutionary function, which
can be accommodated to determine any grouping that provides the
profundity of numbers and layers of neurons (Figure 8). The Table 4
explains the result of the production of the neural scheme. Average squared
error (ASE) exemplifies the mean squared variations among the goals and
response outputs. The lower determination of ASE is more economical and
zero, that means no error generated. The regression (R) quantities determine
the connection between the goals and output response. Where the R-value
of 0 and 1 shows an irregular and reasonable relationship. Even though the
determination of R and ASE are around 1 and 0, respectively, which shows
the fitting of the curve is very exact. Figure 9 explains the histogram errors
of the produced neural scheme for the learning, testing, and validation
procedures. This figure also describes that the knowledge of fitting errors is
propagated intrinsic to a decent range near zero.
Table 4. R and ASE quantities of artificial neural network
Specimen R-value ASE

Learning 45 0.9994 8.2386 x 10-4
Validation 3 0.9999 6.8733 x 10-5
Testing 3 0.9982 5.1574 x 10-3
Figure 8. Schematic representation of process of artificial neural network.

40.00
Instances
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
-0.07005
-0.05893
-0.04779
-0.03666
-0.02553
-0.01439
-0.00327
0.00786
0.01899
0.03013
0.04126
0.05238
0.06352
0.07465
0.08578
0.09691
0.10806
0.11918
0.13031
0.14144
Errors = Target respone - Output
Learning Validation Test
Figure 9. Histogram errors graph of ANN modeling.
The prospective network scheme was produced accurately, and its

characteristics were sketched to verify if any modification to be considered
on the learning steps. Figure 10 does not display enough interest in learning.
The test data, validation, and learning are similar. The learning was held for
more than seven iterations as the ASE for the validation phase declines to
promote a decrease. The best affirmation has been attained at one iteration,
whereas all the 3 sets had lower ASE. Figure 11 shows the validation,
regression graphs for learning, and testing of the neural scheme. The
regression graphs explain the network between the goals and output
response schemes. The test and validation results also exhibit R-vale that is
more outstanding than 0.90.
Figure 10. Performance graph of ANN modeling.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Figure 11. Regression graphs of ANN modeling.
(c)
Table 5. Comparative (d)depend on RSM
examination of desirability
and artificial neural network
Materials Materials Variation

Parametric values removal rate removal rate
(ANN) (RSM)
Feed rate: 0.15 mm/rev.
Coolant flow rate: 150 mL/min. 1.735 1.72 0.87%
Cutting speed: 200 m/min.
The Table 5 describes the comparative examination of experiments and

the forecasted value of materials removal rate. The collected outcomes for
materials removal rate display 0.45% of variation when compared with the
issue raised from RSM depending upon the desirability formulations. The
attained results signify a higher agreement between the confirmation
experiment and the expected neural scheme.

6. MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
6.1. Tensile Properties
The sample of polyester composite reinforced with sugarcane

nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanoparticles have experimented with tensile
strength. Figure 12 exhibits the stress-strain curve of the fabricated polyester
composites and obtained the ultimate tensile strength as 29.08 MPa. The
tensile strength of the polyester composites enhanced by 2.07 times when
compared with pure polyester resin. The reason may be assigned to the
distribution of load within the nanofillers under the tensile force from the
polymer matrix, and the addition of nanofiller performed the tensile force,
which was highly efficient to withstand the damage of polymeric matrix. It
also has more massive strength and stiffness.
Figure 12. Tensile stress-strain graph of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC

polyester composites.
From the stress-strain graph, the elongation at break and tensile modulus
can be increased from 1.26 to 2.85% compared with pure polyester resin.
The tensile modulus determines the amount to characterize and stiffness of
elastic material. However, the incorporation of sugarcane nanocellulose
fiber and Al-SiC nanofillers improved the tensile modulus value from 0.97
to 1.62 GPa. The tensile strength of 29.08 MPa of polyester composites was

comparably lower than the oil palm shell powder reinforced polyester,
kenaf-coconut hybrid fiber polyester laminates, coir fiber, and boiled
eggshell powder vinyl ester composites, and coir fiber-groundnut powder
vinyl ester composites (Nagaprasad et al. 2020). This comparative
examination on tensile characteristics of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and
Al-SiC nanofillers reinforced polyester composite exhibits that the
fabricated laminate is an encouraging material for any engineering
applications.
6.2. Flexural Properties
Figure 13 presents the flexural test outcomes collected on the deviations

in the flexural properties achieved for sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-
SiC nanofillers reinforced polyester composites. The pure polyester polymer
reported flexural strength and modulus as 35.09 MPa and 3.01 GPa,
respectively. Compared with pure polyester polymer, the flexural strength
of the polyester composites improved with the addition of sugarcane
nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanofillers. The flexural modulus also
pursued a similar trend and is enhanced with the addition of both nanofillers.
Figure 13. Flexural stress-strain graph of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC

polyester composites.

It was noticeable that the addition of sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-
SiC nanofillers in polyester polymer improved the flexural strength (50.54
MPa) and modulus (5.58 GPa) by 1.44 and 1.85 times respectively, which is
higher than the pure polyester polymer. There was a continuous increment
in flexural properties due to the uniform dispersion of nanofillers within the
polyester matrix, which is attained from the Ultrasonication process.
However, it can be examined that the flexural strength also exhibits the same
trend of tensile properties with the addition of both nanofillers.
6.3. Impact Strength
The notched polyester composites reinforced with sugarcane

nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanofillers were conducted in the Izod
impact testing machine and smashed with a pendulum. The polyester
composite and neat polymer’s impact strength was 1.25 kJ/m2 and 0.38
kJ/m2, respectively. These tests exhibited that the impact strength of
fabricated polyester composites improved by 3.29 times with the addition of
sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanofillers. Compared with pure
polyester polymer, the polyester composites were able to absorb a high
amount of energy to block the crack propagation. The higher value of impact
strength for polyester composites was reported because of the proper
homogeneous distribution of nanofillers within the polymeric matrix that
creates an excellent interfacial adhesion. Therefore, the propagation of crack
was avoided, and energy was absorbed, which enhance the impact strength.
6.4. Vickers Hardness
The Vickers hardness of the pure polyester and polyester composites

reinforced with sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanoparticles has
39.54 kgf/mm2 and 71.45 kgf/mm2, respectively. It was signified that both
sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanoparticles were uniformly
dispersed and which created a better surface roughness. Thus, the hardness

improved with the addition of both nanofillers within the polyester matrix.
A similar observation of outcomes was considered by Prabhu et al. (2017)
and Nagaprasad et al. (2020) as recorded on rice husk fiber epoxy and
polyester composites, and date palm vinyl ester composites.
CONCLUSION
In the present investigation, the influence of different processing factors

such as feed rate, coolant flow rate, and cutting speed on sugarcane
nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC reinforced polyester composites have been
determined experimentally with the help of response surface methodology,
and the mathematical model for materials removal rate has been generated.
From this investigation, the following conclusions have been achieved:
1. The materials removal rate of sugarcane nanocellulose/Al-SiC

polyester composites was examined to be significantly influenced by
all the input factors considering feed rate being the major one. The
materials removal rate improves with lower feed rate, the higher flow
rate of coolant, and more top cutting speed.
2. All the two-parameter interactions, such as feed rate with coolant flow,
coolant flow with cutting speed, and feed rate with cutting speed, were
also observed to significantly influence the materials removal rate.
3. From the desirability formulation, the optimum condition of the process
factors for sugarcane nanocellulose fiber/Al-SiC polyester composite
was attained to be the feed rate, coolant flow rate, and cutting speed of
0.15 mm/rev., 150 ml/min., and 200 m/min. respectively for maximum
materials removal rate of 1.75 mm3/min. after the confirmation
experiment.
4. From the mechanical characteristics such as flexural, tensile, impact
strength, and Vickers hardness of the sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and
Al-SiC nanoparticles, reinforced polyester composites increased when
compared with a pure polyester polymer.

It was significantly noticeable that the fabricated polyester composites

with sugarcane nanocellulose fiber and Al-SiC nanoparticles are possible
and encouraging materials for aerospace and automotive components.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
The fabrication industries are increasing globally by accepting minimal

usage of coolant during the machining process because of their ecological
and economic benefits. The machining of polymer-based composites in
different sectors is substantially performed in dry conditions. Sometimes dry
machining process is shown failures in terms of offering tool-life, quality of
material, productivity, and reliability. Minimally used coolant comprised
machining process has demonstrated as efficient met5hod. Many industries
now utilize minimal usage of coolant for drilling holes in the components,
which is examined as a very complicated process because of the higher
length and diameter ratio.
Furthermore, there is some divergence in our information on specific
conditions of minimal usage of coolant during the machining process, and
further investigation is prescribed in these fields. The basic principle of
operation through the type of refrigerant utilized in the machining process is
required to investigate. The effect of coolant density, droplet size and flow
rate, chemical and physical characteristics of coolant, carrier gas discharge
velocity, pressure, and nozzle size for various machining techniques are not
well-established. The impact of minimal coolant usage during the machining
process on the surface integrity of the polymer composites needs to be
investigated concisely. During the machining process, the first region of the
machined component may generate tensile residual stresses and micro-
cracks that vigorously influence the life of the fabricated part, due to the
effect of generation of heat during the machining process. The comparison
and measurement of the characteristics of minimal usage of coolant schemes
in terms of continuous and pulse medium should be investigated. The
optimization of tool geometry for machining the edges and surface
modification on the tool for improving the efficiency of penetration from

coolant, along with a bio and ionic liquid coolant utilized for the machining
process should be examined. It can be predicted that the minimal usage of
coolant could replace the wet machining process and most of the machining
process in the future. During the machining process, the environmentally
friendly and non-toxic coolant can be utilized; hence it may be the option
for future machining applications naturally.
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Chapter 9
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
R. Kumar1,, R. Manju2, S. Vijay Ananth3,

Md Enamul Hoque4, Sharath Krishnan C. K.1,
A. P. Balamurugan1, Sreejith S.1 and Frezgi Tesfom1
1
College of Engineering and Technology (Mai-Nefhi),
Eritrea Institute of Technology, Asmara, Eritrea
2
Department of Civil Engineering,
Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College,
Kodambakkam, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Vels Institute of Science, Technology and Advanced Studies,
Pallavaram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
4
Dhaka, Bangladesh

Corresponding Author’s Email: mepcokumar@gmail.com.

292 R. Kumar, R. Manju, S. Vijay Ananth et al.
ABSTRACT
Natural fibers have formed a green economy from renewable sources

by the way of manufacturing polymer products. Because by using natural
fibers, can able to make an industrial revolution which leads to reduce
emissions of carbon dioxide and reduce wastage through the production of
recyclable materials. Generally, these kinds of fibers are renewed by
human ingenuity and nature. Also, it can be used as carbon neutral
materials, since the greater absorption capacity of carbon dioxide.
Specifically, natural fibers have some other important characteristics such
as eco-friendly, higher specific strength, completely recyclable, low
processing cost, bio-degradable and non-abrasiveness. Also, synthetic
fibers have excellent mechanical properties but it has a problem of disposal
issue at the end-use of composites. For these reasons, natural fibers have
more attracted by the investigators than synthetic fibers. This chapter deals
with the mechanical characterization of different fibers (natural fiber,
synthetic fiber and natural-synthetic fiber) reinforced composite as well as
their applications.
Keywords: fiber-reinforced polymers, mechanical properties, applications
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, because of the rapid development in the field of the

manufacturing process, it has been possible to produce various advanced
materials such as nanostructured polymer composites, fiber-reinforced
polymer composites etc. that provide superior properties in terms of density,
strength, stiffness, sustainability, low processing cost and so on for wider
applications (Nabi Saheb 1999; Malkapuram et al. 2008; Sagadevan et al.
2019; Sharif et al. 2019). The system of composite materials has been
assembled by two or more different phases and it produces collective
properties which are varied from those of its individual elements. Fiber-
reinforced composites should be better stiffness and strong, lightweight and
higher strength to weight ratio. Also, it should be stronger than aluminum or
steel materials. Polymer composites provide different combinations of
mechanical properties. The fibers and fillers are reinforcement into the

Mechanical Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Polymers 293
polymers to obtain desired characteristics e.g., mechanical properties

(Wambua et al. 2003). The natural fibers are generated from varieties of
natural resources like trees, plants and animals (AL-Oqla et al. 2015). Jute,
flax, coir, pineapple leaves, and cotton are some examples of cellulose-based
natural fibers (Fong et al. 2015; Asha et al. 2017; Hasan et al. 2015; Asim et
al. 2015) while silk, mohair and wool are some examples of protein-based
animal fibers that are often used in polymer composites for wider
applications. Here the mechanical properties of natural, synthetic and
natural/synthetic fibers reinforced composites are given in detail. When
compared to animal-based fibers based polymers, natural fibers reinforced
polymers are low-cost, high strength and ecological. The polymer in the
composites is considered as a matrix material which is available in two
different natures such as thermoplastics and thermosetting. The most
frequently available thermoplastic polymers are polyethylene,
polycarbonate, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyether
ether ketone, Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene and nylon. Similarly,
thermosetting based polymers are epoxy, polyester, polyamide, phenolic,
and polyurethane.
Fiber-reinforced polymers are defined as a material in which different
length fibers are dispersed into a matrix to enhance mechanical
characterizations like strength, stiffness and toughness. Fiber-reinforced
polymers are manufactured in such a way that applying mechanical load is
sustained by fibers. Also, the polymer matrix acts as an adhering material
and is also used to transfer applied load in between the fibers (Mwaikambo
and Ansell 2002 & Hajnalka et al. 2008). Due to that, bonding between
polymer matrix and fiber is enhanced to keep higher mechanical properties.
Based on the manufacturing processes, the fiber-reinforced polymer
composite method is the simple and easiest method while compared to others
i.e., metal, ceramic and carbon matrixes based composites. Thermoplastic
based polymers composites are used widely in most of the engineering
fields, because of their superior properties and low fabrication cost. But,
there is a problem of non-biodegradable is obtained at the end of the use of
those composites. Also, both polymers (thermoplastics and thermosets)

based composites have certain merits and demerits in the manufacturing

stages.
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES
2.1. Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites (NFRPCs)
According to the proposed research works (Nabi Saheb 1999), the

NFRPCs properties are varied to each other due to their various types of
natural fibers, conditions of moisture and various sources. NFRPCs
mechanical properties depend on the following factors like microstructure
and microfibrillar angle (Ku et al. 2011 & Al-Oqla and Sapuan 2014),
thermal, chemical and physical properties (Faruk et al. 2012 & Van de
Weyenberg et al. 2003), defects (Hanninen et al. 2012) and interfacial
structure in between matrix and fiber (Dai and Fan 2014). Because of
variation in chemical properties, NFRPCs have a disadvantage like weak
bonding that provides non-uniform stress transfer. Therefore, before the
usage of raw natural fibers directly into the polymer matrix, it must be
treated with the chemical treatment to enhance the bonding strength.
During the treatment of fibers, reagent functional groups are formed to
vary the composition of fiber and then structures of fiber also altered (Kabir
et al. 2012). Then the properties of fabricated NFRPCs are enhanced
accordingly. Natural fibers have a hydroxyl functional group which
generates the hydrophilic fibers. Because of this, interfacial bonding is
formed weakly. This cause creates NFRPCs with lower mechanical
properties (Shinoj et al. 2011). Implementation of recommended suggestions
for the manufacturing of NFRPCs to improve their mechanical properties
leads to achieving superior structure and higher strength products. Once the
NFRPCs structures are manufactured through simple means, the developed
materials could be strengthened easily and to secure improved mechanical
properties (Srinivasan et al. 2014). The following aspects are mainly useful
to get higher mechanical performing NFRPCs such as fiber strength (Shinoj
et al. 2011)], fiber orientation (Shalwan and Yousif 2013), fiber adhesion

interfacial property (Kakroodi et al. 2014) and physical properties of fibers

(B´en´ezet et al. 2012).
Various investigations (May-Pat et al. 2013; Thakur 2014 & Sreekala et
al. 2001) revealed that the mechanical properties varied because of the
variation of bonding strength that leads to the change in load transfer from
fiber to the matrix. The physico-chemical properties of natural fiber like
impurities, physical properties (Jayamani et al. 2014 & Boopathi et al. 2012),
moisture absorption and volume fraction (Pan and Zhong 2015) are such
factors that could be used to identity the NFRPCs mechanical properties.
Polymer matrices like polypropylene (PP), polylactic acid (PLA),
polyester and epoxy could be affected by the characterization of natural
fibers which are shown in Figure 1. Jute fibers reinforced polylactic acid
composites showed improved mechanical properties of about 75.8% than
the pure matrix. But in the reinforcement of flax in the same matrix show a
drop in mechanical properties. It was reported that a 16% reduction in the
tensile strength of composites. Conversely, the polypropylene-based
composites with the reinforcement of kenaf, hemp and cotton showed an
improvement of mechanical properties. Considerably, the maximum
enhancement in mechanical properties is shown in jute fiber reinforced
polyester composites of about 121% when compared to pure polyester
(Shalwan and Yousif 2013).
As a result of the existent of the elastic component in resin, the flexibility
of composite is increased which results in a reduction of storage modulus
and stiffness. Excessive addition of natural fiber into the matrix provides
enhanced stress transfer and stiffness and also greater storage and loss
modulus. According to the research work of Shinoj et al. 2011, a loss
modulus of 756 MPa was achieved with excessive fiber addition of 50 phr.
Ismail et al. 1997 developed oil palm wood flour dispersed epoxy
composites and examined the influence of size and fiber substances on the
characteristics of composites and also their mechanical properties were
discussed. When increasing fiber content, fibers torque was enhanced leads
to reduce tensile strength and improve elongation property. It was also
observed at a high loading of fiber, an increase in elastic modulus, tear,
elongation and hardness of developed composites. During the tensile and

shear loads conditions, the non-linear mechanical behavior of natural fibers

influences the fracture behavior of composites (May-Pat et al. 2013).
The main important parameter in polymer composite is the interfacial
bonding could be considered for the fabrication of high strength material.
Owing to the existence of hydroxyl and polar groups in natural fiber, the
concentration of moisture becomes higher thus in turn to provide a lesser
strength material. Therefore, for the production of NFRPCs with better
strength, chemical treatment is necessary to decrease the absorption of
moisture and hydrophilic behavior of natural fibers (John and Thomas
2008). Table 1 shows the NFRPCs mechanical properties (Shahida et al.
2020).
Many researchers have proposed different chemical treatment methods
for natural fiber to develop high strength composites (Wongsriraksa et al.
2013; Gassan and Bledzki 1999; Rong et al. 2001). The following chemical
treatments are available to treat the fiber such as benzoylation (Luo et al.
2014), permanganate (Paul et al. 1997), acrylonitrile and acetylation grafting
(Corrales et al. 2007), triazine (Xie et al. 2009), etc. This fiber treatment
enhances the interface fiber/matrix bonding and thus improves load
transferring capacity.
Figure 1. Shows the mechanical properties of NFRPCs (Layth Mohammed et al. 2015).

Table 1. Mechanical properties of NFRPCs
Natural Polymer matrix Mechanical properties

fiber Tensile Flexural Tensile Flexural
modulus Modulus strength strength
(GPa) (GPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Coir Epoxy 1.3-2.6 - 3.2-13 75
Jute 30-32 17-19 30-105 25-35
Bamboo 4.2-6.7 1.1-8 86-99 150-325
Sisal 5-10 8-30 250-400 130-300
Banana 1.9 1.85 45 99-127
Flax 16-35 - 115-383 35-100
Coir Polyester 2.24 2.14 18-47 5-69
Jute 6-7 4-6 50-95 80-135
Bamboo 1-3 3-7 20-126 128
Sisal 0.5-2 1.5-3 20-60 50-100
Banana - - 12-23 76-125
Flax 8.7-23.4 - 85-277 135-239
Coir Polypropylene 1-4.5 1.5-4.2 22-30 46-60
Jute 1.5-4.5 0.8-5 15-51 15-58
Bamboo 0.5-1.77 1.6-6.3 24-63 38-80
Sisal - - 20-30 30-60
Banana 0.4-0.9 1-2.3 11-24 36-42
Coir Low-density 0.7 0.8 12 18
Jute polyethylene 0.3-1.75 1.4 31-55 31.8
Bamboo 2.4 3.7 74-126 119-128
Sisal 0.07-0.1 - 6-13 -
Banana 0.4-0.9 0.2-5.4 11-14 15-20
Flax 3000-4000 - 13-41 10-55
Coir Polylactic acid 1.4-1.7 1.4 53-73 50-300
Jute 0.4-1.6 2.5-3.7 50-60 20-38
Bamboo 38 - 230 50-80
Sisal - 3-6 53-58 -
Banana 0.9-4.7 3-7.8 46-78 250
Flax 6.3-8 - 44-107 -

2.2. Synthetic Fiber-Based Polymer Composites (SFRPCs)
Synthetic fiber is the artificial reinforcement fiber which is mostly in the

matrix of polypropylene-based composites because it has superior properties
and economical. But the final mechanical properties are obtained based on
the interphase stability in between matrix and fiber. When the adhesion at
the interface is very weak, then the fibers are not acting as efficient
reinforcement material. This adhesion property is highly affected by
aggressive environmental conditions like elevated moisture, higher stress
loading and temperature (Mariana and Silvia 2012).
Commercially many synthetic fibers are available that include carbon
fiber, glass fiber and so on. Among them, glass fiber is one of the best fiber
than the others to use as a dispersed material into the polymer matrix. In
general, glass fiber is produced in the form of fine glass which insists very
high research interest to produce a higher strength product. The advantages
of glass fibers are commercially available, less processing cost, better
chemical resistance, greater tensile strength and protecting properties.
However, it has some disadvantages are low fatigue resistance, low tensile
modulus, high hardness and high specific gravity. Glass fibers are available
in two different kinds such as E-glass and S-glass. In which E-glass is a low-
rate fiber, therefore it is recommended for commercial industrial purposes.
S-glass fibers are specially used for applications like aircraft and missile
since it has a higher tensile strength (Callister 2003). But, the disposal of
glass fiber reinforced polymer composite is very difficult it possesses some
environmental problems. Aramid fibers include the following kevlar-29 and
kevlar-49 which are mostly for structural applications. But it has a lower
compressive to tensile strength ratio. Also, it is affected by the cyclic loading
when used vertical braces (Keller 2003)]. Table 2 shows the SFRPCs’
mechanical properties (Shahida et al. 2020). Tensile and bending (Flexural)
strengths are detected by various researchers. Also, the matrix was altered
by the researchers. The developed composite proposed different mechanical
properties for attaining better performance.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of SFRPCs
Synthetic Polymer matrix Mechanical properties

fiber Tensile Flexural Tensile Flexural
modulus Modulus strength strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Glass Epoxy 6.7-43 - 180-184 297
Nylon 0.7 - 7-18 42-48
Kevlar 16-22 3-6 300-375 160-250
Carbon 6-70 4-72 20-100 550-850
Glass Polyester 72 18.2 60-85 16-144
Kevlar 8.7 2.2 159 95
Glass Polypropylene 2-7.5 13 40-90 85
Nylon 1.3-1.5 1-1.3 30-35 37-45
Kevlar 0.7-2.3 - 20-47 -
Carbon 1-1.2 - 32-37 -
Glass Low-density 1.5-2.5 - 45-90 15-27
Kevlar polyethylene 85-92 1.5-2.3 1500-1600 70-99
Carbon 0.22-0.41 - 12-30 -
Nylon Polylactic acid 2-4 - 30-55 -
Carbon 0.22-0.41 - 12-30 -
2.3. Natural and Synthetic Fiber-Based Polymer Composites
NFRPCs are connected to the influence of polymer composites and also

sensitive to environmental products. The cross-sectional area and tensile
strength of jute fiber are directly proportional to each other (Thi-Thu and
Shang –Lin 2006). The blend of natural/ synthetic fiber improves in
mechanical properties (Mishra et al. 2003) and keeping the glass fiber
reinforced polymer (GFRP) GFRP layer at the end offers better mechanical
strength (Sabeel and Vijayarangan 2008). Mainly tensile strength of hybrid
jute/oil palm fiber composites is improved gradually with the increased
amount of jute fibers (Jawaid et al. 2011). Generally, NFRPCs have lower
strength because of lesser stiffness and brittleness. However, the hybrid
sisal/glass fiber dispersed into the polypropylene matrix has higher bending
and tensile strength with no alteration in other properties. Also, this kind of
reinforcement improves the thermal properties and water-resisting
properties (Kasama Jarukumjorn and Nitinat Suppakarn 2009). The sisal

fiber dispersed composites have greater mechanical properties than vakka

fiber dispersed composites (Venkateshwaran et al. 2011).
The factors that include moisture absorption, aspect ratio, dimensional
stability and morphology affect the natural fiber properties. Natural fibers
with chemical treatment exhibited good properties than the non-treated
composites (Kabir et al. 2012). There is an improvement of water resistance,
impact and flexural strength by the dispersion of hemp fiber along with glass
fiber into the polymer composites (Panthapulakkal and Sain 2007). Recently
more attraction was gained by biodegradable composites because of their
superior properties, especially it’s lightweight and good strength.
Hybridization composite causes an enhancement in all the mechanical
properties. These properties keep increasing due to the accumulation of glass
fiber (Velmurugan and Manikandan 2007). Also, flax/glass fiber reinforced
composites had modified tensile properties depending upon the percentage
of glass fiber content (Yongli Zhang et al. 2013). GFRP can be replaced by
the combination of sisal/jute fiber along with synthetic fiber (Ramesh et al.
2013). The composite made with jute fiber has good properties than the sisal
fiber composites (Boopalan et al. 2013). The factor of fiber length used in
composites also influenced the mechanical properties (Muthuvel et al.
2013). The composites of jute fiber blended with polyester matrix have
lesser mechanical strength when compared to other conventional composites
but it has higher strength than the wood and some other plastic composites
[51]. Hoque et al. developed a wood polymer composite that demonstrated
superior mechanical properties to the natural wood used to produce this
composite (Hoque et al. 2014). Overloading on fiber contents causes the
decrease in strength of impact and flexural of composites but there is no
alternation in remaining properties (Munikenche Gowda et al. 1999).
Comparing to the single fiber-based composites, hybrid composites possess
greater tensile strength (Venkateshwaran et al. 2012).
The reinforcement of fiber into the polymer enables to offer better stress
transformation in between the matrix and fiber which tends to improve the
properties (Vijay Kumar et al. 2010). But specifically, the elongation
property is mainly influenced by the following elements like the amount of
fiber contents, matrix properties and bonding strength (Muralidhar 2013).

