Question (a) (Refer to appendix A for reference to learners behaviour during professional practice)

Learning difficulties are short term or persistent problems in one or more of the areas of
learning of a child. These children exhibiting potential difficulties in many different areas of
learning are a heterogeneous group with restricted access to the participation in the
curriculum and to its outcomes. The different difficulties children usually encounter can be
characterized into five major aspects which are as follows:

1. READING DIFFICULTIES

Reading is one of the major aspects of our curriculum. Reading has various implications in
classrooms in examinations and even in the daily life of a student. One of the major causes of
reading difficulties is dyslexia which is characterized with inaccurate word recognition, poor
spelling and decoding abilities in the student. Such students are easily recognized as they
often play low profile when it comes to reading and avoid total eye contact with the teacher
when the latter choses which student will read. They often take longer time to read and have
difficulties in pronunciation. They barely read or often do silent reading when they are asked
to read aloud

2. DIFFICULTIES IN WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Very often we can see students who refrain from writing or are very hesitant while writing
characterized by a poor hand-writing. These students often have writing difficulties which is
another characteristic of children with learning difficulties. When compared to their peers
without difficulties, these students perform significantly lower across most written expression
tasks, especially vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, and spelling (Newcomer & Barenbaum,
1991). Very often they have difficulties in abiding different rules of written language. They
tend to ignore rules of grammar, lack punctuation and accuracy in their writing and often
make mistakes in writing words. These students are easily identified as very often they have
torn books and copy books and when the teacher comes near them they will either hide their