Jute composites showed greater flexural strength as related to bamboo

composites (Samuel et al. 2018).
3. USES OF FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITES
Nowadays, all over the world of peoples have been concentrating on the
issues of environmental pollution, due to that usage of biodegradable
composites is enhanced. In that, polymer composites made with the same
reinforcement is not able to give the desired performance under different
loading conditions. Hence, different reinforcements in the polymer matrix
provide hybrid composites which act as a successful system to get better
results for different applications. The different kinds of fibers combined in
the hybrid polymer composites which stabilize the deficiency among them.
Sisal fiber is a famous fiber than others since it has greater strengthening in
the dispersion of composites. Since, this fiber could be used for bags, ropes,
beds and many other applications. NFRPCs are applied in different areas
like lightweight plastics, commercial goods and building structures. In the
olden days, natural fibers for example coir, hemp, bamboo, jute, ramie are
used as strengthening materials instead of using synthetic fibers. Coir fiber-
based composite has an excellent low load-bearing capacity. But in hybrid
polymer composites with the blend of coir and other fibers demonstrate a
good opportunity for upcoming applications (Harish et al. 2009). Usage of
natural fibers is enhanced especially in the field of automotive industries
(Ramesh et al. 2013). But, natural fiber hybrid composite does not provide
greater mechanical properties as synthetic fiber hybrid composites
(Sreekalaa et al. 2002). Therefore, natural fiber hybrid composite is
particularly used for low cost automotive and construction applications
(Boopalan et al. 2013).
This type of composite has small maintenance costs, impact resistance,
and higher strength to weight ratio, non-conductive, lightweight and easy
installation. Also, these composites are extensively used in the production
of aerospace parts such as wings, tails and propellers, storage tanks, door
panels, and also used in automobile and marine industries (Irene et al. 2012).

Synthetic fiber composites are used to produce commercial goods such as

clothes, shelters and weapons (Dixit and Verma 2012). Especially, low
weight natural fiber hybrid composites enhance the efficiency of fuel which
leads to reduce emissions (Samuel et al. 2012). Through the development of
sustainable product design, NFRPCs become popular to replace SFRPCs
especially for automotive applications (Joshi et al. 2004). Sisal fiber can be
hybrid with aramid or carbon fibers to reduce the expense of the cost of
fibers and better mechanical behavior was achieved. Mainly NFRPCs and
SFRPCs are used as building materials because of their higher strength and
low fabrication cost. Hence it might be used as replacement materials for
metal matrix composites (Mansor et al. 2013). Commercially available
applications are aircraft fan blades, industrial fans, and pipes for fiber-
reinforced polymer composites (Yan et al. 2000).
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, the formation of different types of NFRPCs and SFRPCs

and their mechanical properties are reviewed. NFRPCs have a better option
to replace the SFRPCs in various applications e.g., construction and
transportation areas. Nowadays, researchers are working on finding the
different kinds of natural fibers to obtain higher strength composites. When
compared between SFRPCs and NFRPCs the later have lightweight with
comparable mechanical properties. Also, NFRPCs are biodegradable that
minimize environmental pollution. Even though SFRPCs might have higher
mechanical properties than NFRPCs the price of synthetic fibers is higher
than natural fibers. Therefore, NFRPCs are economical and much potential
in case of developing new materials. Through chemical treatment, their
mechanical properties as well as moisture absorption can be successfully
modified to the desired level.

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Chapter 10
AGING EFFECT ON
FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYMERS
Krishnasamy Senthilkumar1,*,
Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil2, M. Chandrasekar3,
Sabarish Radoor2, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar4,
N. Rajini4, Suchart Siengchin2
and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai2
1
Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing
(CoI-DEM), King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok, Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand
2
Department of Materials and Production Engineering,
The Sirindhorn International Thai-German Graduate School
of Engineering (TGGS), King Mongkut’s University of Technology
North Bangkok, Bangsue, Bangkok, Thailand
3
School of Aeronautical Sciences, Hindustan Institute of Technology
and Science, Padur, Kelambakkam, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of
Research and Education, Krishnankoil, Tamil Nadu, India

Corresponding Author’s Email: kmsenthilkumar@gmail.com.

312 K. Senthilkumar, H. Pulikkalparambil, M. Chandrasekar et al.
ABSTRACT
The usage of natural fibre reinforced composites is expected to

increase at an annual compound growth rate of 11.8% from the year 2016
to 2024; it was evaluated at USD 4.46 billion in 2016. Thus, the application
of natural fibre-based products has been increased in our day-to-day life.
However, most of the composites are focused on indoor based applications
due to its environmental attack. Environmental exposures such as (i)
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, (ii) temperature cycles, and (iii) moisture can
damage or degrade the polymer matrix composites. Therefore,
understanding the weathering conditions of natural fibre-based composites
is of particular concern to use in indoor and outdoor-based applications.
In the present review, it intends to provide the significant findings
from the recent works carried out on biobased composites subjected to
weathering with controlled conditions of (i) moisture (ii) temperature (iii)
light (UV radiation) and (iv) microbes.
Keywords: weathering, biocomposites, accelerated weathering, natural

weathering, mechanical and thermal properties, morphology, indoor and
outdoor applications
ACRONYMS
AN Acrylonitrile
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
HDPE High-density polyethylene
ILSS Inter-laminar shear strength
MAPE Maleic anhydride high-density polyethylene copolymer
MAPP Maleic anhydride polypropylene
NaCl Sodium chloride
PBS Poly-(butylene-succinate)
PHA Poly-(hydroxyalkanoate)
PLA Polylactic acid
PP Polypropylene
SEM Scanning electron microscope
Tc Crystallization temperature

Aging Effect on Fibre-Reinforced Polymers 313
Tg Glass transition temperatures

TGA Thermogravimetric analysis
UV Ultraviolet
Xc Degree of crystallization
1. INTRODUCTION
Researchers and scientists are intensively working on natural fibre-

based composites for many applications due to (i) health and environmental
issues, (ii) environmental sustainability and (iii) exhaustion of petroleum-
based raw materials. Besides, the natural fibre-based composites possess
many advantages: recyclable, low density, excellent specific strength,
stiffness, low cost, biodegradable, high aspect ratio, non-abrasive, etc.
Amongst the many advantages, the natural fibre-based composites are
extensively used in the construction and automotive industries due to their
inherent low-density. The usages of natural fibre-based composites are
favored to continue in the future (Bazan et al. 2020; Krishnasamy,
Thiagamani, et al. 2019; Senthilkumar et al. 2015; Krishnasamy,
Muthukumar, et al. 2019; Atiqah 2020).
However, when the natural fibre-based composites or any polymeric
matrix composites are exposed to (i) ultraviolet radiation and/or (ii) elevated
temperature, they lead to deterioration. Consequently, the composites
become unsuitable for any outdoor-based applications such as architectural
products, coating, etc. Since the composites are exposed to higher
temperatures, they are subjected to either long-term chemical changes or
short-term physical changes. Moreover, composites are led to losing their
mechanical properties and discoloration due to prolonged exposure to
ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, the natural fibre-based composites are
preferred to fabricate using different approaches such as (i) addition of
nanofillers (ii) modifying the natural fibre surfaces using various chemical
reagents (iii) hybridization with synthetic fiber or natural fiber (iv) addition
of ultraviolet absorbers and (v) ultraviolet stabilizers (Hota, Barker, and
Manalo 2020; Ramirez et al. 2020; Jiang et al. 2020).

Table 1. Recent studies on aging studies of biobased composites
Type of reinforcement Type of aging and their characterization References

techniques
Flax/poly- All the composites were buried in garden (Pantaloni et al.
(hydroxyalkanoate) (PHA), compost for six months. 2020)
flax/poly-(butylene- Mechanical and microstructural properties
succinate) (PBS) and were analyzed.
flax/poly-(lactide) (PLA)
Chicken feather fibre Long term aging was conducted for five (Akderya, Özmen,
reinforced PLA composites years. and Baba 2020)
The test was conducted in laboratory
conditions by maintaining the temperature
and humidity of about 25°C and 55%.
All the biocomposite samples were
subjected to thermogravimetric and
differential scanning calorimetry tests.
Equisetum Arvense/natural Accelerated aging (Masłowski et al.
rubber Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy, 2020)
Mechanical, thermogravimetric, color
changes, Fourier-Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy, analysis of metal
concentration, morphology, rheometric,
crosslinking on density.
PHA based wood-plastic Indoor, outdoor and soil burial (for 1 year) (Chan et al. 2020)
composites Mechanical properties and morphology
were studied
Elastomer matrix/ cereal Thermo-oxidative aging (Masłowski,
straw-based composites. Mechanical properties were studied Miedzianowska,
(The matrix materials used and Strzelec
were, ethylene propylene 2020)
polymer, methylvinylsilicone
rubber, butadiene–styrene
rubber, and acrylonitrile–
butadiene rubber)
Mangalagiri reported that the temperature ranges of thermal resistant

polymer composites for skin parts in aerospace industries (Mangalgiri
2005). Some of the polymeric matrix composites are suitable between the
temperature ranges of 120°C to 250°C and 250°C to 350°C in aerospace
industries. Ghosh, Kiskan, and Yagci 2007 listed some of the matrix
materials which are preferred to use for high temperature-based applications
such as (i) phenolic and phenolic triazine (ii) Bismaleimide (iii) polyimides

and (iv) phthalonitrile. These polymeric matrix composites are likely to

exhibit (i) lesser aging effects (ii) retaining their glass transition
temperatures (Tg) (iii) against cracking (iv) lesser in loss of weight and (v)
thermal stability at higher temperature ranges (Chirani et al. 2015; Ahmadi
et al. 2015; Jawaid, Thariq, and Saba 2018).
Many researchers reported different types of aging of polymers in the
field of polymeric matrix composites, such as (i) natural aging (ii) artificial
aging (iii) climate aging (iv) mechanical aging (v) chemical aging
(vi) thermal aging (vii) oxidation aging (viii) light aging (ix) ozone aging (x)
photooxidation aging (xi) thermo-oxidative aging, (xii) biological aging and
(xiii) ultraviolet aging (Markovičová and Zatkalíková 2019; Chang,
Mohanty, and Misra 2020). Thus, based on the proposed applications, the
respective aging studies are required to examine for understanding the
composites’ aging performances. Table 1 listed some of the recent studies
on the aging of biobased polymer composites.
In the present study, the effect of the aging of biobased composites on
various properties such as mechanical, physical, chemical, thermal,
morphological, and other properties were reviewed.
2. INFLUENCE OF AGING CONDITIONS ON MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES OF THE BIO-COMPOSITES
Aging effects on the mechanical properties of the composites were

commonly assessed by immersing the composite specimens into the water,
seawater, and hygrothermal aging in a water bath at elevated temperatures.
All such aging mechanisms have moisture absorption into the composite as
a common feature. Moisture absorbed by the composite is classified as free
water and bound water. Free water exists in the polymer due to the diffusion
of moisture through the microcracks, voids, and holes, while the bound
water is absorbed into the polymer due to the osmosis process (Dhakal,
Zhang, and Richardson 2007) (Azwa et al. 2013). Other mechanisms

pertaining to the deterioration of mechanical properties under the different

aging conditions have been discussed below.
2.1. Soil Burial Test
The soil burial test can be performed in two ways:
(i) Soil burial at constant water holding, which leads to a weight loss
of the composite specimen, and
(ii) Soil burial and continuous watering over time leading to the weight
gain of the composite.
Oil palm trunk fibre/recycled polypropylene composites were buried in

soil maintained with 50% moisture content and 90% water holding capacity
in accordance with the EN ISO 846 (Abdul Khalil et al. 2010). The
composite specimens buried in soil for 12 months showed between 30 – 50%
reduction in strength and modulus under various mechanical loads, as shown
in Figure 1. Reduction in strength and modulus is due to degradation effects
from the soil burial and is more prevalent in the composites with
biodegradable polymers as the matrix. It has been highlighted by Mishra et
al. 2002 that the decrease in flexural strength is proportionate to the weight
loss due to the soil burial in sisal/polyester amide composite. They also
found that loss in flexural strength was prominent in the composites
reinforced with acetylated, alkali-treated, and bleached fibres, while less loss
was observed in the case of acrylonitrile (AN), grafted and cyanoethylated
fibers.
During the soil burial, continuous watering at certain intervals often
leads to moisture uptake and weight gain. Moisture diffusion into composite
was found to influence the loss of mechanical properties. Huzaifah et al.
reported that the tensile, flexural, and impact strength of the sugar
palm/vinyl ester composite deteriorated with the increase in soil burial
period (Huzaifah et al. 2019). Sapuan et al. reported that the tensile strength
of the kenaf/thermoplastic polyurethane composites declined from 29 MPa

to 16 MPa after exposure to continuous watering under the soil burial

(Sapuan et al. 2013).
Figure 1. Reduction in mechanical properties of oil palm trunk fibre/recycled

polypropylene composites.
As the composites are buried in soil, moisture from the soil diffuses into
the microcracks, voids, holes, and poorly bonded areas in the fibre-matrix
interface. On the other hand, natural fibres in the composite exposed to soil
absorb moisture and cause swelling of the fibre cell wall. These factors can
lead to the generation of microcracks, degradation of the fibre-matrix
interface, and erosion of the polymer surface. Erosion of the polymer
subjected to soil burial was more prominent in the biodegradable polymers
in the form of the surface irregularities over the smooth surface for the virgin
material. In addition to surface irregularities, biodegradable polymers are
prone to attacks by microorganisms such as fungi and actinomycetes
(Alvarez, Ruseckaite, and Vazquez 2006). Thus, the composites buried in
soil exhibit premature failure and reduction in the strength due to the
degradation effects discussed above.

The deterioration in strength due to soil burial can be mitigated by

increasing the fibre loading and modification of fibre surface with the
chemical treatments. Though the soil burial composites with higher fibre
loading showed deterioration in the strength, the tensile strength was much
higher than the dry composite with lower fibre loading, as shown in Figure
2 (Rashdi et al. 2010). Since the fibres are primary load carriers, the use of
more fibres helps in increasing the load-bearing capability of the composite,
thus better strength retention for the composite at higher fibre loading. Fibre
treatment improves the interfacial adhesion through better mechanical
interlocking between the hydrophilic natural fibre and hydrophobic polymer
matrix.
Figure 2. Tensile strength of the kenaf/polyester composite before and after soil burial
with respect to the fibre loading (Rashdi et al. 2010).
2.2. Hygrothermal Aging
Hygrothermal aging usually involves the immersion of composite

specimens for a defined interval or until saturation in the water bath

maintained at a temperature range between 50 - 90℃ and relative humidity

of 50% as per the ASTM D5229 standard.
Ishak et al. investigated the influence of hygrothermal aging on rice
husk- polypropylene (PP) composites by immersing in a water bath at
30℃ and 90℃ until saturation. The tensile test revealed lower tensile
strength and Young’s modulus for aged specimens. However, % retention
in tensile strength and stiffness was lower for composites aged at 90℃ than
the composites aged at 30℃, as shown in Figure 3. They also highlighted
that % elongation at break was higher for the exposed specimens compared
to the unexposed specimens indicating the changes induced by the exposure
conditions on the resin and filler. Plastic deformation in the matrix, damage
to the fibre cell wall and interfacial degradation between the fibre and matrix
were cited as reasons for the deterioration in the tensile properties of the
composites subjected to aging (Ishak et al. 2001).
In a recent study, Chunhong et al. reported that the tensile strength and
Young’s modulus of the bamboo-PP composites declined as the
hydrothermal aging time was increased up to 60 days (about 2 months).
However, composites reinforced with the fibres treated with the combined
NaOH-silane showed lower degradation, and better retention in tensile
properties over the untreated fibres and NaOH treated fibres. The
improvement in wettability between the fibre and matrix due to the fibre
treatment was responsible for the superior resistance of composites to the
hygrothermal conditions (Chunhong, Shengkai, and Zhanglong 2016).
Islam et al. subjected hemp-PLA composites to hygrothermal aging in a
water bath maintained at 50℃ until saturation. They reported that the
exposed composite specimens such as PLA, PLA hemp untreated
composites, and PLA hemp alkali-treated composites showed lower tensile
and flexural properties. However, the alkali-treated composites have better
tensile and flexural properties before and after the thermal aging. It was
interesting to note that the impact strength of the exposed composite
specimens was far higher than the unexposed specimens. The superior
impact strength for the exposed composites was due to the matrix
plasticization because of the hygrothermal aging both fibre-pull out, and

swelling of the fibre due to moisture absorption contribute matrix

plasticization (Islam, Pickering, and Foreman 2010).
Figure 3. Percentage retention in tensile properties due to hygrothermal aging of rice

husk-PP composites (Ishak et al. 2001).
Other than the fibre treatment, the hybridization of natural fibre with
synthetic fibre was also found to be effective in retaining the strength and
modulus during hygrothermal aging. According to Akil et al., jute/glass and
jute/glass/carbon composites displayed better tensile and flexural properties
under the hygrothermal aging than jute-based composites. As the
conditioning temperature was increased from 50℃ to 80℃, both the strength
and modulus decreased significantly in the case of jute-based composites
and hybrid composites. The poor performance of the hybrid composites at
high conditioning temperature was due to the softening of matrix, stress
corrosion cracking in glass fibre and degradation of the jute fibres which
leads to deterioration of the interfacial bonding between the fibres and
matrix. However, the performance of hybrid composites was still better than
the jute-based composites. This implies that synthetic fibres help to some
extent in reducing the degradation of jute fibres (Akil et al. 2014).

2.3. Seawater Aging
According to Yan and Chouw 2015, flax/epoxy composites immersed

in seawater for 365 days displayed lower tensile strength, stiffness, flexural
strength, and modulus than the water immersed specimens for a similar
duration. The decrease in mechanical properties underwater immersion and
seawater aging was due to the physical degradation, such as weakening of
the fibre-matrix bonding and swelling of fibres. Seawater was more
detrimental to mechanical properties than water aging. This was due to the
presence of sodium chloride (NaCl) in the seawater, which causes hydrolysis
of the polymer chain and damages the matrix as well as fibre-matrix
interface.
Najafi and Kordkheili reported a pronounced decrease in the flexural
strength and rigidity for the wood floor-PP composites after being subjected
to seawater aging than the water aging. They also observed differences in
the flexural properties of the composite specimens subjected to seawater
from the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. The higher salinity content in
the Persian Gulf sea had more impact on the flexural properties than the
seawater in the Caspian Sea (Najafi and Kordkheili 2011).
Degradation of fibre-matrix interface in jute/polyester composite due to
seawater aging and distilled water was investigated by Seki et al. 2011
through the short beam test. Their results indicate that the inter-laminar shear
strength (ILSS) of the composites decreased by 9% and 7% for 360 h of
exposure in the seawater and distilled water while it further dropped to 62%
and, respectively, 53% after 2736 h of exposure. Moisture absorption by the
jute fibre causes swelling and micro-cracks in the polyester resin, which can
lead to fibre-matrix debonding. The penetration of ions from the seawater,
as well as the hydrolysis of the ester groups in the polyester resin, causes
more degradation than the distilled water.

2.4. Accelerated Weathering
Composite specimens exposed to the accelerated weathering exhibit a

substantial decrease in the mechanical properties (Azwa et al. 2013). Natural
weather conditions prevailing in the atmosphere can be artificially
stimulated in the controlled chamber irradiated with the UV light, and
moisture spray referred to as the accelerated weathering (Chang, Mohanty,
and Misra 2020).
According to Yan, Chouw, and Jayaraman 2015, both the tensile and
flexural properties of the flax/epoxy composites declined with the increase
in exposure time to the accelerated weathering. Both the UV light and
moisture spray were found to induce discoloration, matrix erosion, micro-
cracking, and degradation of the fibre-matrix interface in the composite.
Beninia et al. highlighted that the fibre treatment could influence the
mechanical properties of the composite subjected to accelerated weathering.
The composites containing 10 and 20% mercerized and bleached fibers were
prepared. After accelerated weathering, both the alkali-treated and bleached
fibres reinforced high impact polystyrene composites showed a decrease in
the tensile strength while the tensile modulus almost remained unaffected.
The decrease in strength was more pronounced in the composite with alkali-
treated fibre. The effective removal of amorphous lignin due to the bleaching
process enabled the composites to possess slightly higher resistance to
accelerated weathering tests than the composites with alkali-treated fibres
(Beninia, Voorwald, and Cioffi 2011).
3. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGING ON THERMAL

PROPERTIES OF BIO-COMPOSITES
The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of virgin bamboo fibres

reinforced PP (30/70) composites were compared with weathered
composites. The samples were subjected to natural aging for a one-year. The
TGA of biocomposites was also analyzed by the addition of coupling agents

such as citric acid and maleic anhydride. The TGA studies of the composites
before and after aging showed only marginal variations. However, among
the various composites fabricated, the PP/bamboo fiber composites
modified with citric acid displayed enhanced thermal stability. It was
ascribed to the improved interfacial bonding due to the reaction of functional
groups of the citric acid and OH groups of bamboo fibre surface (del Pilar
Fajardo Cabrera de Lima, Santana, and Rodríguez 2020).
In another study, the thermal stability of virgin sisal/kenaf/bioepoxy
composites was compared with the composites after the accelerated
weathering test. The composites were subjected to 555.55 h using the Q-Sun
Xe-3 chamber, and ASTM G155-13 (Cycle 1) was followed. The pure and
hybrid composites showed marginal changes in degradation temperatures
when compared with the weathered samples; therefore, sisal/kenaf/bioepoxy
composites were suggested for higher temperature applications.
Furthermore, the glass transition temperature of all the virgin composites
was found to be at ca. 77°C using the differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) analysis. On the other hand, the glass transition temperature of the
weathered composites was increased owing to the enhanced reinforcement
effect of sisal and kenaf fibres. The increased reinforcement effect of
weathered sisal/kenaf reinforced composites was further confirmed by using
dynamic mechanical analysis.
Chee et al. 2019 explored the effect of accelerated weathering on kenaf
(K)/bamboo (B) /epoxy matrix composites with varying the fibre ratios. The
pure and hybrid fibre reinforced composites were subjected to 156 h of
accelerated weathering test. The degradation temperatures, such as initial
decomposition, the maximum rate of mass loss, and the final degradation
temperature of the hybrid composites, were increased by increasing the
bamboo fibre content. This enhancement was ascribed to the higher content
of the lignin. Based on the TGA results, the thermal stability of the
weathered composites is in the order: B: K 70:30 >B: K 50:50 > B: K 30:70.
The melting temperature of date palm fibre/PP and date palm
fibre/Maleated PP composites were examined using the DSC technique, in
which the performance of these combinations has been compared with both
natural and accelerated weathering conditions. The natural weathering and

the accelerated weathering tests were conducted for nine months and 2000
h, respectively. As the natural weathering outcome, the date palm/PP
composites (uncompatibilized) exhibited improved stability than the date
palm/Maleated PP composites (compatibilized). However, the Maleated PP
composites shown higher performance in melting temperatures when
compared to the PP for the first six months; later months, it was found to be
dropped higher than the PP.
While accelerated weathered conditions, both the composites such as
date palm fibre/PP and date palm fibre/Maleated PP showed a similar
performance with smaller deviations with a 5% drop in melting
temperatures. It was ascribed to the fact that the ultraviolet source from the
accelerated weathering was not reproduced the solar spectrum as like solar
radiation (Abu-Sharkh and Hamid 2004).
Beg and Pickering compared the thermal degradation temperature of PP
at three different conditions, such as (i) unweathered (ii) accelerated
weathering for 600h and (iii) accelerated weathering for 1000h. The thermal
stability of the PP was found in order 0h >600h >1000h. It was ascribed to
the reduction of the molecular weight of the PP caused by the degradation
of the polymer (Beg and Pickering 2008). Techawinyutham et al. 2019
compared the thermal stability of unweathered and weathered (260h and
520h) samples of capsicum oleoresin encapsulated porous silica
(SiCO)/polylactic acid (PLA) composites. The concentrations of SiCO were
varied between 0.77- 3.08 wt. %. The results showed that the initial
degradation temperature of both unweathered and weathered samples had
>320°C. However, the composites reinforced with SiCO were not shown
any significant differences in thermal stability when compared with the pure
PLA matrix. Furthermore, when comparing the thermal behavior of
unweathered samples (i.e., 0h) with 260h and 520h of weathered samples,
there were no significant differences noticed.
The Tg of cellulose fibres/PLA composites were studied using the DSC;
besides, the fibres were treated by stearoyl chloride and enzymatically by
laccase for the fabrication of PLA composites. The durability of these
chemically treated and untreated composites was compared with accelerated
weather conditions (i.e., 600h). It was observed that the weathered samples

exhibited slightly improved Tg than the unweathered samples owing to the

increased order of their crystal sizes (Spiridon, Darie, and Kangas 2016). In
another study, the effects of the thermal behavior of pure PLA and
organically modified montmorillonite (Mt)/PLA were analyzed using DSC
and TGA techniques. All the composite samples were subjected to
accelerated weathering for 50h - 200h (order of 50h) according to ISO 4892-
3 standards. The results revealed no significant change in glass transition
and melting temperature of virgin PLA before and after the weathering test.
Likewise, no changes were observed on the thermal stability of the samples
before and after the weathering test (Kaynak and Sarı 2016).
A new study by the researchers was done on examining the thermal
behavior of bioepoxy blends using an ionic liquid with varying
concentrations of 0-30 phr. The bioepoxy blended composites were
subjected to accelerated weathering for 240h, and the weathering test was
conducted according to the ASTM G155-13 (Cycle 1). The initial
degradation, maximum degradation, and final degradation temperatures
with varying concentrations of bioepoxy blended samples did not show any
significant changes from the TGA results. Besides, the weathered
composites of different concentrations of ionic liquid/bioepoxy composites
showed similar behavior like unweathered samples. From the DSC analysis,
the glass transition temperature of weathered samples was found to be
decreased marginally with increasing the concentration of ionic liquids. It
was ascribed to the degradation of ionic liquids due to the weathering,
thereby resulting in the breakdown of the interaction between the bioepoxy
and the ionic liquid (Pulikkalparambil et al. 2020). The researchers reported
the crystallization temperature (Tc) of bark/PP composite films, whereby
they compared the unweathered and weathered conditions. The weathering
conditions for the bark composite films were examined for 0-360 h (order of
60h). The results reported that the Tc and the crystallinity (before
weathering) were found to be lowered for composite films when compared
to the pure PP. After ultraviolet exposure, the composite films were further
dropped than the unweathered samples. Likewise, the weathered samples of
the pure matrix had lower ranges of Tc and crystallinity. It was ascribed to

the ultraviolet radiation, which were damaged both matrix and crystalline
regions, resulting from chain scissions of the PP matrix (Peng et al. 2020).
Akderya, Özmen, and Baba 2020 examined the thermal stability of
chicken feather/PLA composites by varying the fibre loading content from
2wt.% to 10wt.%. The thermal stability of these biocomposites was
compared with long term aged samples of 43800h (duration of five years) in
a laboratory environmental conditions such as at an atmospheric temperature
of 23°C and humidity of 50%. Table 2 gives the observations of mass losses
and the degree of crystallization (Xc) differences when compared with the
weathering samples.
Table 2. Observations of mass losses and Xc obtained from

TGA and DSC measurements
Mass losses from the TGA technique Degree of crystallization (Xc) from the DSC technique
The pure PLA did not show any The chicken feather/PLA composites were found to be
significant changes. increased.
The chicken feather/PLA composites The pure PLA was decreased.
were found to be decreased.
The pure chicken feather was increased.
The influence of weathering behavior of different hemp fibre loaded

(0 - 30wt. %)/PLA composites were studied using the DSC technique. All
the composite samples were exposed to a different number of cycles from 0
to 64 (order of 8), and the accelerated weathering test was conducted as per
ASTM G 154 standard. Result analysis revealed that the crystallinity of
unweathered PLA was found to increase from 7.5% to 30% when increasing
the fibre loading from 10wt. % to 30wt. %. The improvement of crystallinity
was ascribed to increasing the nucleation sites due to the addition of fibres
in the PLA matrix. Like the unweathered composite samples, the
crystallinity of weathered composites increased by increasing the number of
cycles from 8 to 64 (i.e., during aging). However, the crystallinity of pure
PLA matrix increased rapidly from 48 to 64 cycles; this limitation was
observed in fibre reinforced composites due to the restriction in spacing by
the addition of fibres. Amongst the fibre reinforced composites, 20wt. % of

fibre loaded composites exhibited the highest crystallinity after completion

of 64 cycles.
Regarding the glass transition temperature (Tg), the PLA matrix was
found to increase by increasing the number of cycles from 8 to 64; it could
be attributed to (i) annealing of PLA chains and (ii) hydrolytic degradation.
The Tg of fibre reinforced composites was also increased from 8 to 64 cycles
due to (i) annealing and (ii) anti-plasticization behavior. Likewise, to the
crystallinity, the 20wt.% of hemp fibre loaded composites shown higher T g
than that of other fibre loaded composites such as 10wt.% and 30wt. %
(Ahmad Sawpan et al. 2019).
In another interesting study, the DSC measurements were carried out for
hemp/high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and hemp/basalt/HDPE hybrid
composites. The matrix was modified using a compatibilizer, for instance,
maleic anhydride high-density polyethylene copolymer (MAPE). The DSC
measurements, such as (i) crystallization parameters (ii) melting temperature
(Tm), and (iii) associated enthalpy, were assessed by comparing with aged
samples. It is reported that the crystallinity of the composites was increased
with increasing the aging time periods; however, the Tm was found to
decrease, this is due to the imperfection of the crystallites formed due to the
presence of hemp and basalt fibers (Sergi et al. 2019).
Figure 4. DMA curves of wood powder/PP composites: (a) Storage modulus vs.
temperature and (b) tan delta vs. temperature. (Test conditions: Samples immersed in
distilled water at a temperature of 60°C).

Researchers investigated the DMA of wood powder/PP composites

under the hygrothermal aging conditions. The storage modulus (E’) of
composites was found to be increased with the addition of wood powder, as
shown in Figure 4 (a). However, the E’ was decreased with increasing the
temperature from -60°C to 80°C. In contrast to the E’, the tan delta of wood
powder reinforced PP composites was decreased for the highest wood
powder loaded composites (Figure 4 (b)); it was ascribed to the
agglomeration of the wood powder in the matrix. Hence, resulting in
reducing the adhesion between the wood powder and the PP matrix. Besides,
the Tg of these composites was shifted to lower temperature with increasing
addition of wood powders (W. Wang et al. 2020).
4. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AGING ON THE

MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIO-COMPOSITES
There are several reports on the investigation of environmental aging on

the performance of natural fibre-based polymer composites. Thwe and Liao
2002 investigated the effect of aging on the properties of glass fibre
reinforced polypropylene (PP) composite and hybrid bamboo/glass fibre
reinforced PP polymer composite. They examined the morphology changes
of unaged and aged composites using the scanning electron microscope
(SEM). The results indicate that aging had a negative effect on the fibrillar
structure of bamboo. The defibrillation of bamboo fibres was visible in the
SEM of the aged composite.
Moreover, after aging, the fibre surface becomes rough, and the
compatibility between the fibre and the matrix decreases. However, the
synthetic glass fibre was stable to aging conditions, and only slow
degradation was noticed. Thus, the authors suggest that the incorporation of
glass fibre into bamboo-based polymer composite could enhance the lifetime
of the composite by improving its resistance towards environmental aging.
The authors also studied the effect of compatibilizer maleic anhydride
polypropylene (MAPP) on the properties of hybrid composite.

Morphological analysis indicates that MAPP integrated system displayed

low degradation and, therefore, could resist environmental aging.
Ma et al. 2018 studied the fibre/matrix interface of various jute fibre
reinforced epoxy polymer composites (untreated, alkali-treated and silane
treated) at four different aging conditions, such as (i) 20℃ water solution
(ii) 40℃ water solution (iii) 20℃ alkali solution and (iv) 40℃ alkali
solution. The untreated jute fibre reinforced polymer composites (U-JFRP)
exposed to aging displayed several cracks and fibre pull out, which could be
taken as evidence for aging-induced deterioration. The void between fibre
and the matrix was observed on the surface of aged U-JFRP and is
responsible for the poor adhesion between fibre and matrix. Generally,
surface treatment improves the interfacial compatibility of the fibre and the
matrix. Thus, both alkali and silane treated composite exhibits superior fibre
matrix interaction. However, upon aging, a few holes and fibre pull out were
appeared on the surface of the composite, which could be taken as a sign of
debonding of fibre from the polymer matrix. This could be due to the
unequal expansion of jute fibre and polymer matrix under aged conditions.
Meanwhile, high-temperature aging causes severe deterioration effect on the
fibre-matrix interaction. Several cracks, fibre pull out, and a visible gap
between the fibre and matrix is noticed for composites exposed to high-
temperature alkali treatment. Their studies thus revealed that when
compared to untreated, surface treated samples exhibit excellent interfacial
adhesion. Authors also reported that high-temperature aging causes a more
detrimental effect on fibre–matrix interaction than low-temperature aging.
Leao and co-workers (Leão, Tinô, and Aquino 2015) monitored the
effect of environmental aging (UV radiation, moisture, and temperature) on
the mechanical, fracture analysis, and morphological features of licuri fibre
reinforced plastics composites. The composites subjected to aging exhibit
discoloration and mass loss. A comparison of aged licuri fibre reinforced
plastics composite with aged glass fibre sheet revealed that the licuri fibre
incorporated composite displayed less damage in response to aging. This
was explained based on low hemicellulose content (11.6%) of licuri fibre. It
is reported elsewhere that hemicellulose is one of the main factors which is
responsible for weakening the fibre-matrix interaction (Silva et al. 2009).

Fiore, Sanfilippo, and Calabrese 2019 monitored the effect of eco-friendly

surface treatment (sodium carbonate treatment) on the aging resistance of
epoxy polymer composite reinforced with flax and jute fibres. Only a few
debonded areas were noticed for flax-T composites (sodium carbonate
treated flax fibre/epoxy composite) while several cracks and fibre pull out
were visible for jute-T composites (sodium carbonate treated flax
fibre/epoxy). Thus, the authors concluded that sodium carbonate treatment
improves the aging resistance of flax fibre reinforced epoxy composites.
However, a detrimental effect was observed for composites reinforced with
jute fibre and is attributed to the week interfacial adhesion between jute fibre
and the matrix.
Yang et al. 2011 fabricated jute/PP composite by injection molding and
studied hydrothermal aging's effect on the mechanical property of the
composite. The authors compared the SEM of the fracture surface of aged
and unaged specimens. From the SEM, it is evident that the composite
immersed in hot water for 300 h has many debonding areas. The authors
proposed that hydrothermal aging causes swelling of jute fibre, which
adversely affects the interfacial bonding of fibre and the matrix. The
mechanical results show that aged samples possess low strength, and thus
they were in agreement with the SEM observation.
Jiang et al. 2020 also reported a decline in the mechanical property of
aged jute/PLA composites. The authors stated that swelling of fibre is
responsible for developing the micro-cracks in the fibre/matrix interface.
Similar results were reported by Mejri et al. 2018. In their work, they studied
the mechanical and fatigue behavior of hydrothermal aged birch
fibres/HDPE composites. The absence of fibre pull-out and cracks in the
surface of unaged composite could be taken as strong evidence for the good
interfacial bonding. However, upon aging, several cracks and fibre pull out
were seen on the composite's surface. This is because the natural fibre
exposed to hydrothermal aging absorbs a significant amount of water and
consequently swells. This leads to poor interfacial adhesion. Consequently,
hydrothermally aged composites have poor performance than unaged
composites.

X. Wang and Petrů 2020 compared the effect of accelerated and natural
aging on the mechanical properties (flexural strength and modulus) of flax
fibre-reinforced epoxy composites. The authors reported that both
accelerated aging and natural aging cause chromatic change, probably due
to the oxidation of lignin. The morphological analysis confirmed that the
unaged specimen has excellent interfacial adhesion between matrix and
fibre. However, after aging, fibre pull out, and a visible gap between fibre
and matrix is noticed. It was observed that comparing natural aging with
accelerated aging, they had a different effect on the degradation of fibre.
Moreover, the bending strength of the composite exposed to accelerated
aging is higher than that of natural aging. This is attributed to the limited
factors which affect accelerated aging, i.e., temperature and humidity.
Isadounene et al. 2018 monitored the effect of alkali treatment on the
weathering of PLA/olive husk flour composites. SEM analysis shows that
the composite subjected to aging has a rough surface with holes. Aging is
also found to weaken the interaction between fibre and polymer matrix. L.
Wang and He 2019 compared the properties of mixed-particle-size fibre-
reinforced composite (MSRC) with unprocessed rice husk fibre/polyvinyl
chloride composites (RHRC) under soil aging conditions. The microscopic
analysis shows that the unaged RHRC composite has a smooth surface with
excellent interfacial adhesion between fibre and matrix. However, upon
aging, several cracks appeared on the composite surface, which hints
towards the weakening of interfacial adhesion. On the other hand, the MSRC
composites exhibits a reasonable thickness expansion rate, hardness, etc.
Moreover, it is also observed that even after aging, MSRC displayed strong
interfacial adhesion. The authors concluded that the introduction of mixed-
particle-size fibres into the polymer matrix is beneficial as it improves both
the interfacial adhesion and its resistance towards accelerated soil aging.
Recently, Yorseng et al. 2020 evaluated the effect of weathering on the
mechanical performance of kenaf fibre reinforced epoxy composites. The
accelerated aging is found to cause degradation of fibre-matrix interaction.
Fibre pull out, and breakage is seen in the SEM micrograph of the aged
composites.

CONCLUSION
In recent years, there has been an increase in the usage of bio-based

composites due to their unique advantages. Thus, the bio-based composites
are extensively used in many applications such as (i) wall panel (ii) toys
(iii) automobile parts (iv) marine (v) furniture (vi) medical (vii) electric, and
(viii) packaging materials. Mechanism of aging is necessary to understand
for improving the performance of durability, and increasing the lifetime of
biocomposites when they are projected to use for advanced applications in
aerospace and structural. During service, the composites will be exposed to
harsh environmental conditions (radiation, moisture, high temperature, etc.)
and are prone to environmental aging. Aging can cause several chemical
(chain scission, cracking, charring etc.) and physical changes (discoloration,
textural change, decrease in elongation, ductility, roughness, etc.), which
adversely affect the performance of polymeric matrix composites. Thus,
aged composites have lower performance than the unaged composites.
In general, many factors are being involved in deteriorating the
performance of the biocomposites during aging, for instance, (i) temperature
(ii) rain (iii) solar radiation, and (iv) duration of aging. Due to these factors,
the biocomposites would lead to face a detrimental effect such as a reduction
in mechanical properties, color change, chemical change; it was ascribed to
the degradation of cellulose fibre content in the biobased composites.
Nevertheless, the performance of the biocomposites can be improved by
(i) the addition of fillers in the matrix (ii) fibre surface modifications (iii)
fibre hybridization (iv) the addition of UV absorbers, and (v) introducing
different manufacturing techniques for fabricating the biocomposites.
Based on the proposed application of biocomposites, the particular type
of aging studies (i.e., natural aging, artificial aging, climate aging,
mechanical aging, etc.) is needed to examine for continuous improvement
of these materials. In the future, the development of biocomposites not only
dealing with reducing the overall cost of the product; but also, is supposed
to be introduced in high-performance engineering applications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was entirely supported by the King Mongkut’s University

of Technology North Bangkok (KMUTNB), Thailand, also funded this
research through Grant No. KMUTNB-64-KNOW-001, hence, the authors
are thankful to the authorities of KMUNTB.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
None declared.
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Chapter 11
FIBER REINFORCED NANO COMPOSITES:

MECHANICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
Vivek Singh Yadav1, Varun Saxena2

and Lalit M. Pandey1,2,*
1
Centre for the Environment,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,
Guwahati, Assam, India
2
Bio-Interface and Environmental Engineering Lab,
Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,
Guwahati, Assam, India
ABSTRACT
Polymeric composites with reinforced fibers (FRPCs) are a solution to

various glitches in the biomedical sector, where high mechanical strength,
toughness, stiffness and thermally stable matrices are required. These

Corresponding Author’s Email: lalitpandey@iitg.ac.in.

344 Vivek Singh Yadav, Varun Saxena and Lalit M. Pandey
biomedical applications include bone and dental tissue engineering,

orthopedics and drug delivery. Fibers such as carbon rods, fiberglass,
aramid and basalts reinforced inside polymeric composites possess various
properties such as mechanical strength, non-toxicity, biocompatibility,
bioactivity and environment friendly responses making them potential
candidates for the orthopedic and dental applications. In this chapter, we
have summarized the synthesis and characterization of various FRPCs and
reviewed their physical and mechanical properties relevant to biomedical
applications. In addition, their biological responses are co-related with the
mechanical properties. Moreover, bio-functionalization and various
biomedical applications of these FRPCs have been discussed. The
challenges and future aspects with FRPCs have been highlighted along
with the plausible solutions to the existing lags of FRPCs.
Keywords: fiber reinforced nano composites, mechanical strength,

interfacial interactions, orthopedics, drug delivery, tissue engineering
ABBREVIATIONS
AFM Atomic Force Microscopy

BC Bacterial Cellulose
CCNWs Cellulose nanowhiskers
CLSM Confocal scanning laser microscopy
CMC Carboxymethyl cellulose
CNF Cellulose Nanofibers
CNTs Carbon nanotubes
EDAX Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy
EPD Electrophoretic deposition
FRPCs Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
GNPs Graphene nanoplatelets
HAp Hydroxyapatite
HDPE High-density polyethylene
HMP High methoxyl pectin
ICDD International Centre for Diffraction Data
JCDPS Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards

Fiber Reinforced Nano Composites 345
MWCNTs Multiwalled carbon nanotubes

NPs Nanoparticles
PCU Polycarbonate soft segment
PEI Polyethyleneimine
PLA Poly lactic acid
POSS Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane
PP Polypropylene
PVA Poly(vinyl alcohol)
SCFs Short carbon fiber
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy
SSAV Semi-stented surgical aortic valve
Tem Transmission electron microscopy
TGA Thermogravimetric analysis
UTM Universal Testing Machine
WPI Whey protein isolate
XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
XRD X-Ray powder Diffraction
1. INTRODUCTION
Composites are the mixture of elemental micro constitutes through

physical or chemical methods to produce the anisotropic and
inhomogeneous materials (Amir, Sultan et al. 2019). This enables to tune
the properties of composites for a wide range of applications. The
application of a polymer matrix helps composites to perform as a binder or
function in a specific environment or for the desired mechanical
performance. The need to reinforce into the polymeric matrix arises when it
requires to improve the native performances of the composites such as
strength, toughness, stiffness, and dimensional stability (Satyanarayana,
Sukumaran et al. 1990). Various filler materials such as carbon nanotube,
graphene, silicon nanoparticles (NPs), lignin have been explored to enhance
the performances of composites. In this direction, different natural,
renewable and synthetic materials have been used in the preparation of Fiber

Reinforced Polymer Composites (FRPCs) for various applications such as

biomedical, tissue engineering, orthopedic and drug delivery systems
(Guarino, Causa et al. 2008, Wang, Zhu et al. 2014, Hasan, Waibhaw et al.
2017).
Recently, the focus of researchers has been shifted towards green and
non-toxic and biodegradable materials (Arifur Rahman, Parvin et al. 2015,
Singh, Pattnaik et al. 2020) considering the atmospheric hazards (Mareş,
Leiţoiu et al. 2011), without compromising the mechanical properties
(Gojny, Wichmann et al. 2004, Pathak, Borah et al. 2016, Ma, Zhang et al.
2020). FRPCs have been proven to provide all the desired properties for
biomedical applications without affecting the environment. A composite
consists of two components; the reinforcement/filler materials and the
matrix. The reinforcement materials such as fiber and/or glass (Haniffah,
Sapuan et al. 2015, Madhu, Sanjay et al. 2020), fiber particles or whisker
and crystal filaments (Gürgen 2019), and irregular particles (Gürgen, Çelik
et al. 2019, Hynes, Raja et al. 2020) are spread within the matrix, whereas
the matrix such as polymers, metallic and ceramic materials remains in the
vicinity. In general, the matrix protects the composites from fouling and
reinforcement helps in bearing the load, and act as an outer element in the
composites (Altin Karataş and Gökkaya 2018).
This matrix for FRPCs is selected from various kinds of resins including
phenolic, polyester, vinyl ester, while the reinforcement mostly consists of
carbon and glass. FRPCs possess more advantageous properties over the
other composites, such as tailored strength characteristic for a given load,
upright chemical resistant, low density and lightweight. In addition, FRPCs
with tailored properties have been able to show a remarkable impact on
strength, stiffness and resistance to failure (Forintos and Czigany 2019).
Based on the various properties of the FRPCs, a wide range of applications
have been explored in the biomedical sector. In this chapter, we have
summarized the major methods of synthesis and important characterization
techniques of FRPCs. The recent advances in the FRPCs for the biomedical
applications are discussed citing the recent works. The challenges and the
future scopes are highlighted with the discussion on the probable solutions
to the existing lags of FRPCs for the practical applications.

2. PREPARATION METHODS OF FRPCS
Synthesis of FRPCs can be categorized into a number of methods

depending on both, the matrix polymer and the filler materials. Few major
methods used for the preparation of FRPCs are as follows.
2.1. Melt Compounding or Molding
This method uses a high temperature blending technique to bind the

nano-fillers with polymer matrix in the required ratio to form polymer
composites (Anand K, Agarwal et al. 2007). Briefly, in a pressurized
chamber, high-temperature sustainable polymers and nano-filler materials
are mixed together without using solvent as a bonding agent. This process
requires heavy machinery, high temperature and skilled expertise for the
composite preparation (Athreya, Kalaitzidou et al. 2011).
2.2. Solution Mixing
For solution mixing, homogenous polymer solutions containing

dispersed nano-filler particle solution are mixed to form polymer
composites. By providing heat treatment, evaporation of the solvent takes
place, accelerating the intact attachment between filler material and the
polymer (Kuila, Bose et al. 2011). It is an easy and low temperature method
for the development of polymer composites. The temperature used is
considerably low as compared to the melt compounding or molding.
Importantly, this process requires appropriate solvents to bind polymer and
filler allowing a well dispersion of filler materials into the polymer.

2.3. In-Situ Polymerization
This method demonstrates a fast chemical process, in which

thermodynamically stable phase of reinforced nanomaterials within a
polymer matrix is achieved. NPs are mixed in a liquid monomer solution to
perform the polymerization process (Xu and Gao 2010). The appropriate
amount of heat, light and atmosphere are provided to develop a nano-
composite. Nanocomposites synthesized using this process are also referred
as a thermoset.
2.4. Bio-Functionalization of FRPCs
Bio-functionalization of FRPCS is an advanced method leading to

impart the enhanced properties for the biomedical applications. Limited
research has been done in this direction. In this process, functionalization of
reinforced fiber or polymer composites are performed through solutions
containing acid/alkali, fluorine, poly-dopamine or silane groups (Kwak,
Jyoti et al. 2014, Hasan and Pandey 2015). This method includes the
preparation of FRPCs by filler mixing prior to the bio-functionalization
(Sun, Sun et al. 2013). It is a time consuming process, but is advantageous
in tailoring the geometry of the filler in the composites. Maintaining the
quality and viscosity of impregnated polymer helps in controlling the
properties of polymer composites.
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF FRPCS
The successful synthesis of any material is cross-referenced by the

characterization techniques. There are various physical and chemical
techniques, which conquer the successful synthesis of FRPCs. In this
section, a few of the major techniques used for the successful
characterizations of FRPCs are briefly discussed.

3.1. X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) Analysis
XRD is one of the foremost techniques used to characterize

nanocomposites. XRD provides in-depth information about the crystal and
physical properties. These properties include crystal structure, crystal size,
miller indices, arrangement of atoms, bond length, crystal symmetry, grains
and crystallinity of the nanocomposites. Crystal planes diffract X-Rays at
different diffraction angles depending on their arrangement of atoms. These
diffraction patterns are recorded using X-Ray diffractor and correlated using
the following formula (Saxena, Chandra et al. 2018, Saxena, Sharma et al.
2019).
𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where λ is denoted as the wavelength of the incidental X-Ray, θ is the angle

at which the crystal plane diffracts X-Rays, and d is the distance in between
the lattice points. This diffraction reflects the crystal plane and the
arrangement of atoms. For various crystal structures, the International
Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD) has deposited these diffraction patterns
in correlation with the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards
(JCPDS). These committees provide a unique identification number to each
diffraction pattern and researchers can analyze their crystal structure via
comparing with the standard one. The diffraction patterns confirm the
synthesis of the nanocomposites. However, the presence of any external
element causes a shift in the peaks and/or haziness in the diffraction patterns.
The haziness confirms the decrease in the degree of crystallization and a
shift in the XRD peak indicated about the metal replacement (Grande, Torres
et al. 2009, Saxena, Chandra et al. 2018, Saxena and Pandey 2020).
3.2. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis
FTIR analysis is another characterization technique used to analyze the

functional groups present in a composite. The infrared light is incident over

materials, which provides vibrations (stretching and bending) corresponding

to the energy absorbed by the bond. Different bonds such as C-C, C-N, C-O
provide different bond energy, (Saxena and Pandey 2019, Saxena, Sharma
et al. 2019). Stretching or bending of a bond occurs depending on the bond
energy. A Fourier Transform (Sagis, de Ruiter et al.) on the interferogram is
performed in order to obtain a smoothened data, which are further analyzed.
The functional groups of the composite may alter the physical, chemical and
biological properties of the FRPCs. Hence, FTIR together with the XRD data
provide a correlation between the structure and the obtained properties
(Eleutério, Sério et al. 2020).
3.3. Mechanical Characterization
Fiber reinforcement usually improves the mechanical properties of the

composite. The reinforcement affects the packing of a nanocomposite and
in turn alters its mechanical properties. Majorly for the load bearing
properties, tensile strength and modulus are analyzed using Universal
Testing Machine (UTM) and nano-indenter (Wan, Luo et al. 2009). These
properties are calculated as per the module ASTM D 5937-1996. Another
approach analyzing the mechanical properties is the scratch test, which
informs about the affirmed mechanical properties of the nanocomposite.
These mechanical properties significantly alter the bioactivity and
biocompatibility of the designed materials (Almasi, Lau et al. 2020, Yadav,
Kumar et al. 2020).
3.4. Water Contact Angle
Water contact angle majorly affects the biological responses of the

composites. The wettability (Water Contact Angle) indicates the
hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity of materials (Pandey and Pattanayek 2013,
Pandey and Pattanayek 2013, Hasan and Pandey 2015, Hasan and Pandey
2016), which is found to regulate various biological activities such as protein

adsorption, protein orientation, cell adhesion and cellular expansions

(Pandey and Pattanayek 2011, Pandey, Pattanayek et al. 2013, Hasan,
Saxena et al. 2018). Usually, a Contact Angle Goniometer is used to
determine the contact angle. Fiber reinforcement significantly alters the
contact angle based on the resulted hydrophobicity of the materials. It solely
depends on the reinforced materials, packing and orientation of the
reinforced fiber, and the interfacial bonds between the filler and the matrix
(Almasi, Lau et al. 2020).
3.5. Microscopic Analysis
The microscopic analysis is one of the key factors in various properties

of the materials where surface properties play a major role. The most
common tool to analyze the surface structure, particle size, particle
morphology is Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Atomic Force
Microscopy (AFM) (Grande, Torres et al. 2009). The microstructure along
with crystal structure is the fundamental of various chemical, mechanical
and biological responses. In biomedical applications, these properties
govern the interactions with the biological entities i.e., proteins with the
composite materials. Hence, SEM analysis co-related with XRD remains a
powerful tool for nano-biotechnologists (Wan, Luo et al. 2009, Almasi, Lau
et al. 2020).
3.6. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
The TGA analysis is one of the important characterizations of polymeric

materials. Various thermal responses of the polymeric material can be
examined using the TGA analysis. Majorly, the TGA analysis informs about
the weight changes in the polymeric and nanomaterials materials as a
function of temperature and time (Saxena, Hasan et al. 2018). This weight
change in the polymeric material also apprises the degradation, oxidation
and decomposition. Many physical changes due to sublimation,

vaporization, and desorption can bring changes in the weight of polymeric

materials (Menczel and Prime 2009). Moreover, the TGA analysis also
informs about the thermosetting or thermoplastic nature of a polymer
depending on their thermal behavior and responses.
3.7. Miscellaneous
In addition, many characterization techniques have been utilized to

analyze the FRPCs, depending on the structure and applications. Various
other characterizations such as Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDAX)
(Almasi, Lau et al. 2020) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
(Eleutério, Sério et al. 2020) for their elemental confirmation and zeta
potential for surface charge analysis are performed. All these experiments
are performed as supporting experiments based on the application as well as
the composition of a composite.
4. RECENT ADVANCES IN FRPCS
Numbers of methods have been developed to synthesize the FRPCs.

Epoxy with good mechanical adhesion and low viscosity have been used as
a binder to attach various nanotubes and enhance the properties such as
strength, stiffness, and hardness. In a recent work, fluorine functionalized
carbon nanotubes were composited with epoxy matrix using molding
methodology for applications in aerospace technologies. Hexel IM7 grade
carbon fibers were used with a tensile strength of 5.5 MPa and elastic
modulus of 276 GPa (Davis, Wilkerson et al. 2010). Naturally available jute
fibers and epoxy were used to produce laminated composite (Abdellaoui,
Bensalah et al. 2015) to improve the mechanical properties. The fibers were
oriented between 0 and 45º. Typically, jute fiber is composed of cellulose
(58–63%), hemicellulose (20–24%) and lignin (12–15%) (Asha, Sharif et al.
2017). The directional allocation of fibers also helped in improving the
mechanical properties of the composites. It was observed that the lamination

enhanced young’s modulus (Abdellaoui, Bensalah et al. 2015). In another

study, Gojny et al. (Gojny, Wichmann et al. 2004) used a standard
calendaring technique, in which the polymers were melted down on the
nanotubes to produce composites. Double-walled carbon nanotubes having
an average outer diameter of 2.8 nm with length in micrometer and carbon
black were composited in an epoxy matrix. It was observed that the addition
of carbon nanotubes improved the mechanical properties as compared to the
carbon black. A considerable increase in the fracture toughness, young’s
modulus and strength were observed. In a separate study, low-cost carbon
fibers were composited into lignin/poly lactic acid (PLA) (Wang, Li et al.
2015). The tensile strength of the prepared composite ranged between 159.2
and 258.6 MPa and the tensile modulus ranged from 1.7 to 11.6 GPa. The
melted spinning of lignin/PLA (Wang, Li et al. 2015) along with thermal
stabilization and carbonation of mixed carbon fiber efficiently formed the
cylindrical composites. In this process, PLA provided a good spinnabilty and
hydrogen bonding between carbon fibers and lignin/PLA (Depla, Mahieu et
al.).
Pedrazzoli et al. (Pedrazzoli and Pegoretti 2013) investigated the role of
silica NPs as a coupling agent in the formation of maleic anhydride modified
poly-propylene (PPgMA) and glass fibre composite. Silica NPs were also
functionalized using dimethyldichlorosilane. Interfacial shear strength
(ILSS) was enhanced up to five folds in the case of surface-modified silica
NPs as compared to only polypropylene matrix. The ILSS was found to be
linearly related with the work of adhesion as shown in Figure 1. In a separate
study, Rahman et al. (Rahman, Jackson et al. 2020) analyzed the effect of
nanofillers on the mechanical performance of the reinforced composite.
Silicon carbide whisker fillers were incorporated into geopolymer composite
to form geopolymer matrix composites as shown in Figure 2. It encompasses
four steps for synthesis of composites. Firstly wetting of fiber to easily settle
the cavity followed by the treatment over the mold cavity to provide a
smooth nonstick surface for fibers. Finally, the placing of the fibers over the
mould cavity and closing with T-bars. The fracture toughness was enhanced
by 113% after the incorporation of silicon carbide whisker as compared to
the baseline geopolymer matrix.

Figure 1. Linear relationship between and ILSS and work of adhesion. Date taken from
Ref. (Pedrazzoli and Pegoretti 2013).
Fixing the mold cavity

Wetting of fiber
Closing the cavity with T-bars

Insertion of nano-fillers
Figure 2. Schematic representation of FRPCs synthesis using the squeezing method.
Kalaitzidou et al. (Kalaitzidou, Fukushima et al. 2007) developed

FRPCs using exfoliated graphite NPs (xGnP) as reinforcement to
polypropylene (PP) polymer. The composite was formed using twin screw
extruder with injection molding. It was found that an increase in xGnP
content improved the stiffness and reduced the coefficient of thermal
expansion. Liang et al. (Liang, Du et al. 2016) investigated the tensile
properties of PP composites filled with graphene nanoplatelets (GNP). PP
was mixed with GNPs of different size using a high speed compound

machine and melted down to be for the formation of GNPs-PP composites.

The addition of GNPs led to effectively increase the tensile strength and
Young modulus of the composites. In another study, graphene NPs were
reinforced in polymer composites. Poly(4-aminostyrene) interacted with
grapheme fibers, which improved the degree of dispersion, fracture
toughness and interlinear shear strength (Kim, Cha et al. 2020). In another
approach, Pathak et al. (Pathak, Borah et al. 2016) prepared carbon fiber
along with grapheme oxide (GO) reinforced epoxy polymer hybrid
composites by compression molding. The hybrid composite resulted in an
increase in the flexural strength by 66%, flexural modulus by 72% and
interlaminar shear strength by 25% at 0.3wt% of GO because of the effective
interlocking and hydrogen bond between GO containing carbon fiber and
epoxy resin. In a similar approach, the multiwalled carbon nanotubes
(MWCNTs) were grafted with 4, 4-Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate and
incorporated into epoxy/polybenzoxazine copolymer using hot-compression
method (Chou, Tsai et al. 2019). The prepared nanocomposite resulted in
the improved storage modulus by 11% and the change in glass transition
temperature from 102 to 158ºC. The mechanical properties of synthesized
MWCNTs/EPO-PBZ/CF nanocomposites were improved with the increase
in the contents of MWCNTs.
Figure 3. Cathodic electrophoretic deposition of CNTs on glass fiber. Adapted with

permission from Ref. (An, Rider et al. 2013).

Table 1. Different process materials and methods for the synthesis of FRPCs and their mechanical properties
FRPCs Method of Material used Mechanical properties Remarks Intended Ref.

preparation applications
Multi walled Compress Multi wall carbon Tensile strength: 354 MPa Mechanical properties Aerospace (Chou, Tsai et
carbon tube moulding nanotube grafter with Flexural strength: 503.41 MPa were enhanced as application al. 2019)
based composite technique 4,4-Methylene diphenyl Torque strength: 18.73 N-m compared with Carbon
diisocyanate polymer ILSS strength: 48.79 MPa fiber reinforced
composites
Catalytically Calandering Carbon nanotube, carbon Tensile strength: 65 MPa Increase in tensile NA (Gojny,
grown double technique black, epoxy resin and Tensile modulus: 3.50 GPa strength, young’s Wichmann et
wall carbon ammonia NH2 Fracture toughness: 0.82 MPa m1/2 modulus and fracture al. 2004)
nanotube based toughness at 0.1 wt%
composite nanotube contents
Fluorine- carbon Melt High strength carbon Tensile strength: 801 MPa 0.5 wt.% Flurine-carbon Electrical (Davis,
nanotube based compounding fiber, epoxy resin and Tensile modulus: 24 GPa nanotube reinforced appliances Wilkerson et
composite fluorine carbon composites showed 18% al. 2010)
nanotubes increment in the tensile
strength
Graphene nano- Solution GNPs, N,N- Fracture toughness: 2.526 MPa 4 wt% Poly(4- Marine (Kim, Cha et
platelets (GNPs) mixing dimethylformamide, Poly m1/2 aminostyrene showed applications al. 2020)
based carbon/ method (4-aminostyrene), ILSS strength: 80 MPa 252 and 142 %
epoxy triglycidyl p- improvements in the
nanocomposites aminophenol epoxy resin ILSS and fracture
and polyacrylonitrile toughness, respectively
carbon fibers
Polypropylene Melt Different size of GNP Elastic modulus: 2.4 GPa Increasing graphene NA (Liang, Du et
and graphene compounding and polypropylene Tensile strength: 35 MPa weight fraction enhanced al. 2016)
nano-platelets the tensile strength
based composite
FRPCs Method of Material used Mechanical properties Remarks Intended Ref.
preparation applications
Graphene Electrophoretic Di-glycidyl ether of ILSS strength: 42 MPa Increase of 16.3% in Engineering (Yandrapu,
carboxyl grafted Deposition on Bisphenol A epoxy as the Flexural strength: 542 MPa flexural strength as components Gangineni et
carbon fiber Carbon fiber resin, Tri-ethylene tetra amine compared to the neat al. 2020)
based polymer surface as hardener CFRP samples
composites modification
Silicon Carbide Compress Nextel 610 fiber, non- Flexural strength: 650 MPa 4 vol% silicon carbide For harsh (Rahman,
Whisker nano- moulding commercial resin as MAYEB whiskers reinforced geo- environment Jackson et al.
filler reinforced technique and silicon carbide whiskers polymer composites conditions 2020)
geopolymer as Nano-reinforcement showed 113% increase in
composites flexural strength as
compared with without
filler composites
Silica Solution polypropylene–glass fiber, ILSS strength: 40 Mpa Di-methyl, di-chlorosilane NA (Pedrazzoli
nanoparticles mixing Di-methyl, di-chlorosilane for modification has a and Pegoretti
based functionalization of remarkable effect on ILSS 2013)
polypropylene– Nanoparticles and maleic strength
glass fibre anhydride for polypropylene
microcomposites modification
Lignin/PLA Solution Hardwood kraft lignin, Tensile strength: 159.2 Low cost, bio-renewable Light weight (Wang, Li et
based carbon mixing Deuterated dimethyl sulfoxide Tensile modulus: 11.6 GPa composites surgical al. 2015)
fibers and poly lactic acid components
Carbon In-situ Hardwood kraft lignin Tensile strength: 289 MPa 0.5% carbon nanotube Engineering (Wang, Zhou
nanotubes grafted polymerization grafted lagnine showed a components et al. 2016)
with lignin remarkable increase in the
tensile strength
Table 2. Biomedical applications of FRPCs
S.N. FRPCs Matrix materials Reinforced materials Properties Remarks Ref.

1 Hydroxyapatite Polyether ether HAp  Enhanced Bioactivity of PEEK Suitable for Bone tissue (Almasi, Lau
(HAp)/polyether ketone (PEEK)  Excellent biomineralization engineering et al. 2020)
ether ketone surface  Enhanced hydrophilicity
nanocomposite
2 Graphene oxide Nano-GO High density polymer  No accumulation in the Suitable for bone tissue (Faisal)
reinforced high- ethylene microstructure engineering and
density polymer  Enhanced fatigue and wear properties Nanoantibiotic
ethylene  Retained antibacterial activity applications
3 Flax and ramie Bio-epoxy resin- Flax and ramie  Enhanced tensile Strength, flexural Suitable for orthopedic (Kumar,
natural fiber FormuLITE series fiber strength and compressive strength for application especially Zindani et al.
reinforced (bio- ramie enforcement for human 2020)
epoxy resin-  Enhanced viscoelastic properties femur and tibia bone
FormuLITE series) such as maximum tissue engineering
 Storage and loss modulus
 Enhanced glass transition
temperature
4 Epoxy/Chitosan Epoxy Chitosan  Homogenous distribution of chitosan Suitable for bone (Soundhar and
nanocomposites over epoxy fracture fixation plates Jayakrishna
 4 wt% chitosan enhanced tensile and and orthopaedic 2019)
flexural strength applications
 Enhanced hemocompatibility
5 Carbon fiber Carboxymethyl Carbon fibres  HAp bridged between CMC and Suitable as bioactive (Sarkar, Sahu
reinforced polymer- cellulose (CMC) carbon fibre bone grafts as et al. 2019)
HAp ternary  Enhanced flexural strength and differentiation into the
composite compressive strength bone cells was obtained
 Bone cell proliferation and
differentiation into bone cells
S.N. FRPCs Matrix materials Reinforced materials Properties Remarks Ref.
6 Laponite and Cellulose CNFs Laponite  Homogenous distribution at fibrous CNFs Suitable for (Silva,
Nanofibers (CNF)  Better thermal stability and higher water scaffold in Barud et al.
vapor permeability tissue 2019)
 Enhanced melting point engineering or
drug delivery
system and as
adsorbent
7 Lipopeptide and Surfactin Eucalyptus essential  Physical and chemical stability under pH Suitable for (Fopase,
essential oil based oil (3–9) drug delivery Pathode et
nanoemulsion  High temperature, and external shear and al. 2020)
stability biomolecule
 Sustained release of drug and no effect on delivery
drug activity
8 Carbon nanotubes Polycaprolactone CNTs  Circumferentially and radially aligned Suitable for (Stocco,
n(CNTs) reinforced composite scaffolds knee meniscus Antonioli et
polymeric nanofibers  Enhanced Young’s modulus and failure tissue al. 2020)
stress property engineering
 No toxic effect of CNTs on cells until day 3
9 Chitosan/nanocrystalline Chitosan Nanocrystalline  Enhanced fiber diameter and thermal Suitable for (Ghorbani,
cellulose-graft-poly(N- cellulose-graft- stability skin tissue Nezhad-
vinylcaprolactam) poly(N-  Enhanced tensile strength and hydrophilicity engineering. Mokhtari et
nanofibers vinylcaprolactam)  Near 100% cell viability until 48 hours al. 2020)
10 Arabinoxylan-co- Arabinoxylan Nano HAp decorated  Rough surface morphology with enhanced Suitable for (Khan,
AA/HAp/TiO2 with TiO2 porosity and swelling properties bone tissue Haider et al.
 Enhanced compression strength engineering 2020)
 >80% cell viability until 72 hours with
proper cell morphology
The electrophoretic deposition (EPD) method is also used for the

preparation of FRPCs. In a study, polyethyleneimine (PEI) functionalized
carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were dispersed and cathodic deposition was
carried out to prepare the CNTs/glass fiber composites as shown in Figure 3
(An, Rider et al. 2013). Similarly, Mahmood et al. (Mahmood, Tripathi et
al. 2016) explored the improvement of ILSS and adhesion of glass fiber and
epoxy composites prepared by an electro-deposition method. GO was
dispersed in the solution and glass fiber was attached to the anodic side of
the copper electrode. ILSS was enhanced up to two folds for coated fiber as
compared to the bare fibers. Similarly, Yandrapu et al. (Yandrapu,
Gangineni et al. 2020) coated carbon fiber with graphene based nano-fillers
using electrophoretic deposition technique. Effects of nano-fillers
concentration in suspension, deposition time and applied current on the
mechanical performance of the FRPCs were investigated. Increase in
concentration of graphene carboxyl solution improved the ILSS by 24.7%
without affecting the flexible strength. Variation in the current of
electrophoretic process enhanced the flexible strength by 16.3% without
affecting the ILSS. Whereas in case of change over deposition time from 30
to 60 min, remarkable effects on both ILSS and flexible strength were
observed. The ILSS and flexible strength enhanced by 35% and 26.6%,
respectively. Table 1 illustrates a few examples of the FRPCs along with
their mechanical properties.
5. BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF FRPCS
FRPCs with improved mechanical properties are majorly used for the
load bearing applications in the biomedical sector. In this section, we have
discussed a few of the major biomedical applications of the FRPCs including
orthopedic and dental applications, drug delivery and tissue engineering.
Few of the biomedical applications of FRPCs are listed in Table 2.

5.1. Orthopedic and Dental Applications
The advancements in polymer science and hybrid polymer

nanocomposite provide an upper hand in orthopedic applications by
enhancing the mechanical properties of the materials. The mechanical
property plays a crucial role in the acceptance and rejection of a biomaterial
in the host body for orthopedic applications. The incorporation of suitable
fillers plays a crucial role in biological and mechanical properties besides
biocompatibility. Various approaches have been performed to design a
suitable material for orthopedic applications. The most analyzed materials
for orthopedic applications is the Hap, which is a major mineral component
of bone. HAp possesses various properties similar to with bone such as
biocompatibility, bioactivity and host responses (Saxena, Shukla et al.
2019). However, it lacks in its mechanical properties to be utilized for
biomedical applications. Hence, various alterations in the structure of HAp
have been examined to make it more convenient for orthopedic applications.
Researchers are now focusing on the polymer-HAp hybrid composites, as it
significantly improves the mechanical properties. In this regard, Almasi et
al. designed polyether ether ketone (PEEK) reinforced HAp nanocomposite
for orthopedic and dental applications. PEEK is a bioinert material owing its
non-interacting properties with biological tissues, but possesses an upper
hand in its mechanical properties. A friction stir processing based on a
pinless tool was employed to design the PEEK-HAp composite. The water
contact angle of PEEK was reduced from 71.6° ± 3.8° to 63.2° ± 4.6° after
integration of Hap. The scratch test analysis confirmed the adhesive
attachment of the PEEK/HA surface nanocomposite with no delamination.
A strong apatite layer formation in the Seminal Body Fluid (SBF) confirmed
the application of PEEK-HAp composite for biomedical applications
(Almasi, Lau et al. 2020). In another approach, Oladapo et al. 3D printed the
PEEK-HAp-GO composite for the improvement in the mechanical strength;
fracture toughness to resist the forces and crack propagation. The composite
possessed a tensile and compression stress of 102.38 MPa and 29.34 MPa,
respectively. The PEEK-HAp-GO resulted in 2.43 GPa of modulus of

elasticity and bending strength of 132.37 MPa, affirming its suitability for
orthopedic applications (Oladapo, Zahedi et al. 2020).
The addition of short carbon fibres is also found to improve the
mechanical properties of the HAp-fibre nanocomposite. In an approach,
short carbon fiber (SCFs) were composited with HAp and high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) matrix composites. The samples containing SCFs
exhibited the highest tensile properties i.e., the peak stress of 41.74 ± 1.4
MPa and hardness of 10.5 ± 0.26 HBN. The percentage of elongation was
found to be 5.95 ± 1.6 for the prepared sample. Sample containing 80%
HDPE, 10% HAp and 10% SCFs enhanced the hardness, tensile and flexural
strength by 5, 41, and 36%, respectively as compared to the HAp/PE sample
(Akgul, Ahlatci et al. 2020). Similarly, Elangomannan et al. designed a
SCFs/Polycaprolactone/Mineralized HAp scaffolds for potential biomedical
applications. The arrangements are displayed in Figure 4. The densely
packed structure enhanced the mechanical strength by many folds.
Figure 4. Structure of SCFs/Polycaprolactone/Mineralized HAp scaffolds. Adapted

with permission from Ref. (Elangomannan, Louis et al. 2017).
The addition of SCF played a crucial role in adhesion to the Ti surface

providing an adhesive strength of 24.2 ± 0.5, 27.2 ± 0.6 and 26.1 ± 0.7 MPa
at 1, 2 and 3 wt% of SCFs, respectively. The addition of SCFs also provided
a Vicker hardness of 9.23 ± 1.2 GPa, 9.5 ± 1.4 and 10.17 ± 1.3 GPa, for 1, 2

and 3% of SCFs respectively (Elangomannan, Louis et al. 2017). Both these

examples provided the key role of SCFs in enhancing the mechanical
strength of the HAp. The concentration, size and packing of SCFs provide
an upper hand to the researchers to tune the mechanical properties for the
intended applications.
5.2. Drug Delivery Applications
Along with the mechanical strength, the FRPCs also provide tunable
materials with enhanced surface area, making them suitable for loading of
various biomolecules and a suitable delivery at the site of action. The
responsive drug delivery system is the major desirable system for numerous
biomedical applications. Various approaches have been made in order to
control the drug release for the desired actions of the drugs. Polymer
microcapsules have been explored as major drug delivery vehicles. In this
direction, Sagis et al. prepared layer by layer deposition of a positively
charged whey protein isolate (WPI) fibrils and negatively charged high
methoxyl pectin (HMP) onto oil droplets, providing a fiber-reinforced
nanocomposite structure as shown in Figure 5.
0.5 µm 10 µm
10 µm
Figure 5. WPI fibril deposition in three- and four-layer microcapsule. (a) Transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) image of WPI fibrils. (b) Confocal scanning laser
microscopy (CSLM) picture showing the WPI fibril deposition after the adsorption of
the third layer. (c) CSLM picture showing the fibril conformation on the third layer
after the HMP adsorption in the fourth layer. Adapted with permission from Ref.
(Sagis, de Ruiter et al. 2008).

The zeta potential values were found to be -9 mV and +28 mV when

HMP and WPI were present in the outer layers, respectively regardless of
the number of the layers. A fiber-reinforced nanocomposite structure was
obtained at WPI as an outer layer and a hairy structure was obtained at HMP
as an outer layer, enhancing the stability required to add the next layer. The
thickness of such systems is regulated by the number of laters, which in turn
tunes the mechanical strength and permeability as required for the delivery
of biomolecules based on charge and pH (Sagis, de Ruiter et al. 2008). In
another approach, Che et al. synthesized a cellulose nanocrystal-poly[2-
(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (CNC-g-PDMAEMA) reinforced
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxy valerate) (PHBV) electrospun
composite membranes for drug delivery applications. Tetracycline
hydrochloride (TH) was used as a model drug. The protonation of the tertiary
amine groups on DMAEMA at the pH range of 3 to 7 decreased the size of
the NPs from 369 to 217 nm and correspondingly zeta potential was also
decreased. With the increase in the TH content, the contact angle was
decreased from 50 to 35° due to the presence of the hydrophilic groups on
TH and CNC-g-PDMAEMA. A 89% release of TH was observed from
PHBV/CNC-g-PDMAEMA (TH 15 wt%) in 96 h at pH 7.4. The faster drug
release rate and higher release were reported at the pH 5 than 8. At acidic
pH, the charged tertiary amino groups of PDMAEMA polymer caused
electrostatic repulsion between polymer chains, which enabled the faster
release of drug molecules (Chen, Abdalkarim et al. 2020). Similarly, Barbas
et al. designed graphene oxides/carbon nanotubes-HAp nanocomposites and
explored as drug delivery vehicle using Ibuprofen (IBU) as a model drug.
Rod-shaped agglomerates of HAp were obtained, however, the addition of
MWCNTs inhibited the agglomeration. 1D rodlike HAP was grown on 2D
GO sheets without any agglomeration. The release of IBU was governed by
its hydrogen-bonded attachment with HAp. MWCNTs did not influence the
desorption efficiency, whereas the addition of GO enhanced the desorption
efficiency over time (Barabás, de Souza Ávila et al. 2020). These studies
showed that the composition of the drug delivery vehicle, structure of the
drug and the interaction between the drug and loading vehicle play an
important role in designing a potential drug delivery system.

5.3. Tissue Engineering
The fiber reinforcement provides excellent mechanical properties to the

composites for the various biomedical applications, which are not limited
only to hard tissues. The high tenability of the mechanical properties
provides an excellent opportunity to the researchers to apply the FRPCs for
the soft tissues as well. In this regard, Mohamadi et al. designed a poly(vinyl
alcohol) (PVA)-bacterial cellulose (BC) nanocomposite using a hyperelastic
nonlinear anisotropic material model. Authors designed a 15 wt% PVA and
0.5 wt% BC composite for mimicking a porcine heart valve. A non-linear
behavior, large deformation, anisotropy, and distinct behavior in tension was
considered to design the leaflet for the heart valve. Various models were
applied to design the longitudinal and circumferential valves. The valve
thickness was varied from 0.1 to 1.1 mm. For aortic heart valve the principal
stresses for top, middle, and bottom layers in isotropic model were found to
be 314 kPa, 356 kPa, and 429 kPa and 636 kPa, 486 kPa, and 531 kPa,
respectively in anisopropic model indicating the mimicking of the
mechanical behavior of the porcine heart valve (Mohammadi, Boughner et
al. 2009). The same group later reported that apart from mimicking the non-
linear mechanical properties, anisotropic behaviour of the porcine heart
valves was also mimicked by applying a controlled strain during the low
temperature thermal cycle (Mohammadi 2011). In a separate study, Rahmani
et al. designed polyurethane with polycarbonate soft segment (PCU) and
polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) to mimic the semi-stented
surgical aortic valve (SSAV). The valves were prepared using an automated
dip-coating procedure with the three leaflet thicknesses (100, 150 and 200
μm) and 21 mm internal diameter. The mean transvalvular systolic pressure
drop (mmHg) was found to be 2.80±0.85, 3.38±0.95 and 4.81±1.13 for
SSAV-100 μm, 150 μm and 200 μm, respectively. Similarly, the total energy
loss was found to be 77.85±18.18, 131.12±18.41 and 167.65±27.95 mJ,
respectively for SSAV-100 μm, 150 μm and 200 μm. This indicated the
hydrodynamic performance of these prostheses were thickness dependent
with the best performance of thinnest SSAV-100 μm (Rahmani, Tzamtzis et

al. 2012). All these studies suggest that the leaflet thickness is the major
factor in designing a heart valve for their anisotropic behavior.
Figure 6. Synthesis of the nanocomposite of chitosan, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)

and cellulose nanowhiskers (CCNWs)-AgNPs. Adapted with permission from Ref.
(Hasan, Waibhaw et al. 2018).
Various nanowhiskers have also been studied for biomedical

applications (Hasan, Waibhaw et al. 2017, Hasan, Waibhaw et al. 2018,
Sharma, Rashmitha et al. 2020). Nanowhiskers are known as filamentary
materials with size ranging in 1-100 nm at least in one dimension. In this
context, Hasan et al. synthesized the scaffolds consisted of chitosan, CMC
and cellulose nanowhiskers (CCNWs)-AgNPs, as shown in Figure 6. AgNPs
of size 5.2 nm dia were embedded on ~200 nm long CCNWs surface
providing 80–90% porosity and pore size in the range of 150 to 500 μm. The
obtained porosity matched with the porosity of the cancellous bone i.e., 60
and 80%. With the increase in the CCNWs-AgNPs concentration, the
mechanical strength was also found to be increased and was found to be in
the range of cancellous bone i.e., 0.35 MPa for 0% CCNWs-AgNPs and
3.95 MPa for CCNWs-AgNPs. The prepared scaffold was found to be highly
suitable for bone tissue engineering (Hasan, Waibhaw et al. 2018). These
studies show that the reinforcement of fibre material affects the packing as

well as the orientation of the polymeric composites consequently altering

the responses of the FRPCs for their various biomedical applications.
In summary, based on recent studies, chitosan and HAp are the two
major materials studied for bone tissue engineering. It can be seen that the
reinforcement with high-density materials enhanced the mechanical
strength, whereas low-density materials provided the desired porosity. In
addition, the reinforcement also governs the bioactivity of the composite
materials. Selection of reinforcement material can add/modify the biological
responses of the FRPCs. This provides an excellent opportunity to the
material scientists to tune the biological properties via altering the
composition and selecting the right reinforcement materials.
6. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE PROSPECTIVE
Various challenges are under investigation for the synthesis and

application of FRPCs. This includes the preliminary stages of material
selection, fabrication of composites and characterization to the end-use of
applications including orthopedic and dental, drug delivery system and
tissue engineering, numerous methods are available. Different synthesis
methods include melt compounding or molding, solution mixing, in-situ
polymerization and electro-deposition. The solution mixing is cost-effective
and lab operated process, which requires insightful understanding of the
technical aspects involved in it. In the case of in-situ polymerization
processes for FRPCs synthesis requires a higher level of technical
understanding with more cost input of materials. Whereas for melt
compounding or molding is cost incentives in terms of instrumentation. The
organized position of fibers, functionalization of the fibers and use of
additive polymers contributed to the better bonding between reinforced fiber
and composite materials, which in turn enhanced the mechanical properties
(ILSS, adhesive strength, elastic modulus and toughness) of the FRPCs to a
great extent.

Especially for biomedical applications, the orientation and packing of

the fillers inside the matrix material of the polymer-hybrid composites play
a crucial role. The selection and rejection of the material are largely affected
by the interfacial interactions at the composite-biomolecule interface.
Packing of polymers/fibers inside a composite material affects the
hydrophilicity at the interface leading to the alterations of bio-interfacial
interactions. Hence, controlling the hydrophilicity of the composite material
remains a major challenge in the biomedical applications. The hydrophilicity
of the composites can be tuned by its constituents and their interactions. On
the other hand, the mechanical strength plays a crucial role in the material-
cell interactions in the orthopedic applications. Although, FRPCs possesses
high mechanical strength as compared to the pristine polymer or matrix
composite material, yet mimicking the exact mechanical strength to that of
bone remains a major challenge in the orthopedic sector. Stress shielding is
one of the major challenges for the orthopedic researcher (Yadav, Sankar et
al. 2020), as low or high mechanical properties than the bone cells can not
only cause the stress shielding but also can induce inflammatory responses
leading to the rejection of the implants. HAp as a composite matrix for the
FRPCs have been majorly explored due to its close proximity with bone
properties, which reduces the chances of stress shielding and enhances the
material responses under biological environments.
Further, to improve the cell-material interactions, various approaches
are under investigation these days. One of the most studied techniques is
surface modification. Formation of various self-assembled monolayers has
been reported to tune the surface hydrophobicity without affecting the bulk
properties (Pandey and Pattanayek 2013, Pandey and Pattanayek 2013,
Hasan and Pandey 2015, Hasan and Pandey 2016). Various functional
groups i.e., amine, octyl, carboxyl and mixed have been explored for the
cell-surface interactions (Hasan and Pandey 2016, Hasan, Saxena et al.
2018, Hasan, Waibhaw et al. 2018, Yadav, Sankar et al. 2020). These
approaches provide an insightful understanding of the interfacial
interactions, which facilitates improving the biocompatibility.

CONCLUSION
There are various utilities of light weight load wearing materials in day
to day life. FRPCs because of their tunable mechanical properties are of
great interest in the biomedical sector. The FRPCs are synthesized by
various methods including melt compounding, solution mixing, in-situ
polymerization and electro-deposition. The bio-functionalization of FRPCs
makes them more compatible for biomedical applications. The most
dominating properties of FRPCs are tensile strength, elastic modulus,
fracture toughness and ILSS. In the biomedical sector, the FRPCs are
majorly used for orthopedic, dental, drug delivery and tissue engineering
applications. Although FRPCs contain high mechanical properties yet the
stress shielding is the major challenge for orthopedists. The selection/
rejection of the FRPCs depends on its bio-interfacial interactions,
biodegradability and toxicity of by-products. Surface modification further
improves the interfacial and surface properties of FRPCs, which is beneficial
in designing the application specific biocompatible FRPCs.
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Chapter 12
MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF FIBER

REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES
AT DIFFERENT LOADING AND
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Kishore Kumar Mahato1,* and Bankim Chandra Ray2

1
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, School of Mechanical
Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India
2
Composite Materials Laboratory, Department of Metallurgical
and Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela, Odisha, India
ABSTRACT
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite are being treated as the

supreme choice of material in structural applications. Present chapter
conveys the mechanical behavior FRP composites conditioned to
numerous stress and environmental parameters. The various loading acting
on these composites may be static or dynamic or combinations of the two.

Corresponding Author’s Email: kishorepce@gmail.com.

380 Kishore Kumar Mahato and Bankim Chandra Ray
Different environmental parameters include temperature fluctuations

(thermal spike, freeze-thaw, low, high, thermal shock), hydrothermal,
hygrothermal, ultraviolet radiations, etc. These stresses and environments
alter the mechanical behavior of the composite materials constituent’s, i.e.,
fiber, matrix, fiber/matrix interfaces. Therefore, it is imperative to
investigate the robustness and reliability of these composites under various
extreme environments and loadings. The integrity and stability of FRP
composites at various nature of loading with different service
environments may be changed due to the interactions of the components
such as matrix, fiber and fiber/matrix interfaces. Interface durability then
becomes crucial in the composites system. Degradation at interface level
leads to complete failure of the composites. Further, the chapter shows
various types of failures occurred in the composite specimens after
interactions to different variation of loading and environments.
Keywords: fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP), interface, crosshead speed,

environmental ageing, mechanical behavior
1. INTRODUCTION
Fiber-reinforced polymeric (FRP) composite materials are nowadays

achieving massive consideration towards the investigators owing to its lower
density by means of higher specific stiffness and strength. This has taken
forward the huge application of FRP-based composites in several crucial
sectors ranging from normal loading situations to cyclic loading
environments. Under the conditions of use, these materials face the danger
of various environmental circumstances and inconsistent loads from quasi-
static to dynamic (Kishore Kumar Mahato, Dutta, and Ray 2017a). In
various applications, these FRPs are susceptible to high-speed dynamic
loads and high energy, and high dynamic energy and high energy will
produce dynamic stress states in multi-axis directions. Generally, FRP is an
anisotropic material, so the degradation and damage occurred may be
attributed to these stresses which is complex compared to nano or micro
mechanism failure. Therefore, it is very necessary to have an in-depth
understanding of FRP composite materials exposed to or to be used under
different load conditions in reluctant and harsh environmental conditions.

Mechanical Behavior of Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites … 381
From the last three decades, the development and research in the region of
these composites are comprehensively increasing. Despite the research in
this area, investigators around the world have not yet come to a conclusion
about the durability and reliability of FRP composite. Because these
materials are not protected by environmental restrictions during
manufacture, storage and use. Scientists all over the world are exploring the
impacts of several environmental constraints, like temperature variations
(high, low, thermal cycling, thermal shock, thermal spikes), ultraviolet rays,
sea water, humidity variation, and the aforementioned limitations (damp
heat and low-orbit space environmental conditions) (Bankim Chandra Ray
and Rathore 2014). But one of the disturbances is that long-term and
extensive use will damage the durability and performance of these
composite materials. Of course, the developing FRP composite material has
the structural earth of this century, with market potential and market
capacity. Even if FRP has been widely used from accident to supercritical
field, the scientific discovery and basis of such materials are still uncertain
and contradictory. But under the conditions of use, these composite
materials will be rigorously inflated by numerous environmental limitations
such as humid environmental conditions (B. C. Ray 2006a), high
temperatures (Cao, Wu, and Wang 2009), low and sub-zero environment
(Shukla et al. 2016; B. C. Ray 2005), thermal shock (B. C Ray 2004),
thermal cycling (Ghasemi and Moradi 2017) and also different types of
loadings (Bankim Ch. Ray 2006; Shokrieh and Omidi 2009; K. K. Mahato
et al. 2016; Cai et al. 2017) and frequently an arrangement of various kinds
of loadings and above-mentioned reluctant environments (Kishore Kumar
Mahato et al. 2017; Sethi, Rathore, and Ray 2015; K. K. Mahato et al. 2014;
Kishore Kumar Mahato, Dutta, and Ray 2017a; 2017b).
Generally, glass fiber, carbon fiber or Kevlar fiber will degrade when
susceptible to numerous environmental limitations (like thermal shock, high
temperature, low temperature, ultraviolet lights, humid atmosphere,
corrosive fluids, thermal spikes), and often freeze-thaw, Humid heat, it is
reported that glass fibers will be damaged and degraded when exposed to
fluids with corrosive environments under stress (Komai, Minoshima, and
Shibutani 1990; Charles 1958; Schmitz and Metcalfe 1966). Due to the

different thermal expansion coefficients between the components, the

freeze-thaw cycle of FRP will cause void formation and microcracks (Dutta
and Hui 1996). Conditioning to higher temperature and humidity will shrink
the fatigue life of fiber reinforced composites (Liao et al. 1998). Ou et al.
(Ou and Zhu 2015) The tensile properties of glass fiber reinforced polymer
(GFRP) composites at different temperatures and strain rates were studied.
They pointed out that the toughness and tensile behavior of GFRP
composites increases with increase in the crosshead velocity. The tensile
modulus and strength of GFRP composites decreases with increase in the
temperature.
Interface research is important because it can replicate the whole
stiffness and strength of composite materials. In maintaining the reliability,
sustainability and durability of this unique material, it is the most critical and
vital part of FRP composite materials (Bankim Chandra Ray and Rathore
2014). Its consistency and durability under numerous environmental
parameters can be changed by the response of its individual components,
namely matrix, fiber, and fiber/matrix interface. Interface properties and
chemical properties are very important for FRP composites. Improved
interfacial properties are needed to create suitable transmission of stress
from the matrix phase to the reinforced fiber material, which can moderate
stress concentration and enhance the complete mechanical behavior of the
composite (Sethi and Ray 2015). The stability and durability of FRP
composites not only depend on the substrate, but also on the performance of
the interface. As compared to homogeneous materials, there is no abnormal
fracture at the interface. The interface is usually established through
molecular separation, chemical bonds and van der Wall forces. The sizing
of the fibers usually regulates the behavior and chemical properties of the
interface region, and might form a structural gradient in the matrix phase.
The relevance of the fiber to the polymer phase mainly depends on the
atomic arrangement and chemical/molecular structure of the fiber surface.
The bond strength primarily depends on the arrangement of the atomic
structure, chemical/molecular structure and surface morphology of the fiber.
These factors will be highly affected by the change of fiber sizing size (Sethi
and Ray 2015). After the entire composite material is formed, the conditions

of the interface interaction depend on the adhered connection and the

existence of defects in the interfacial area.
The performance of the interfacial area which was in between the
reinforcing fibers and the polymer matrix relies on the mechanical behavior
of these composites. The durability of FRP under various environmental
conditions. Periodic changes in temperature, ultraviolet rays, temperature,
humidity, and load that the material is subjected to under use conditions will
cause performance degradation and damage the interface bonding force and
the overall performance of each component (Aglan, Qian, and Mitra-
Majumdar 1992b). The fiber/matrix interface area might have a controlling
effect with respect to the environmental fatigue behavior of FRP composites.
Static and dynamic failure was considered to be one of the main
disadvantages of FRP composites under dynamic loading. Although FRP
has fatigue resistance, their predictions of life and factor of safety are
necessary for progressive structural applications. There is no conclusive
opinion on the current understanding and solutions of accessible devices to
characterize static and dynamic load behavior under different environmental
conditions. However, research in this field emphasizes the key and critical
role of interfaces and their dynamic characteristics in such a harsh and
hostile environment (B. C. Ray and Rathore 2014; Sethi, Rathore, and Ray
2015). Therefore, this book chapter provides a wide-ranging understanding
of the disseminate literature on the various properties related to mechanical
performance of FRP composites at various loading and environmental
conditions.
2. STATIC PERFORMANCE OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES

AT HIGH TEMPERATURE AND VARIOUS LOADING RATES
The static behaviors of polymeric composites are correlated to the

tensile properties of the individual components. In most structural
applications, FRP will withstand high energy and high-speed dynamic loads,
and this load may be caused by the multi-axis dynamic state of stress. The

response of these composites under such loads is very short and is usually
highly transient. When susceptible to high temperatures, these materials
have poor fire resistance. The degradation and damage at the interface may
be caused by the change in thermal expansion in between the matrix and the
fiber at higher temperatures (Hyer et al. 1983) and thereby reducing the
complete strength of the composite material. Generally, when these
composites were conditioned to higher temperatures, due to the different
thermal expansion coefficients of the fibers and the matrix, the development
of microcracks was observed (Hiemstra and Sottos 1993) at the fiber/matrix
interface. In high temperature environments, the fiber/matrix interface is
also sensitive to destructive reactions, which may lead to the destruction and
degradation of the matrix part and fiber part in the composite (Aglan, Qian,
and Mitra-Majumdar 1992a).
Mahato et al. (K. K. Mahato et al. 2016) The tensile behavior and
unprecedented failure performance of glass/epoxy composites were studied,
and it was established that as the loading speed of the crosshead increased,
the strength of the composites also increased. However, it was found that the
change of tensile modulus is not affected. Cao et al. (Cao, Wu, and Wang
2009) investigated the tensile properties of CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer), C/GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer) and C/BFRP (Boron
Fiber Reinforced Polymer) composites in the range between 16 to 200°C
were evaluated. They observed that with increase in temperature near to the
glass transition temperature, a decrease in the tensile strength value is
observed. Mahato et al. (K. K. Mahato, Dutta, and Ray 2017b) The high
temperature tensile properties of GFRP composites under different
crosshead speeds were studied. At high temperatures and higher crosshead
speeds, the phenomenon related to loading rate sensitivity appeared further
impulsive. The results illustrated that the UTS of the GFRP composite
specimens increases with the increment of the speed of the crosshead.
Figure 1(a-d) indicates the deviations of tensile properties of the
explored GFRP composites with volume fraction of fiber (VF) fixed at 50%
at various temperatures (25°C, 70°C, 90°C, and 110°C) at 1, 10, 100, 500,
1000 mm/min crosshead velocities. The Figures 1(a-d) shows the tensile
behavior of the GFRP composites increases with increment in the speed of

the crosshead velocity. There is an equivalent growth in strength values

observed in case of PMC, which might be attributed to the induction of
thermal residual stresses in the polymer matrix. The induced thermal
residual stresses on the fiber/matrix interfacial region and/or the polymer
region might develop miniature microcracks without becoming blunt in a
steady position. Moreover, in case of lower crosshead velocities, the process
of transfer of stresses from the polymer phase to the reinforcement fiber
through the fiber/matrix interface was found to be slower and stable.
Figure 1. Stress-Strain curve for GFRP composites with volume fraction of fiber (VF)
fixed at 50% at various temperatures and crosshead velocities.
However, as the velocity of the crosshead increases, transfer of stress

through smaller microcracks in the composite might be lesser active. This
behavior can be credited to the developed higher intensities at the higher
crosshead velocities. The differential expansion between polymer and

reinforcement might lead to the expansion of higher-order of mismatch

strain at the interface and thereby leading to the interfacial debonding and
thus, load transmissibility get reduced and strength decreased. This is valid
for both the weight fractions of the composites system. The higher fraction
of the reinforcement fiber in the polymer matrix generates additional
interfacial area and thus higher strength is obtained in the composite.
3. HYGROTHERMAL PERFORMANCE OF FRP COMPOSITES

AT VARIOUS LOADING CONDITIONS
The performance of structural FRP based composites in various humid

atmospheres is of uttermost important to analyses the different mechanical
properties upon exposure to a certain interval of time. Shan et al. (Shan and
Liao 2001) accomplished the environmental behavior of fatigue samples of
unidirectional glass-carbon FRP hybrid composites were conditioned to
tensile-tensile fatigue tests and adjusted with distilled water fixed at a
temperature of 25°C. They have observed that when the cyclic loading was
85% of the mean ultimate tensile strength (UTS), the two samples tested
indoors with the fatigue behavior and in water conditions no significant
change was observed. Ray (B. C. Ray 2006b) have investigated the effects
of varying loading velocity and environment on the mechanical behavior of
GFRP composites. The various mechanical behaviors were extended to
calculate the loading rate sensitivity of hygrothermal shocked glass/epoxy
and glass/polyester laminates at 2 mm/min and 50 mm/min crosshead speeds
(Figure 2). At different stages of conditionings, the outcomes of mechanical
behavior are statistically important.
According to reports, moisture may affect the bending, transverse tensile
behavior, and matrix micro-cracking was one of the common phenomenon,
but not always. It may be due to plasticizing resin and reducing internal
stresses and the impact of moisture in reducing cracks [36].

Figure 2. Humidity conditioned glass/epoxy and glass/polyester laminates at 2 mm/min

and 50 mm/min crosshead speeds.
4. THERMAL SPIKE PERFORMANCE OF FRP COMPOSITES

AT VARIOUS LOADING RATES
Short term and quick exposure of FRP composites with a certain range
of temperatures lead to certain microstructural changes and eventually on
the performance of the composite. Ray (B. C. Ray 2004) studied on the
thermal shock behavior on interfacial bonding of thermally exposed glass
fiber/epoxy composites. The investigation reported that the Interlaminar
Shear Strength (ILSS) of thermal shock exposed glass fiber/epoxy
specimens has also showed loading rate sensitivity when tests were verified
in short beam shear method with 2 mm/min and 10 mm/min loading speed.
Ray (B. C. Ray et al. 2006) et al. explored the thermal spike and thermal
shock behavior of GFRP composites. They found that ILSS is better if the
sample has prior thermal spikes instead of thermal shock conditions. This
can be accredited to the degree of crosslinking with respect to the
temperature. More the temperature better is the crosslinking. This can lead
to reinforcement of the laminate. Mahato et al. (K. K. Mahato, Dutta, and
Ray 2018) described on the effect of thermal spike conditioning on the
tensile behavior of glass/epoxy composites.
The samples were exposed to thermal spike atmosphere with various
temperatures of thermal spike for exposing time duration of 5, 10, 15 and 20
minutes respectively. Figure 3(a)-(d) indicates that with increase in the

exposing time period from 5 min to 20 min the tensile strength of the GFRP
specimen’s shows increase at all thermal spike range of temperatures.
Figure 3. Stress-Strain curve at various thermal spike temperatures (50°C, 100°C,

150°C, 200°C) with 5, 10, 20, 40 min exposing time period.
The probable reason might be attributed to the generation of thermal

residual stresses in matrix. Usually, the development of thermal residual
stresses was caused by the generation of multiple micron-sized cracks in the
polymeric phase and/or at the fiber/matrix interface, without becoming blunt
in a steady state. Moreover, due to the better interfacial bonding between the
fiber/matrix interfaces, the sample has a longer curing time interval and
exhibits a higher UTS value. A better degree of crosslinking may be one of
the main reasons for using different retention times to enhance the UTS
value. Figure 3(c) indicates that at 150°C higher UTS found at all exposing
time period as related with other ranges of temperatures. It may be
recognized to the improved adhesion of the interfacial adhesion between the
fiber/matrix interfaces, as the temperature is close to the T g of the GE

composite. The coefficient of variation (COV) found to be in the range of

0.23% to 9.48% for various mechanical properties. The COV in case of UTS
holds in the range of 0.32% to 4.9%. For, strain to break the COV lies in
between 1.36% to 5.63% and for modulus; it was in between 0.96% to
9.48%.
5. EFFECT OF CRYOGENIC ENVIRONMENT ON FRPS
Today, in the field of aerospace applications, the fuel chambers prepared

through conventional materials have been replaced using innovative PMC
resources. The fuel used in the spacecraft, i.e., liquid hydrogen which was
present in liquid nitrogen (LN2) temperatures. These FRP based materials
develops brittleness while conditioned to LN2 temperatures (B. C. Ray
2006b). Shindo et al. explored investigations on the LN2 properties related
to compressive strength of glass/epoxy laminates at room temperature and
LN2 temperature (-196°C) (Yasuhide Shindo et al. 1999). Shindo et al. (Y.
Shindo et al. 2006) explored on the tensile properties of plain weave GFRP
composites at LN2 environment. They found that the various tensile
properties are not altered by different specimen gauge length. Hei-lam Ma
et al. (Ma et al. 2016) explored impact behavior of GFRP composites at LN2
atmosphere. Kim et al. (Kim et al. 2007) studied the low temperatures
performance of graphite/epoxy composites at. Mahato et al. examined the
loading rate sensitivity of LN2-conditioned GFRP composites was studied.
They reported that compared with unconditional GFRP composites, GFRP
composites with conditions of 0.25 h and 1 h increased UTS values by 3.33%
and 7.3% at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min, respectively. Similarly,
compared with the unregulated GFRP composite, the UTS of the sample
tested at a speed of 1000 mm/min in 0.25 h and 1 h LN2 conditioned GFRP
composite improved by 11.39% and 12.02%, respectively.
Figure 4(a) and 4(b) denotes an evaluation for the tensile stress-strain
behavior of neat GFRP and Liquid Nitrogen (LN2) conditioned (0.25 h, 1 h,
4 h, and 8 h) GFRP composites tested at crosshead velocities of 1 and 1000
mm/min, respectively. Figure 4(a) illustrates the comparison between LN2

with the control GFRP composite, when the LN2 exposure time is up to 1
hour; the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was increased at 1 mm/min
crosshead velocity. In 0.25 h and 1 h LN2 conditioned GFRP composites,
UTS values increased by 3.33% and 7.3%, respectively. The increase in
strength might be accredited to the toughening of the PMC because there is
almost no entanglement (Surendra Kumar, Sharma, and Ray 2009). LN2
adjustment can transform polymer chains into denser packing and enhance
the peel resistance of GFRP composites. Under the condition of 0.25 h,
compared with other samples, the failure strain is much lower, while the
failure strength of other samples is improved. In the samples treated at 0.25
h, the possible reason for the decrease in strain may be the brittle failure of
the glass fiber and the hardening of the matrix phase.
6. EFFECT OF UV RADIATION
FRP composites are exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in many

structural applications that reduces the structural properties of these
composites. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may also cause material
degradation. The energy associated with ultraviolet radiation can dissociate
molecular bonds in the polymer matrix.
Figure 4. Stress-Strain plot of GFRP composites tested at RT with conditioning time

(0.25, 1, 4, and 8 h) at (a) 1 and (b) 1000 mm/min crosshead velocities.

Figure 5. Surface morphology of (a) E-glass and (b) polyester composite after exposed
to 1000 h of in dry hot UV.
Yan et al. (Yan, Chouw, and Jayaraman 2015) have described the result
of conditioning to ultraviolet radiation and water spray on the mechanical
behavior of linen FRP composites has been reported. They found that
exposure to ultraviolet radiation eventually reduced the mechanical
properties of the flax/epoxy composite. Lu et al. (Lu et al. 2016) investigated
on the synergistic environmental damage of GFRP composites. The
investigations were carried out in two stages of unidirectional GFRP
composites. In the primary stage, three composite materials designated with
A, B and C with E glass, ECR-1 glass and ECR-2 glass fibers in a vinyl ester
epoxy blend matrix were tested to examine the impact of fibers on the
damage and degradation of composites. In the secondary stage, study was
considered to other kind of fiber ECR-2 glass with four types of polymers,
namely vinyl ester, epoxy, polyester, and proprietary resin to evaluate the
matrix to composite materials C, D, E and F degradation process. They
reported that the samples were conditioned to (ultraviolet radiation, high
temperature and water condensation) alone or in combination for
approximately 1,000 hours. It has been perceived that UV-treated samples
are subject to surface corrosion. Figure 5(a) reveals the effect of aging
conditioning on composite materials and sample A, i.e., with E-glass was
considered. The polyester composite material (D) is obviously coated with
a UV blocker on its resin, thereby reducing the damage to the surface by UV
rays (Figure 5b). Compared with A (2.8%), D has more exposed fibers

(about 13%) on the surface. In certain cases, the conditioned area of fiber is
as high as 50% (composite E).
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, researchers are committed to collecting and

understanding the scattered literature, focusing on understanding the
mechanical behavior of FRP composites under various loads and
environmental conditions. Under environmental conditions, micron-level
changes in behavior or load factor may cause large differences in the
performance and characteristics of FRP. This chapter reviews several
aspects related to changes in mechanical properties and load factor under
various reluctant and harsh atmospheric conditions (like low and high
temperature, ultraviolet radiation, and thermal spike conditions).
Nevertheless, in the investigation of the mutual effects of harsh
environmental conditions (thermal spikes, temperature thermal cycling,
thermal shock, flame retardant exposure, ultraviolet radiation, etc.) and static
and dynamic load rate changes, there is no suitable research and literature,
which can lead to extremely complex conditions, and then a micro-
mechanism of destruction will simultaneously react and destroy the
composite material. In addition to the evaluation of nano-filler modified FRP
composite materials under various harsh environmental conditions and the
lack of literature, in the future, a comprehensive evaluation of the better
performance of FRP composite materials will be carried out. Therefore, all
potential uses of these composite materials under various adverse
environmental conditions should be comprehensively and carefully
examined to overcome any unprecedented failures during their service life.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author sincerely thanks NIT, Rourkela and VIT, Vellore for
providing financial and infrastructure support for experimental research. We
also thank the library for its extensive documentation support. We would
also like to thank the laboratory members and professors of the FRP
compound laboratory for their support.
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Chapter 13
FUTURE TRENDS OF FIBER-REINFORCED

POLYMER COMPOSITES
Manik Chandra Biswas1,3,*, Mostakima Mafruha Lubna1,

Md Hasan Ul Iqbal2, Zaheeruddin Mohammed3
and Md Enamul Hoque4,
1
Fiber and Polymer Science, Department of Textile Engineering,
Chemistry and Science, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, US
2
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
College of Arts and Sciences, The University of Alabama,
Tuscaloosa, AL, US
3
Department of Material Science and Engineering,
Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, US
4

Corresponding Author’s Email: enamul1973@gmail.com; srabon.acce.du@gmail.com.

400 M. Chandra Biswas, M. Mafruha Lubna, Md Hasan Ul Iqbal et al.
ABSTRACT
Over the past decades, an explosive growth of microfabrication

techniques and polymer composites has been witnessed. The infusion of
fibers into polymer matrices to fabricate fiber-reinforced polymer
composites has been considering for a long time with the advancement of
technology. Unlike conventional materials, fiber-reinforced polymer
composites exhibit superior performance because of the outstanding
properties of embedded fibers such as high aspect ratio, unique structural
attributes, and hence properties. Besides, naturally abundance biobased
fibers, their biodegradability, non-toxicity, and low-cost lead to the
advancement of fiber-reinforced polymer composites with a great future.
This chapter focuses on a recent market summary of state-of-the-art
applications of fiber-reinforced polymer composites which include
automotive, aerospace, petroleum, construction, consumer products, etc.
With the increasing global population, the enormous demand for high-
quality life and unparalleled industrialization, the demand for fiber-
reinforced polymer composites enhanced significantly with high quality
and performance. We aim to integrate the global market demand and
production volume of FRP composites in the aforementioned industries.
The central part of this chapter summarizes major developments, state-of-
the-art, challenges towards the fabrication of high-performance fiber-
polymer composites. Lastly, the summary enlightens.
Keywords: fiber-reinforced polymer composites, FRPCs, 3D printing, GF,

CF, AF, aerospace, automotive, building and construction, consumer
products, future trends
1. INTRODUCTION
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites (also known as fiber-reinforced

plastic composites, FRPC) are still being considered as emerging
engineering materials and potential alternatives of metal-based composites
due to lightweight, high specific strength and modulus, non-corrosive, easy
fabrications, higher resistance to fire, acids, tailor to satisfy end-use
applications and extended service life. The high specific strength and
stiffness of FRP composites are due to the infusion of reinforcing fibers
namely, glass (GF), carbon (CF), aramid (AF), natural fibers (NF), etc. The

Future Trends of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites 401
structural properties of FRP composites are mainly controlled by the

strength of the fibers, their volume fraction, orientation, and length. Owing
to the merits of these attributes, FRP composites have been used in various
promising areas such as aerospace, automotive, construction & buildings,
petroleum industries, and so on. Additionally, recent technological
development, materials engineering, and polymer science allow for the state-
of-the-art fabrication of polymer composites (Lu et al. 2019; Manik Chandra
Biswas, Bush, and Ford 2020; BISWAS 2017).
With the growing world population, the demand for a high-quality life,
transport, and unparalleled industrialization, the demand for high
performance and high structurally integral FRP composites have been
enhanced significantly in recent years. Besides automotive and aerospace
applications, fiber-reinforced polymer composites are considered as
potential alternatives to traditional or conventional construction and building
materials. The enormous abundance of natural fibers, their biodegradability,
higher strength, stiffness, non-toxicity, and low-cost allowed the successful
development of FRP composites globally (Tshai et al. 2015; Al-Oqla et al.
2015). Also, natural-fiber reinforced FRPs trigger the necessity to cultivate
required manufacturing crops, especially in underdeveloped or developing
countries, which results in empowerment and economic development
nationally. Hybrid composites fabricated by combining natural
fibers/synthetic fibers or natural fibers/natural fiber also showed prominent
performance towards high strength FRP composites via synergistic effect.
Currently, the inclusion of continuous fiber and fabrication of continuous
fiber-reinforced polymer composites via 3D printing got much attention due
to ease of fabrication of complex structure, tailoring freedom based on
design, mass minimization, waste remediation, and production cost (Manik
C. Biswas et al. 2019; Manik C. Biswas, Jeelani, and Rangari 2017; Rangari
et al. 2019; Judson et al.; Chakraborty and Biswas 2019). The 3D printing
technology, also termed as additive manufacturing, is the three-dimensional
fabrication approach where materials are fabricated in a layer by layer
fashion instead of molding or cutting materials, reduce materials loss, waste
and thereby cost (Chakraborty and Biswas 2020; da Cruz 2019; Manik C.
Biswas et al.). Fused deposition modeling (FDM) and SLS are the most

commercially used 3D printing technology among SLA, Binder jet, Multijet,

Polyjet, Selective Deposition Lamination, etc. (Chakraborty and Biswas
2020; 2019; da Cruz 2019).
This chapter aims to highlight the global market overview of FRP
composites in various sectors. This chapter also focuses on recent state-of-
the-art applications of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in various
promising areas such as automotive, aerospace, petroleum, construction,
consumer products, E-textiles, etc. With the enormous increasing global
population, demand for a high-quality life, and unparalleled industrialization
enhance the demand for fiber-reinforced polymer composites with high
quality and performance. Lastly, the prospects of fiber-based polymer
composites have also been discussed so that future researchers can continue
the development of these fascinating materials.
2. GLOBAL MARKET OVERVIEW OF FRP COMPOSITES
2.1. Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites
Carbon fibers (CF) classically have diameter ranges from 5 to 15 μm.

and 92 wt.% carbon content in composition. CF is classically cylindrical,
with a smooth surface morphology as shown in Figure 1. Typical, PAN-
based carbon fiber exhibits diameter 7.3 μm, tensile strength 3800 MPa,
tensile modulus 228 GPa, elongation at failure 1.5%, and electrical
resistivity 1.55 × 10−3 Ω·cm.
Numerous parallel filaments of CF are typically grouped into a CF tow.
The main attraction of CF is its rare combination of superior mechanical,
thermal, and electrical properties. This unique integration of properties is
also the reason for the high potential demand because they provide
significant competitive advantages for products made by using them. The
basic CFRP manufacturing processes are mainly lay-up, filament winding,
injection molding, pultrusion, compression molding, and resin transfer
molding (TRM). Figure 2 represents different forms of CF fabrics.

Figure 1. SEM image of the side view of PAN-based carbon fiber (Muthusamy, S. and
Chung, D. D. L., 2010).
Figure 2. a) CF woven fabric b) CF winding tape, and c) CF braided tubular structure

(Chung DD. et al. 2016).
Table 1. Comparison of the basic properties of carbon fiber,

glass fiber, Kevlar fiber, and carbon steel
There are various grades of each type of fiber. A commonly used grade is chosen to
represent each type of fiber. The data are from the manufacturers’ datasheets, unless
stated otherwise. CTE, Coefficient of thermal expansion.
a
Calculated value (Kumar et al. 2013).
Having low density (40% lower than aluminum) with high strength, high
stiffness (higher than titanium), and elastic modulus made carbon fibers a
perfect candidate for stronger light-weight yet complex composite structures

(Beckwith, S. W. et al. 2010). Carbon fibers are flame resistant and have
good thermal conductivity, which is needed for heat dissipation in the fiber-
reinforced composite matrix, a much-required property for relieving the
thermal load of aircraft. Additionally, the electrical conductivity of carbon
fibers made them suitable for use for electromagnetic interference (EMI)
shielding (Wang S. et al. 2004; Rahaman M. et al. 2011.) and resistive
(Joule) heating (Athanasopoulos and Kostopoulos, 2012). Furthermore,
chemical stability (particularly in strong acids), and biocompatibility
extended the use of carbon-fiber-reinforced composites in biomedical
engineering to replace metal (titanium) bone implants (Petersen, R.C. et al.
2011). Table 1 represents the overall comparison of the basic properties of
carbon fiber, glass fiber, Kevlar fiber, and carbon steel.
2.1.1. Classification of Carbon Fibers

Carbon fibers can be classified in various ways—following the carbon
precursor (Polyacrtlonitrile, PAN-based, Petroleum Pitch and Rayon based),
following the mechanical properties (modulus and strength), or the final
heat-treatment temperature (i.e., the temperature of the last heat-treatment
step in the process of fiber fabrication) (Hegde, R. R. et al. 2004).
Figure 3. Various grades of PAN-based CF manufactured by Toray Industries Inc

(Japan), existing various combinations of tensile strength and tensile modulus
(Chung 2016).

2.1.2. Application Areas

Carbon fiber reinforced composites offer weight and performance
benefits that are driving demand for them. Respondents identified a diverse
set of markets that they expect will drive growth in carbon fiber composites.
The carbon fiber composites end-user industries are mainly as follows
 Aerospace and defense

 Alternative energy (wind energy)
 Automotive
 Construction and infrastructure
 Batteries and electrodes
 Pressure vessels
 Recreational and sporting goods
 Textiles
 Medical equipment
 Other mechanical components design for miscellaneous end-user
industries.
2.1.3. Market Overview

According to the expert’s data from the organization Carbon
Composites e.V (CCeV), the global consumption of CF composites had
raised over the period from 2008 through 2013 by 1.5-fold and reached 46.5
thousand tons, which in terms of value, was $1.77 billion. Over the years the
consumption of CF fibers and composites has raised steadily, except for a
drop in 2009 because of the global financial crisis and the average increase
in demand in CF over this period was 8.1%. The source having the shortest
forecast period (Liu, Y. and Kumar, S., 2012. Recent progress in fabrication,
structure, and properties of carbon fibers. Polymer Reviews, 52(3), pp. 234-
258.) anticipates demand for CF to be 83,167 tonnes in 2018.
The worldwide key player industries (raw materials suppliers as well as
manufacturers) in carbon fiber composites are Toray, Zoltek (recently
acquired by Toray), Teijin, MRC, Mitsubishi Rayon, Formosa Plastics, SGL
Group, Toho Tenax, DowAksa, Solvay and Hexcel.

Figure 4. CFRP market value estimates (Das and Warren 2012).
Figure 5. CF reinforced polymer demand by region (tonnes) (“Based on Industry

Experts 2013”).
2.2. Glass Fiber
Glass fiber, GF (also called fiberglass) is the major segment of the fiber-
reinforced polymer composites market in terms of volume. Date back
thousands of years ancient Egyptians made containers by glass fibers drawn
from heat softened glass as a novel product made by a few craftsmen. First
commercial production by Owens Corning in 1935 and used in composites
with phenolic resin to produce aircraft ducts, engine nacelles for the aircraft

industry in WWII. Filament winding and spray-up developed during WWII.

Fiberglass reinforced polyester boat hulls produced in WWII and transferred
to commercial production afterward.
Glass fibers are made of silica (SiO2) as the main component (>50%)
with other oxides (Alumina (Al2O3), Boron Oxide (B2O3), and some other
metal oxides to reduce the processing temperature or modify the properties
of the final product. Pure silica called quartz. Glass fibers are produced by
the Melt spun technique and are production time is faster than carbon fiber.
Glass fiber (E-glass) is 8-10 times cheaper than carbon fiber (Sathishkumar,
Satheeshkumar, and Naveen 2014).
Figure 6. a) Preparation of glass fiber woven mat, b) woven, and c) non-woven glass
fiber mat.
2.2.1. Classification of GF
Glass fibers are mainly classified based on their physical properties, as
 E-glass: low electrical conductivity

 S (or R)-glass: high strength
 C (or AR)-glass: high chemical/corrosion resistant
 A-glass: high alkali, high-durability glass
 D-glass: low dielectric constant
By far, the most widely produced type of reinforcing glass fiber is E-

glass. Different application sectors require different types of GF based on
their overall performances. Epoxy, polyester, polyamide, vinyl ester and
polyurethane are some commonly used polymer matrix for GFRP
composites.

2.2.2. Applications
GF composites are mainly used for four principle applications:
reinforcement, insulation, filtration, and optical. GFRP composites are
widely used in the following sectors:
 Electronics – optical cables, circuit boards of TV, computers, cell

phone, etc.
 Construction – roof sheets, reinforcement of concrete, road paving,
etc.
 Indoor consumer goods – Bathtubs, furniture, etc.
 Transportation: Automobile – car parts like body panels, seat cover
plates, door panels, bumpers, and engine cove. Aerospace – primary
airframe, engine cowlings, ducting, storage bins, luggage racks,
instrument enclosures, bulkheads, decks, helo hanger, stacks
antenna enclosures, and ground-handling equipment. Marine – boat
hull, etc.
 Wind Power and Industrial – wind turbine blade panels, corrosion-
resistant pipe, high-pressure vessels
 Sports and recreation – skateboard, show boards, etc.
 Medical uses – dental restorative, bone anchoring implants, etc.
Figure 7. Nippon electric glass fiber used in cars.

2.2.3. Market
The main major player industry in GF manufacturing is Owens Corning,
according to their estimation in 2014 that the global market growth is shown
in figure from 2015 to 2020. Also, GFRP composites are a key material that
enabling solutions essentials to everyday life and currently has a $7 billion
global market total.
Research and Markets have announced the addition of the “U.S.
Automotive Glass Fiber Composites Market - Growth Trends and Forecasts
(2015-2020)” report to its offerings. In a release, Research and Markets
noted that report highlights include: The demand for automotive GF in the
US is projected to grow at a CAGR of 6.3 percent by volume, during the
forecast period.
Figure 8. Owens Corning Composites management estimation of global

GF market, 2020.
Research on developing very high strength is ongoing and AGY had

produced S-2 GF which has higher tensile strength than K-49 aramid and
AS4 carbon fibers. Most GF manufacturing companies offer very particular
products according to end-user demands. They change their raw materials
ratio and some processing parameters to achieve the specific requirements
of strength, electrical resistance, corrosion properties, and flame retardancy.
New GF producing chemistries are developing, and novel glass-melting and
refining procedures are researched extensively to manufacture high-

performance GF for advanced market needs in areas of burner technology,

electrical boost system, high mechanical stiffness, vibration damping, and
refractory materials (Li, Richards, and Watson 2014). However, the industry
is still following the traditional routes, e.g., molding, filament winding,
pultrusion, RTM, etc. for making GFRP composites; but in recent years, the
computer programmed design assisted robotic trimming and cutting of
GFRP composites are very common in aerospace and automobile
applications. Development and innovation are ongoing in surface activation
to increasing the GF and polymer matrix surface bonding, which is the key
factor affecting the overall performance of the composites. Investigation on
incorporating nano-fillers in GFRP composites are continuing and
suggesting that it increases the mechanical properties and reduces the crack
propagation in the composite. Different GF/matrix systems resulted in a very
different set of composite functionalities and have to develop differently to
improve tensile strength/dielectric behavior/vibration damping/
weathering/chemical resistance properties. The mathematical models are
developed for testing the composite performance using ANSYS and
compared with experimental data, which helps in the development of new
raw materials recipe and GF/matrix compatibility analysis (Sathishkumar,
Satheeshkumar, and Naveen 2014).
2.3. Aramid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
Aramid fibers are referred to as aromatic polyamide fibers, which share

a higher degree of orientation than the other polymers (Chiao and Chiao
1982). As per the structure of the complex polymer, at least 85% of the
amide linkages must be bound directly with two aromatic rings; according
to the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC). DuPont’s Kevlars© was the
first commercial aramid fiber producer as they introduced this high strength,
high modulus, and heat resistant fibers in 1971 (Chiao and Chiao 1982).

Figure 9. Chemical Composition of Kevlar (“Aramid Fibers - An Overview”).
2.3.1. Classification of Aramid Fibers

There are mainly two types of aramid fibers in the present global market:
(1) meta-aromatic polyamide, and (2) para-aromatic polyamide. Meta-
aromatic polyamides show a bond angle of 30° between the amide and
phenylene planes, whereas the meta-[U1] aromatic polyamides offer 160° of
corresponding bond angle. They both have physical and chemical prospects;
but on the other hand, they both have respective shortcomings. Meta-fibers
have stronger phenyl-amide bonding, ensuring the great strength of the
aramid fiber; while Para-fibers are susceptible to greater hydrogen bonding,
ensuring pseudo-orthorhombic structures. But the greater crystallinity leads
to a lesser amount of adhesion sites on the polymer chain. Hence, modifying
the fiber surface is important before usage (Liu et al. 2019).
Figure 10. Hydrogen bonding formed in between polyamide groups (“A History of
Body Armor-Bullet Proof Vests, 1993, Christopher E. Howard”).

2.3.2. Application Areas
 Fiber reinforcement for polymer matrix composites.

 Bulletproof vests.
 Heat protective clothing and helmets.
 Tires, mechanical rubbers.
 Belts and hosing for housing and automobile applications.
 Aircraft body parts.
 Boat hulls and sails.
 Sports goods (Hockey sticks, Tennis Strings, etc.).
 Adhesives and seals.
 Fiber optic and electrical tubing.

Because of the aircraft, navy, and military applications, the current
global market of aramid fiber is its booming phase. Because of the large
usage of this fiber for security and protection purposes, the production rate
is also increasing by the year, although this specific kind of fiber pertains to
a humongous production cost. Because of the large amount of international
demand for aramid fibers, the global market is predicted to be growing at an
affluent rate in different market analysis reports.
Source: www.grandviewresearch.com.
Figure 11. U.S. aramid fiber market size by product, 2016-2027 (USD Million)
(“Global Aramid Fiber Market Size | Industry Growth Report, 2027”).

According to Grand View Research’s market report Aramid Fiber

Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Product, By Application
(“Global Aramid Fiber Market Size | Industry Growth Report, 2027.”), By
Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2020 - 2027, the global aramid fiber market
size was estimated to be $3.6 billion in the year of 2019, recording an annual
growth of 8.2%. The large growth was based on the increasing demand for
this fiber in different industries; such as oil and gas, healthcare, polymer
production, etc.
According to their market review, at a constant rate of 8.7% annual
growth of this fiber would reach $1.4 billion in the year 2027. The major
applications emphasized in this report were security and protection (military
tanks, aircraft parts, bulletproof jackets, stab-resistant products, etc.),
ensuring growth of 9.2% growth of the aforementioned demand in 2027. In
the aerospace industry, making important aerospace components, such as
primary wing, fuselage structure in next-gen aircraft, leading and trailing
edge panels, etc. is intended to show high fiber consumption. Aramid fibers
are also extensively used in polymer reinforcements (Tire and rubber),
sealing product industries because of its high-temperature resistance and
frictional properties. These reasons anticipated its growth in those industries
within the time range of 2020-2027. (Anon.).
Source: www.grandviewresearch.com.
Figure 12. Global aramid fiber market share by application, 2019 (%) (“Global Aramid
Fiber Market Size | Industry Growth Report, 2027”).

Figure 13. Global aramid fiber market size (2019–2025) (https://www.

stratviewresearch.com and https://www.stratviewresearch.com/165/aramid-fiber-
market.html 2020).
As per the regional market situation, the most demanding market of this
specific fiber will be North America, by showing a growth of 8.8% and reach
of $2.1 billion in 2027; the secret lies in the security and protection
measures, as mentioned before. Because of the emerging economy, rapid
industrialization, rising investments in mechanical, construction, and
healthcare sectors, and significant growth in the telecom industry, the Asia
Pacific market has accounted for an $811.4 million aramid fiber market in
2019. Increasing demand in security and protection in the South and Mid-
Asian countries, especially in India and China, may contribute to its
exponential demands in the upcoming years.
In another market research conducted by Stratview® Research, shows a
foreseeable growth of >8% CAGR during the period of 2020 to 2025. One
noticeable change they mentioned in the report is, the effect of the emerging
novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the year of 2020 may significantly
decrease the revenues for this year, although it should not affect the long-
term prospect of aramid fiber (https://www. stratviewresearch.com and
https://www.stratviewresearch.com/165/ aramid-fiber-market.html 2020).
The forecast includes a descriptive explanation of the aramid fiber
market by fiber type, application type, End-use industry type, and regional
demand type. According to the report, para-aramid fiber is supposed to be
the largest fiber type during the timeline, as it offers better strength to weight

ratio and insulation property; therefore, being usable in a diverse field of

electronics, automobile, automotive, aerospace, and defense industries.
As mentioned before, the protective fabrics market in the first world
countries, also some developing nations, is the primary consumer of the
aramid fiber. Strict regulations and proper legislation for protective
equipment and fabric usage are supposed to lead to an exponential growth
of fiber demand. Surprisingly, this report forecasts the second-highest
growth in the telecommunication industry, as the optical fiber segment
shows an increasing demand for strong and durable fiber. Although, it was
mentioned in the report that the aerospace and automotive industries will
play a vital role in the growth meanwhile.
Unlike the other discussion, this one predicts Europe to take over as the
largest aramid fiber market by the given time range. The mentionable
industries are metal industries (PPE for steel and aluminum workers), energy
(oil and gas), building, and construction industries in the developed
European countries such as Germany, France, etc. The report has also
predicted the fastest growth of the aramid fiber market in China and India,
as they are emerging as the world superpowers in upcoming days, and these
events substantiate the growth of fiber demand for commercial, and military
purposes. Although, the costly production process and finding no cheaper
alternatives may work as major setbacks in the growth of aramid fiber all
over the world.
2.4. Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
At first, the natural polymer can be discussed as it is one of the largest

parts of the compounds in the natural and biological environments. The
naturally occurring process of adding up small molecules into a large chain
of molecules (branched and unbranched) gives rise to natural polymers.
Examples of natural polymers are proteins, nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), glucose, starch, cellulose, chitin, natural rubber (latex), wool,
etc. (“Natural Polymers - Chemistry Encyclopedia - Structure, Reaction,
Water, Uses, Proteins, Number, Molecule, Atom”). The naturally occurring

polymers (especially human body-based fibers) are widely used in different

biomedical applications (Hoque et al. 2014; Asim et al. 2015; Haniffah et al.
2015). Polymers derived from plants, animals, and microorganisms are
widely used as skin-repairing agents, regenerating templates,
pharmaceutical agents, drug delivery agents, imaging agents, etc. (Horst,
Moiemen, and Grover 2019).
Figure 14. Schematic structures of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin (Horvat 2016).
2.4.1. Classification of Natural Fibers

However, not all natural polymers are natural fibers. Natural fibers are
polymeric substances, which are significantly longer than their width. Many
of the synthetic fibers can be made by matting natural fibers into sheets or
felt. The earliest invention of natural fibers is wool and dyed flax fibers in
the prehistoric caves in the Republic of Georgia, back to 36,000 BP (Balter
2009). Natural fibers are the largest resource of industrial production of
different other synthetic fibers. Because of that reason, natural fibers are
highly demanding, and they base a large amount of extraction, molding, and
processing industries.

2009 was declared as the “International Year of Natural Fibers” in

recognition of the attribution of natural fibers in the world economy, the
environment, consumers, and producers all around the world (Anon). That
year, 15 major plant and animal fibers were declared to be the most
‘important’ amongst all by evaluating their production and consumer range.
The plant fibers include seed hairs, stems, leaf, and husk fibers (i.e., sisal,
cotton, coconut, etc.), whereas animal fibers include wool, hair, and bodily
secretions (i.e., silk, cashmere, etc.). The types can be stated as:
1. Plant Fibers: Cotton, Abaca, Coir, Flax, Hemp, Jute, Ramie, Sisal,
etc.
2. Animal Fibers: Wool, Silk, Cashmere, Alpaca, Angora, Camel,
Mohair, etc.
Figure 15. Different types of natural fibers (Ngo 2018).

To focus on the market analysis of the natural fibers, it can be divided
into 2 separate discussions. Such as:

1. Natural polymer market analysis: This would focus solely on

explaining and predicting the global market for natural polymers.
2. Natural polymer reinforced composites market analysis: This part
would focus on predicting the future market for natural polymer
reinforced in different composites.
2.4.2.1. Natural Polymer Market Analysis

A report by Grand View Research (GVR) has predicted high growth
with the period of 2019 to 2025 (“Natural Fibers Market Size & Share |
Industry Analysis Report, 2025”). Due to the biodegradability of synthetic
fibers, alongside the shift towards environmentally friendly plastic-free
materials, the natural polymer industries are booming and assumed to
prosper to a greater extent within the predicted time range. Although the
manufacturing process and operational processes are cost-intensive, which
eventually increases the end-product costs, advanced technologies for fiber
production are expected to boost industry growth by lowering the overall
cost.
Replacement of glass fibers with tensile abaca products and usage of
coir fibers in vehicle interiors will increase its demand in the automobile
industry. Increasing demand for clothing, winter clothes, special clothes
with protective measures, outdoor sports clothes, etc. will need an increased
supply of mohair, silk, flax, hemp, sisal, etc. fibers. The demand for jute
fiber is expected to increase as textile industries are shifting towards
environment-friendly bags, curtains, mats, rugs, etc. In addition to that, the
medical product market is also requiring many silk and cotton-based
products for internal and external usages. Because of the increasing demand
for raw materials, especially for textiles, automobiles, and household
purposes, the natural fiber market is projected to propel in the next couple
of years.
Geographically, the Asia Pacific region should occupy a major portion
of the share, as the key application industries like textile, automotive, and
medical are strongly increasing per year. Europe and North American
markets are also expected to register decent growth by the next few years.
Although, the market is heavily dependent on the adoption and penetration

role of the different products over these years. There are already some of the
established consortiums which are working as the pioneers in the natural
polymer processing industry, including The Natural Fiber Company; and
UPM Biocomposites; Barnhardt Natural Fibers; BComp Ltd.; Advanced
Environmental Recycling Technologies, Inc. Because of the rising product
demand coupling with low entry barriers and high expansion opportunities,
other large companies are expected to be attracted to this vast market.
Another report by Transparency Market Research predicted the same as
the previous report for the time range of 2017-2025 (“Natural Fiber Market
- Global Industry Analysis and Forecast 2017 - 2025 | TMR”). The report
was based on market segments, market trends, dynamics, supply and
demand, market size, and current situation. Natural fibers are mostly used
for commercial usages due to their properties of length, strength, elasticity,
pliability, elasticity, absorbency, etc. The reporters divided the types of
fibers into two different segments; (1) Cellulose-based fibers, which are
vegetable fibers, such as cotton, flax, and jute, (2) Protein-based fibers, or
animal fibers, such as wool, mohair, and silk. In terms of application, the
natural fibers were segmented into automobiles, textiles, insulation, medical
purposes, and naval usages. It predicted the textile sector to be on top after
a couple of years by a decent margin, while the automobile and medical
applications to occupy a large portion of the total growth per year.
In terms of geography, it predicted North America and Europe to be the
highest consumers of natural fibers and reinforced composites, which is
different from the previous report. Nonetheless, it has also predicted the
uprising of the Asia Pacific region due to the resurgence of textile industries.
The report also focused on the current industries in the market and their stiff
competition for the exponentially growing demand for natural fiber raw
materials.
2.4.2.2. Natural Polymer Reinforced Composites Market Analysis

Grand View Research has reported on the fiber-reinforced composites
market during a time range of 2016-2024 (“Natural Fibers Market Size &
Share | Industry Analysis Report, 2025”). The reported market size is valued

at $4.46 billion in the year 2016 and the predicted compound annual growth
rate (CAGR) is reported to be 11.8%.
It reported a spiraling demand for lightweight composites, which are
meant to replace glass fibers and environment-friendly, as the raw materials
are widely available in nature, easily extractable, and potential replacements
for synthetic fibers. The main drawback of the natural fiber composites
(NFC) is their moisture sensitivity, which may affect the growth of the
global market.
NFC is 25%-30% stronger than glass fibers of the same weight, which
makes it more feasible for industrial usages. As it takes less energy to make
NFCs than molding glass fibers, so the production cost is reduced by 10%.
However, because of the swelling problem of these fibers, their application
is limited to car interiors only.
Figure 16. U.S. natural fiber composites market revenue, by raw material, 2013-2024
(USD Million) (“Natural Fibers Market Size & Share | Industry Analysis Report,
2025”).
Based on raw materials, the report claimed that wood dominated the
market by representing 59.3% of the total revenue in 2015. Due to the high
strength and solidity of wood, the trend is to fuel its utilization over the next
few years. Flax remained as one of the most used (13% of the market share)
natural fiber raw material in 2015. Because of the attributes like CO2

resistance, vibration damping, renewability, high tensile strength, UV

blocking ability, and saltwater retention, flax is projected to be augmented
in the demand chain. Cotton is the most used textile raw material, therefore
the market will always be growing with the population. Highly sustainable
and recyclable fiber like Kenaf is growing in demand and it may stimulate
the growth of the fiber composite market within the aforementioned
timeline. Hemps are biodegradable substitutes of glass fibers, so the growing
demand for green and renewable resources from different industries may
trigger the growth of this part.
Products made or derived from natural polymers are so popular
nowadays. Inorganic materials or the wooden fiber-based materials
contribute to a large share of 43.4% of its current market. Polymers with
natural matrix only are also highly demanding, with a market share of 25.1%
in the year of 2015. As stated before, these renewable and degradable
products are never meant to lose grip in this global market and are predicted
to boom even more after the surgency of advanced processing technologies.
Synthetic polymers with reinforced natural fibers, which are mainly
thermoplastics and thermosets, are accountable for the second-largest share
in 2015 and are projected to fuel at the same rate over the coming years.
Based on technological aspects, natural fiber composite markets are
segmented into injection molding, compression molding, and pultrusion.
Injection molding is the high volume, high pressure, closed cabinet molding
system, which requires low molecular weight for maintaining low viscosity.
Injection molding required revenue of 10% share in the year of 2015.
Compression molding is mainly used to mold high strength and complex
objects; so automotive, transportation, appliance, and other high-volume
industries have a use for this method, and NFCs, too. Pultrusion is used in
construction industries such as rail transportation tools, boats, aerospace,
corrosive liquid barrels, etc. Because of its demand for low weight, low key
maintenance, corrosion resistance, etc. features, this industry is expected to
support the global demand growth of the NFCs.
Based on the applications of NFCs, these are majorly used in the
automotive and construction industries, according to the report.
Manufacturing door panels, seats, dashboards, truck liners, plastic bumpers,

frames, railings, windows, and obviously as a good replacement for glass

fibers, catches up the largest part of the global market of NFCs. Usage of
NFCs in construction industries reduces the production cost by a large
margin of 20%, which triggered the need for the reinforced fibers to a higher
extent and holds at least 56% of the overall market. Automotive parts made
of NFCs are CO2 resistant, eco-friendly and therefore, this segment
accounted for 30% of the overall market situation. Because of the insulating
and stretchable properties of these polymers, they also occupy a portion of
the textiles and electronics industry.
Figure 17. Global natural fiber composites market revenue by application, 2016 (%).
As the market is heavily competitive right now, small production houses

as well as the established companies are operating their business by
distributing NFCs all over the world. FlexForm Technologies LLC;
Procotex Corp SA; TECNARO GMBH; UPM Biocomposites; Trex
Company, Inc. are some of the established companies in the industry.
In another report formed by Mordor Intelligence, the fastest-growing
market is reported to be the Asia Pacific one, and CAGR is reported to be
less than 11% (“Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites Market | Growth,
Trends, and Forecast (2019-2024)”). According to their report, the
construction industry is to dominate the market for the next couple of years.

It also reported poor dimensional stability and porous nature of the NFCs in
the market, which may hinder the growth to a certain extent.
Source: Mordor Intelligence.
Figure 18. CAGR Market Summary (“Natural Fiber Reinforced Composites Market |
Growth, Trends, and Forecast (2019-2024)”).
The usual market trends in support of construction industries are:
 Continuous requirement for eco-friendly building materials.

 Wood fiber-reinforced composites are of the low maintenance cost,
resistant to weathering, strains, and warping, therefore they can be
used for decking, fencing, molding, trimming, etc.
 Non- wood fiber composites are also strong and tensile enough to
be used as construction materials. These are good substitutes for
woods.
 According to the ongoing growth of the construction industry, the
NFC materials market is expected to grow during the forecast
period.

With growing automotive and construction industries, the Asia Pacific

region is projected to dominate over the market share for this region.
Countries like China, Japan, and India are switching to bio-based industrial
processes, especially for automotive companies. Increasing automotive sales
and production in the region, automotive OEM manufacturers, and frequent
usage of NFCs in modern automotive technologies are the key factors to
play a role in the outstanding growth of the material in the forecast period.
Source: World Bank.
Figure 19. Global construction industry expenditure in USD trillion (2015-2020).
Source: Mordor Intelligence.
Figure 20. Natural fiber-reinforced composites market growth rate by region, 2019-
2024.

According to this report, one-fourth of market stakeholders are:
a) Trex Company, Inc.

b) Fiberon
c) AZEK Building Products
d) FlexForm Technologies
e) UPM.
Source: Secondary Research, Expert Interviews, and Market and Markets Analysis.
Figure 21. Natural fiber composites market by application, 2021 (USD Billiion).
(“Natural Fiber Composites Market by Type & Application - Global Forecast 2021 |
Markets and Markets | Last Updated on July-2020”).
In another report, which was made by Markets and Markets, it mentions

a growth of $3.15 billion in 2021, with a CAGR of 11.68% (“Natural Fiber
Reinforced Composites Market | Growth, Trends, and Forecast (2019 -
2024)”). The report has mentioned the upstream players, which are already
common to us. Major raw materials suppliers are Stramergy (Canada), UPM
(Finland), Greencore Composites (Canada), FlexForm Technologies (USA),
etc. They have also mentioned an uprising company “Advanced Engineering
Recycling Technologies” (AERT) to be one of the largest NFC
manufacturers right now.

According to the report, the largest industry is also considered to be

building and construction, as it has also mentioned the automotive industry
as one of the most important portions. For the growing need for fuel-efficient
and eco-friendly cars, some established automotive companies have started
manufacturing cars using NFCs, such as BMW (Germany), Audi
(Germany), GM (USA), etc. The wood-based NFCs are primarily used as
construction raw materials. The report has also included a segment where it
shows the decreasing market because of the current pandemic situation,
which will most likely be recovered within the year of 2022.
This report stated that the top five players of the industry right now, are
dominating the industry as a monopoly economy. However, small industries
are also making progress by taking small incentives in the acquisition,
production, and using developed technology to manufacture bio-degradable,
eco-friendly, and rigid natural fiber-reinforced composite materials.
3. STATE-OF-THE-ART APPLICATIONS
OF FRP COMPOSITES
3.1. Automotive Industry
Currently, as the automotive industry increases its focus tremendously

in electric vehicle research and innovation, the need for lightweight FRP gets
boosted. The very first significant use of CFRP for automotive applications
began in 1981 by the McLaren Formula One racing team with the
construction of the monocoque cabin of its MP4/1 race car out of CFRP for
reducing the weight and improving crashworthiness. Soon after their
success, CFRP has since been adopted by all major Formula One teams
replacing the conventional aluminum monocoque. After decades later,
CFRP uses had adopted by the European supercars manufacturers such as
Ferrari and Lamborghini in the 1990s and 2000s, but still with a much higher
retailed car price as the CF cost was too high with very few CF producers in

the world, long CFRP manufacturing cycle times, and uncertain CF supply
chain.
Source: Lucintel 2012.
Figure 30. CF demand potential from the automotive industry in 2017.
Figure 31. Regional forecasted CFRP demand by the automotive industry.
Besides, Corvette was an early adopter of the advanced FRP composite

materials use, in 1953 the first all-glass fiber body Corvettes were produced.
In 2006, in the Corvette C6 Z06 model, the CF composite body panels were

used in front fenders, front wheelhouses, and rear fenders. With the success
of this model, Corvette introduced CF hood and roof on every vehicle, even
the base-line models manufactured after the year 2014.
A new era of CFRP usage has begun when in 2013 BMW started selling
its electric vehicle model BMWi3, the first-ever vehicle (“BMW I3 Electric
Car: The Inside Story” 2013). In terms of volume, now in the year, 2020 the
automotive and transportation industry has the largest share in the global
composite market.
Most of the sports cars including Chevrolet Corvette Z06, Lexus LFA,
Dodge Viper, Ford Shelby GT350R Mustang, Alfa Romeo 4C, Nissan GT-
R and many others have CFRP composite body. And the recent electric car,
Tesla Model S used CF parts developed by the RW Carbon company. The
first-ever composite bed for a full-size truck was built by General Motors
(GM, U.S.) in 2001. And the first CFRP composite pick-up box in the model
GMC Sierra was also built by GM in 2018, which was developed in
collaboration with Tianjin Automotive (Tokyo, Japan).
Source | Cevotec.
Figure 32. Automation in the automotive industry — simulation design to a final

product; a) laminate designed with Patch Artist, robot programming on Motion Artist,
complete virtual product development with Artist Studio CAD/CAM suite, and b) final
cured part using a fiber patch placement system.
Cevotec GmbH (Munich, Germany) had developed a fiber patch

placement (FPP) solution for automated production of complex composite
parts and this additive technology won the 2019 “Processes of the Future”
award at the Industry of the Future Challenge, as well as the JEC Innovation
Award in 2018. The FPP technology uses software called ARTIST Studio

that goes from the laminated design phase to all the way simulating and
programming the automated production process.
Another notable innovation in 2020, the world’s first radius pultruded
auto part featured by General Motors Co. developed by the collaboration
with Thomas GmbH. Co., Technik., and Innovation KG. The carbon fiber
composite beam uses a variety of non-crimp fabrics in carbon fiber produced
by Vectorply Corp. and infused with polyurethane-acrylate resin from Scott
Bader North America. [Source | Mark Richardson for SPE Automotive
Div.].
About 80% of an F1 car by volume is made from composite materials,
rapid iteration rests on extremely short composite manufacture lead times.
High-volume manufacturing techniques, such as resin transfer molding
(RTM), are simply not viable in terms of cost and lead times, so the vast
majority of F1 composite components are still today made using the prepreg
carbon fiber materials. And now, Formula 1 is also willing to embrace
Industry 4.0 automation technologies (a combination of cyber-physical
systems (CPS), the internet of things (IoT), industrial internet of things
(IIOT), cloud computing, cognitive computing, and artificial intelligence)
which increase the scope and accuracy of its quality-control processes.
3.2. Petroleum Industry
Even though the focus of policymakers all around the world is to move
towards more sustainable energy resources like solar, hydro, and biofuels,
oil and gas remain the primary source to fulfill our energy demands. In 2018,
oil and gas alone contributed to around 65% of energy demands, which was
62% of total energy in 2000. Recently more and more offshore hydrocarbon
reservoirs are being found to fulfill the energy requirements. The best way
to transport these oil and gas in large-scale production facilities, pipelines
are considered the most economical mode of transportation.
Until the late 1950’s only metallic pipes were being used for
transportation of oil and gas as the unit price of steel was much cheaper
compared with other materials. The biggest challenge with metallic pipes

was maintenance as they are prone to corrosion especially in marine

environments. With major developments in the field of Fiber-reinforced
polymer (FRP) pipes, they have found great application in the petroleum
industry for the transportation of oil and gas. Not only FRP pipes reduce the
cost of maintenance but also has other advantages like higher stiffness to
weight ratio, improved fatigue resistance, better thermal insulation, and
better corrosion resistance (Ochoa and Salama 2005). In addition to these,
they also have better chemical resistance to most chemical reactions caused
by the oil/gas from inside and saltwater/marine environments from the
outside thus making them highly suitable for the petroleum industry (Yu et
al. 2017).
Based on structural considerations, offshore pipelines can be broadly
divided into two categories: risers (drilling and production risers) and
generic tubular (flow-lines, jumpers and umbilicals, and choke and kill
lines). The major application of FRP composite materials in the petroleum
industry is for production risers. They are used to transfer oil and gas
produced at the seabed to the surface floaters. Traditionally steel and
titanium-based materials have been mainly used for the production of risers.
However, they become very heavy and require greater hang-off tension and
resistance to high pressure and temperature variations with increasing water
depth (Bai and Bai 2018). Traditional metallic risers are useful for oil
extraction only up to depths of 1500m but with composite risers’ deep-sea
extraction of up to depths of 3000m can be performed while reducing the
cost up to 37% (Hanna et al.).
There is a lot of interest among petroleum companies in exploring
greater ocean depths for the economical production of oil and gas. However,
this requires a good understanding of FRP pipes and riser designs, failure
mechanisms, fatigue behavior, and the response of materials to deep-sea
environments (Anon 2014). Different loads under which risers operate are
pressure, functional, and environmental. Table 2 presents the cost
comparison of RTP and carbon steel pipe.

Table 2. Cost comparison of RTP and carbon steel pipe for 20 years
of service life (Avery et al. 2003)
Description Carbon steel Reinforced

pipe thermoplastic [RTP]
External diameter (cm) 2.06 3.48
Price per meter (US dollars) 72.83 111.55
Total cost in US Dollars 8,436,000 1,292,000
Design life (years) 5 20
Cost of field life every 5 years (US dollars) 1,687,200 1,292,000
Comparison of cost after 5 years (US dollars) 843,600 1,292,000
Replacement cost after 5 years (US dollars) 843,600 0
Comparison of costs after 10 years 2,530,800 1,292,000
Comparison of costs after 20 years 5,061,600 1,292,000
3.3. Building and Construction Industry
With the continuous growth of the world population, there is a need for
housing to accommodate these populations also there is a need to construct
airports, railway stations, hospitals, and sports complexes. To meet these
demands if conventional materials like steel, aluminum, concrete,
aggregates, etc. are used it would have a huge negative impact on the
environment. Composite materials play a vital role in the building and
construction sector. Currently, the largest greenhouse emissions in Europe
mainly come from the construction sector (Herczeg et al. 2014).
3.4. Consumer Products and Furniture
With improved manufacturing processes and multifunctional properties

being achieved through composite materials, designers and engineers are
exploring more opportunities for composite materials to be used in everyday
consumer products and furniture. Even though the use of composite
materials gained attention through petroleum-based fibers like carbon and
glass fibers, however for everyday use materials natural fiber-based

composites are being used extensively as they also have the aspect of
sustainability and non-toxicity covered with them while being relatively
very cheaper than petroleum-based fiber materials.
3.4.1. Electric Products

One of the main areas where composite materials are being explored
nowadays is electric products. Composite materials have high strength, low
thermal, expansion, high thermal conductivity, low dielectric constant, and
high/low electrical conductivity which is an important requirement for the
electric field. FRP based composite materials are not only used as an
insulator but also behave as a conductor, which can be used in electric
products. The composite materials sometimes utilize as connectors,
terminals, household plugs, switches, circuit boards, etc. the electrical
applications of natural fiber-based composite materials have been
determined based on dielectric constant, loss factor, and volume resistivity
(Keya et al. 2019).
3.4.2. Sports Equipment

Nowadays composites are being extensively used in the sports industry.
Composites become an ideal material choice because of their characteristics
like lightweight, low maintenance and durability, superior thermal stability,
friction resistance, abrasion resistance, and vibration attenuation, high
design freedom, and can be managed and shaped easily. Several sports
materials are now made using composite materials e.g., skis, surfboards,
windsurfing, tennis boards, slats, badminton, fishing rods, golf clubs, golf
club heads, sword, climbing ropes various lines, etc. are fabricated from FRP
composites (Froes 1997). When composite materials are used to make sports
equipment, which improved around 30% 50% mechanical properties of that
equipment. In a study published in 2012, Wang showed that composite
materials are an ideal choice for making table tennis bats by using different
materials for the top plate, center core, and bottom plate of the material. It is
also suggested that since 1997 the global annual consumption of composite
materials for sports has grown up to 50000 tons which makes over 1/3 of the
total materials used in the sports industry. This trend is supposed to increase

further and demand for sports equipment made out of composite materials
is expected to increase in the coming years (Materials and 2012).
3.4.3. Musical Instruments

The use of composite materials is now finding its use also in musical
instruments. The composite materials can be used for saxophone reeds, neck
stiffeners, bows, and string instrument top plates, etc. Generally, composite
materials are used for musical instruments as a replacement for wood.
Composite materials made of fibers and resin have the purpose to imitate the
wood structure (America and 1998). There are several reasons to choose
composite materials for making musical instruments. Because it has some
properties like less material variability, lower production time, better
resistance to environmental changes.
Figure 33. Violin parts made of carbon fiber composite.
3.4.4. Packaging Material

Another area of research where the use of composite materials is being
heavily explored is packaging material. With increasing demands of
electronic shopping and shipment of finished products across the continents,
demand for better packaging materials has increased over the past decade.
With a heavy need to reduce carbon footprint and need to reduce the
environmental waste problems, bio-sourced packaging materials can be a
good alternative. Since the bio-based materials by themselves are not very

robust, designers are looking at the use of fiber-reinforced composite

materials to increase its strength and durability (Keya et al. 2019).
Nowadays, even mobile phone boxes are made of white natural bagasse
which is eco-friendly and biodegradable and also sustainable. Not only
electronics but recently composites are also used for consumer bottles for
perfumes, cosmetics, etc. Fiber-reinforced composite packing is also being
introduced in the packaging of household appliances like refrigerators and
dishwashers. The use of composite materials for packaging applications is
only expected to increase in the coming days to completely replace the
petroleum-based packing materials.
CONCLUSION
Even though the aerospace industry is the most mature field of CF

composite application, the severe limitation of introducing a new CFRP
product in the aerospace industry is the long and expensive qualification
process for suppliers of CF fiber. Due to the worldwide COVID-19
(coronavirus) pandemic, global passenger air travel dropped about 95%
from mid-March to late May 2020, and demand for new commercial aircraft
has almost completely vanished as a result Airbus and Boeing are
retrenching production. Consequently, unlike many other FRP
manufacturers, Toray Composite Materials America Inc. (US), the largest
carbon fiber manufacturer in the world announced a reduction in its carbon
fiber and prepreg production as the demand goes down [CW News]. This
2020 COVID-19 pandemic has impacted most facets of the composites
industry, from product demand, supply chain to the workforce but no doubt
about it that the path back to “normal” will be filled with opportunities.
Similarly, automotive manufacturers across the globe are facing a severe
impact. The US, Japan, South Korea, Italy, Germany, and the UK are the
most affected countries, which are the major automotive & transportation
manufacturing countries. The majority of the automobile manufacturers will
witness a direct impact of the pandemic situation on their 2020 revenue
which will directly affect the FRP composite manufacturing and market.

Similarly, huge demand reduction was observed in all the CFRP sectors, and
consequently, the uncertainty and financial impact on the market are still
indistinguishable.
In the latest report of the GFR composite Materials Market Analysts
included that the current COVID-19 impacted the market, demand, and the
production has suffered a setback due to the outbreak of COVID-19 in the
major glass fiber composite manufacturing countries- India and China. The
production of glass fiber composites has been stopped or slowed down to
maintain social distancing among floor workers, engineers, and other staff.
The overall assessment of the Coronavirus pandemic is unsure for still now
and hoping to recover or adopt certain government and private policies to
continue maintaining the production and supply.
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites garnered much attention and
exhibited promising classes of materials for industrial, construction, and
other composites-based industries due to their high strength, stiffness,
barrier properties, non-toxicity, and low cost. A great possibility has been
witnessed by the infusion of continuous fiber as the reinforcement of high
strength composites. Future research and development on fiber-reinforced
composites or hybrid composites are not only governed by the automotive
or construction industries but also biomedical applications force to explore
green biocomposites fabrication. The requirement of most lightweight, low
cost and high strength composites for aerospace or other composites
industries play the role to trigger further research on hybrid as well as green
biocomposites for medical applications.
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ABOUT THE EDITORS
Catalin Iulian Pruncu

Research Fellow
University of Strathclyde and Imperial College London
Catalin Pruncu is a Research Fellow in the Design, Manufacturing &

Engineering Management Department at University of Strathclyde and
Imperial College London, UK with more than 10 years of research
experience in academia and industry. He has published more than 90 papers
in ISI journals, 2 books, a patent and other papers at various national and
international conferences. Catalin is a Charter and Member of the Institute
of Mechanical Engineers (UK), since November 2015. He has experience in
prestigious Universities (Imperial College London, University of
Birmingham, University of Sussex) and industry such as IMI Truflo Marine
Ltd and Spanish Navy.

446 About the Editors
Selim Gürgen, PhD

Associate Professor
Head of Mechatronics Program, Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Selim Gürgen is an Associate Professor at Eskişehir Osmangazi

University, Eskişehir, Turkey. He received his BSc and MSc degrees in
Mechanical Engineering from Gazi University and Middle East Technical
University, respectively. His PhD degree is in Mechanical Engineering from
Eskişehir Osmangazi University. He visited the University of Wollongong,
Australia for a project on smart materials. He worked as a researcher at the
School of Transportation, Anadolu University for four years. Before his
academic life, he worked as a Manufacturing Engineer in a joint venture of
KMWE-Dutch Aero, the Netherlands for three years. He contributed to
several industrial and research projects in collaboration with major
organizations such as Fiat Automotive Industry, Katmerciler Defense
Industry and Turkish Air Force. His projects were funded by the Scientific
and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) and European
Union (EU). He has many publications in refereed international journals and
conferences. He co-authored a book and book chapters on aviation. He
serves as an editorial member for different international journals. He holds
Research Priority Area Grant (from TÜBİTAK, 2015), Publication
Performance Award (from Anadolu University, 2017-2018; from Eskişehir
Osmangazi University, 2019-2020), Polytex Award (from International
R&D Project Summit, 2018) and Project Award in Priority Areas (from
TÜBİTAK, 2020). He deals with materials science in particular Shear
Thickening Fluid (STF) and their applications in defense and aerospace
applications.

About the Editors 447
Dr. Md Enamul Hoque

Professor
Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dr. Md Enamul Hoque is a Professor at the Department of Biomedical

Engineering in the Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST),
Dhaka, Bangladesh. Before joining MIST, he served several leading
positions in some other global universities that include Head, Department of
Biomedical Engineering at King Faisal University (KFU), Saudi Arabia;
Founding Head of Bioengineering Division, University of Nottingham
Malaysia Campus (UNMC) and so on. He completed his PhD from the
National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore in 2007. He also
obtained his PGCHE (Post Graduate Certificate in Higher Education) from
the University of Nottingham, UK in 2015. He is a Chartered Engineer
(CEng) certified by the Engineering Council, UK; Fellow of the Institute of
Mechanical Engineering (FIMechE), UK; Fellow of Higher Education
Academy (FHEA), UK and Member, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology. To date, he has published 6 books, 32 book
chapters, 170 technical papers in referred journals and international
conference proceedings. His publications have attracted 1747 citations with
19 h-index. He is a reviewer of more than 20 reputed International Journals
including many from Elsevier publishers. His major areas of research
interest include (but not limited to) Biomaterials, Biocomposites,
Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, Biomedical Implants, Rehabilitation
Engineering, Rapid Prototyping Technology, Stem Cells and Tissue
Engineering.

INDEX
147, 148, 149, 152, 155, 156, 157, 159,

#
160, 161, 164, 165, 173, 175, 211, 239,
260, 301, 332
3D printing, 196, 375, 400, 401
automotive, ix, xi, 9, 24, 30, 45, 46, 57, 58,
63, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138,
A 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 148, 150,
151, 152, 153, 156, 158, 159, 160, 162,
accelerated weathering, 312, 322, 323, 324, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170,
325, 326 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 179, 197,
advanced material, 2, 75, 177, 292 214, 219, 230, 237, 238, 251, 252, 254,
aerospace, ix, xi, 46, 137, 144, 165, 178, 258, 259, 260, 283, 285, 287, 289, 301,
179, 185, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 198, 302, 303, 306, 313, 400, 401, 402, 405
199, 200, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, automotive lightweighting, 133, 165, 167,
211, 214, 219, 227, 237, 248, 251, 253, 175
258, 261, 264, 283, 301, 314, 332, 352, automotive manufacturers, 133, 141, 153
356, 389, 400, 401, 402, 405 aviation, ix, x, xi, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181,
aging, 36, 41, 311, 314, 315, 318, 319, 320, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190,
321, 322, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 195, 196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203,
332, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 391 204, 206
aluminum silicon carbide, 258
aramid (AF), 3, 13, 14, 27, 46, 57, 72, 89,
107, 140, 179, 182, 184, 185, 190, 198, B
208, 298, 302, 344, 372, 374, 400
biocomposites, 24, 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, 40,
Audi, 142, 150, 160, 161
68, 70, 107, 132, 143, 144, 148, 150,
automobile, 8, 15, 48, 69, 131, 132, 133,
153, 155, 159, 165, 166, 171, 172, 175,
134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142,

450 Index
250, 303, 304, 305, 308, 312, 322, 326,

E
332, 334, 336, 337, 338, 370, 378
bio-fibres, x, 211, 212, 214
engineered composites, 212
BMW, 141, 142, 150, 156, 157
environmental ageing, 380
building and construction, 234, 400
environmental sustainability, 132, 144, 313
exterior components, 138, 140, 148, 152,
C 153, 158, 161, 162, 164
ceramic(s), 2, 57, 59, 66, 71, 76, 78, 79, 83,

F
109, 111, 139, 195, 206, 220, 225, 233,
234, 262, 286, 288, 293, 346, 377
fabrication, ix, 19, 47, 70, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78,
characteristics, 3, 7, 22, 36, 47, 50, 51, 58,
80, 81, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96,
60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 78, 81, 94, 102,
97, 102, 104, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112,
109, 117, 129, 137, 138, 140, 141, 173,
113, 117, 126, 128, 133, 141, 148, 179,
182, 212, 214, 218, 219, 220, 221, 225,
189, 192, 193, 196, 204, 211, 214, 215,
226, 229, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264,
216, 217, 218, 220, 224, 227, 228, 233,
268, 269, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 283,
235, 237, 238, 245, 247, 250, 251, 254,
292, 293, 295, 333, 373, 383, 392
260, 265, 283, 293, 296, 302, 324, 338,
characterization, x, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35,
367, 369, 373, 374, 400, 401, 404, 405
36, 38, 39, 43, 69, 70, 71, 72, 84, 109,
feed rate, 258
113, 115, 124, 126, 164, 165, 169, 232,
fiber reinforced nano composites, 344
250, 269, 288, 289, 292, 295, 305, 307,
fiber-reinforced polymer composite(s)
309, 310, 314, 334, 344, 346, 348, 349,
(FRPCs), x, xi, 25, 30, 36, 40, 41, 140,
350, 352, 367, 369, 373, 376, 377
152, 169, 173, 176, 177, 196, 212, 213,
component(s), xi, 2, 80, 101, 106, 132, 134,
227, 228, 238, 240, 253, 258, 264, 285,
148, 150, 151, 153, 159, 161, 163, 183,
292, 293, 301, 302, 343, 344, 346, 347,
190, 191, 201, 209, 222, 228, 243, 252,
348, 350, 352, 354, 356, 357, 358, 359,
260, 261, 262, 283, 295, 361, 383
360, 363, 365, 367, 368, 369, 399, 400,
consumer products, xi, 211, 400, 402
401, 402
crosshead speed, 269, 380, 384, 386, 387,
fiber-reinforced polymer(s) (FRP), ix, x, xi,
389
1, 2, 3, 21, 23, 25, 30, 36, 40, 41, 140,
cutting speed, x, 258, 259, 262, 264, 267,
141, 169, 173, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180,
268, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 278, 282
181, 182, 184, 185, 190, 191, 192, 193,
195, 196, 197, 201, 202, 203, 204, 218,
D 220, 223, 225, 228, 231, 232, 236, 237,
238, 239, 240, 250, 251, 252, 253, 257,
Daimler Chrysler, 153, 157, 158, 159 258, 259, 261, 264, 285, 291, 292, 293,
dental, 119, 344, 360, 361, 367, 369 301, 302, 337, 379, 380, 382, 383, 386,
drug delivery, 93, 103, 119, 120, 220, 235, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 396,
248, 344, 346, 359, 360, 363, 364, 367, 399, 400, 401, 402
369, 371, 373 fibre selection, 212, 214

Index 451
Ford, 59, 132, 150, 154, 155, 156, 179, 206,

M
401
future trends, x, 178, 220, 400
machinability, 17, 170, 257, 284, 286, 289,
370
G manufacturing, x, 2, 16, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43,
General Motors, 135, 159, 160, 166 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141,
glass fiber (GF), 3, 4, 11, 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 148, 150, 153, 154, 163, 164, 169, 170,
23, 31, 36, 39, 41, 42, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53, 172, 173, 178, 181, 190, 193, 194, 195,
56, 57, 60, 63, 68, 70, 140, 141, 143, 196, 197, 203, 204, 209, 218, 232, 236,
144, 155, 158, 160, 178, 179, 181, 182, 237, 238, 240, 241, 247, 249, 252, 253,
183, 185, 190, 191, 202, 239, 240, 260, 254, 255, 259, 284, 285, 286, 287, 289,
285, 286, 287, 288, 298, 299, 300, 305, 292, 293, 294, 304, 305, 311, 332, 340,
306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 335, 340, 355, 370, 371, 375, 376, 379, 395, 401, 402
357, 360, 370, 374, 381, 384, 387, 390, material removal, 264, 269, 270, 272, 273,
391, 394, 395, 396, 400, 403, 404 274, 275, 285
green image, 237, 238 mechanical and thermal properties, 26, 28,
34, 39, 69, 287, 309, 312
mechanical behavior, x, 34, 296, 302, 365,
I
379, 380, 382, 383, 386, 391, 392
mechanical properties, x, 2, 3, 11, 13, 15,
indoor and outdoor applications, 312
inorganic, 13, 15, 145, 226, 377 18, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33,
35, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 68, 71, 74, 76, 94,
interface, 19, 43, 50, 51, 52, 60, 68, 70, 74,
109, 117, 118, 122, 125, 296, 298, 303, 95, 97, 99, 101, 102, 105, 112, 120, 121,
122, 123, 136, 151, 160, 180, 184, 185,
317, 321, 322, 329, 330, 334, 343, 368,
370, 380, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 388, 199, 218, 225, 230, 234, 237, 238, 243,
253, 289, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297,
396, 397
interfacial interactions, 344, 368, 369 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307,
308, 309, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 321,
interior components, 133, 136, 138, 150,
151, 152, 153, 159, 162, 163 322, 331, 332, 344, 346, 350, 352, 355,
356, 357, 360, 361, 362, 363, 365, 367,
368, 369, 371, 374, 376, 378, 386, 389,
L 391, 392, 404
mechanical strength, 14, 15, 52, 100, 102,
lightweight, ix, xi, 2, 43, 65, 132, 133, 134, 105, 178, 179, 214, 299, 300, 343, 344,
135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 144, 147, 148, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368
151, 163, 165, 171, 174, 175, 176, 178, metal, 59, 66, 71, 76, 84, 85, 88, 108, 110,
182, 186, 199, 202, 239, 286, 292, 300, 117, 121, 128, 139, 152, 158, 167, 180,
301, 302, 346, 400 195, 212, 219, 225, 253, 261, 293, 302,
lightweight structure, ix, 178 314, 349, 400, 404

452 Index
morphology, 40, 68, 76, 80, 84, 89, 101, organic, 13, 14, 15, 94, 117, 121, 125, 145,
110, 112, 123, 125, 229, 285, 300, 312, 187, 289, 376, 377
314, 328, 337, 338, 341, 351, 359, 382, orthopedic(s), 344, 346, 358, 360, 361, 367,
391, 402 368, 369, 371, 374
other fibers, 46, 59, 185, 301
overview, x, 38, 41, 72, 133, 140, 141, 170,
N
172, 178, 231, 237, 252, 255, 287, 305,
306, 402, 405
nanocellulose, x, 103, 127, 168, 258, 261,
264, 265, 267, 269, 275, 279, 280, 281,
282, 283 P
nano-composites, 212, 221, 223, 224, 228,
229, 230 petroleum, xi, 179, 219, 313, 375, 400, 401,
nanofibers, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 402, 404
83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, polymer matrices, ix, 2, 47, 58, 59, 60, 62,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 73, 77, 88, 95, 96, 97, 102, 103, 106,
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 108, 132, 211, 212, 213, 215, 216, 218,
114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 219, 221, 226, 227, 229, 230, 238, 295,
122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 400
247, 344, 359, 372, 377 preparation, 26, 28, 32, 33, 38, 42, 43, 53,
nano-fibres, 212, 219, 220, 226, 229 71, 74, 83, 84, 86, 106, 107, 110, 111,
natural fiber composites, x, 19, 22, 23, 31, 112, 115, 116, 124, 164, 215, 219, 228,
33, 39, 59, 62, 63, 64, 132, 142, 147, 229, 235, 246, 265, 309, 345, 347, 348,
150, 151, 158, 165, 166, 167, 169, 171, 356, 357, 360, 371, 374
174, 252, 262, 285, 305, 310 production, x, xi, 8, 19, 24, 46, 47, 49, 51,
natural fibers, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 19, 20, 21, 53, 55, 57, 58, 60, 62, 65, 67, 70, 71, 76,
22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38, 41, 47, 78, 84, 86, 89, 96, 116, 118, 119, 132,
49, 53, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 141, 142, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153,
70, 71, 103, 132, 133, 140, 144, 145, 159, 167, 171, 178, 193, 194, 195, 196,
146, 148, 151, 152, 153, 155, 159, 162, 197, 199, 201, 204, 209, 215, 222, 227,
164, 165, 166, 168, 171, 176, 179, 238, 230, 239, 245, 248, 250, 252, 257, 263,
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 300, 301, 302, 268, 276, 286, 292, 296, 301, 303, 304,
304, 377, 400, 401 311, 377, 400, 401
natural weathering, 312, 323
non-spinning techniques, 74, 78, 106
R
O radiation, 75, 91, 106, 197, 312, 313, 324,

326, 332, 390, 391, 392
oil palm, 7, 12, 19, 30, 37, 38, 40, 48, 218, rate(s), x, 20, 84, 101, 116, 142, 188, 194,
230, 280, 285, 295, 299, 305, 309, 316, 247, 250, 254, 258, 259, 262, 264, 267,
317 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275,
278, 282, 283, 285, 289, 298, 312, 323,

Index 453
331, 364, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 389, sugarcane, x, 12, 34, 36, 258, 261, 264, 265,
392, 395, 396, 397 267, 269, 275, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283,
removal rate, 258, 259, 262, 264, 266, 267, 334
269, 270, 271, 273, 275, 278, 282 surface, 3, 10, 13, 28, 34, 39, 40, 41, 46, 52,
resin, 5, 17, 37, 40, 41, 47, 51, 59, 70, 95, 53, 62, 63, 67, 71, 74, 78, 80, 84, 85, 89,
98, 101, 118, 140, 141, 151, 179, 182, 92, 93, 94, 95, 103, 104, 105, 106, 120,
187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 195, 217, 122, 151, 152, 162, 180, 190, 191, 203,
219, 238, 240, 241, 243, 244, 245, 248, 214, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 230, 243,
250, 264, 265, 279, 295, 319, 321, 355, 247, 249, 258, 259, 261, 262, 263, 266,
356, 357, 358, 369, 386, 391, 402 274, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288,
response surface methodology, 258, 262, 289, 305, 307, 308, 310, 317, 318, 323,
282, 288 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 338, 341, 351,
352, 353, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363,
366, 368, 369, 372, 373, 374, 375, 378,
S
382, 391, 402
sustainability, ix, 4, 21, 45, 55, 65, 71, 132,
seed(s), 6, 12, 48, 287
151, 152, 158, 166, 167, 172, 237, 238,
selection(s), ix, 45, 57, 76, 80, 89, 106, 154,
292, 382
163, 165, 168, 170, 175, 180, 211, 213,
synthetic, ix, x, 3, 5, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22,
215, 220, 234, 235, 250, 251, 306, 367,
24, 27, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54, 60, 62,
368, 369, 377
65, 96, 102, 107, 133, 141, 142, 145,
self-assembly, 90, 91, 96, 118, 119
147, 148, 156, 162, 163, 213, 214, 215,
sensing, 77, 79, 100, 102, 104, 105, 111,
219, 220, 236, 238, 258, 292, 293, 298,
124, 128, 129, 197
299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 308, 313, 320,
soil, 314, 316, 317, 318, 331, 333, 334, 335,
328, 334, 345, 401
338, 339, 340
solution, 53, 75, 78, 80, 84, 89, 90, 92, 98,
113, 114, 170, 178, 196, 218, 224, 226, T
228, 230, 265, 329, 337, 340, 343, 347,
348, 356, 357, 360, 367, 369, 374 technique(s), x, 16, 32, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84,
spinning techniques, 74, 84 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 99, 108, 109, 113,
sports goods, 238 135, 165, 167, 169, 181, 190, 191, 192,
structure(s), 6, 8, 14, 31, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 193, 197, 202, 204, 211, 214, 217, 218,
56, 61, 62, 67, 70, 86, 89, 99, 102, 103, 224, 228, 230, 237, 238, 241, 246, 247,
110, 111, 118, 122, 129, 132, 133, 142, 248, 253, 254, 255, 261, 262, 263, 283,
157, 167, 172, 175, 178, 180, 185, 187, 305, 314, 323, 325, 326,332, 346, 347,
190, 191, 195, 196, 199, 200, 201, 204, 348, 349, 352, 353, 356, 357, 360, 368,
211, 212, 222, 227, 235, 236, 254, 255, 377, 400
284, 286, 287, 294, 304, 328, 349, 350, template, 59, 80, 88, 89, 96, 111, 117
351, 352, 361, 362, 363, 364, 370, 371, thermoplastic, 10, 11, 17, 18, 19, 22, 32, 37,
382, 394, 397, 401, 403, 405 41, 47, 49, 53, 67, 75, 83, 97, 99, 100,
122, 125, 140, 142, 151, 155, 156, 165,

454 Index
167, 170, 179, 186, 188, 189, 193, 194, 319, 320, 322, 329, 330, 331, 335, 336,
195, 201, 224, 236, 247, 254, 288, 293, 347, 353, 374, 404
304, 310, 316, 339, 352
thermoset, 10, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 38, 69,
U
140, 151, 164, 182, 186, 187, 193, 212,
220, 239, 263, 309, 348
utensils, 237, 238, 251
tissue engineering, 32, 42, 76, 90, 96, 102,
UV radiation, x, 64, 68, 211, 312, 329, 390
108, 122, 126, 229, 248, 344, 346, 358,
359, 360, 366, 367, 369, 372, 373, 374,
377 W
Toyota, 161, 162
traditional material, 1, 2, 3, 23, 132, 218, water, 6, 12, 20, 29, 37, 39, 40, 58, 62, 66,
227 72, 84, 91, 104, 106, 189, 206, 216, 218,
treatment(s), 10, 13, 19, 25, 29, 31, 33, 36, 224, 253, 265, 266, 287, 299, 300, 308,
37, 39, 41, 45, 46, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 59, 309, 315, 316, 318, 319, 321, 327, 329,
60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 68, 70, 80, 83, 85, 330, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 350,
94, 95, 96, 99, 100, 109, 110, 151, 165, 359, 361, 375, 381, 386, 391, 394, 398
167, 170, 233, 238, 285, 294, 296, 300, weathering, x, 312, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326,
302, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 318, 331, 333, 334, 335, 336, 338, 339, 341
winding, 192, 240, 248, 250, 254, 402, 403

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05 Fiber - Reinforced Polymers Processes and Applications

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Fiber –Reinforced Polymers Processes and Applications

Chapter · February 2021

Sonia S Raj J. Edwin Raja Dhas

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PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS

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Additional books and e-books in this series can be found

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PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS

CATALIN IULIAN PRUNCU

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NOTICE TO THE READER

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

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Chapter 6 Fibre Selections in Polymer Matrices

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Chapter 12 Mechanical Behaviour of Fiber Reinforced

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Nowadays, the composite materials play a crucial role for the

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composites fabricated from them. Chapter 4 provide a comprehensive

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These stresses and environments alter the mechanical behaviour of the

Catalin Iulian Pruncu

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Asrafuzzaman1, Kazi Faiza Amin2

Traditional materials that have been utilized for centuries by mankind

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applications. Thus, the advancement of modern civilization demands the

Keywords: advanced material, composite, fiber, fiber-reinforced polymer,

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substitute for traditional materials such as metals, wood in several

1. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)

2. FIBERS FOR REINFORCEMENT

Fiber is one of the two components that make up a fiber-reinforced

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reinforcements are actually synthetic fibers made of glass and carbon.

Figure 1. Classification of fibers based on their sources.

2.1. Natural Fibers

2.1.1. Animal Fibers

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Table 1. Properties comparison of B. mori and spider silk fibers

Properties Silk Worm silk fiber Spider silk Reference

Silk is a very versatile protein-based animal fiber that itself is a

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2.1.3. Chicken Feather Fiber

2.1.4. Plant Fibers

Figure 2. Molecular structure of cellulose.

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The contents of lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and wax determine the

Table 2. Chemical composition of various plant fibers

Fiber Lignin Cellulose Hemicellulose Wax Reference

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Figure 3. Generalized illustration of a plant fiber structure.

2.1.5. Bast Fibers

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2.1.6. Leaf Fibers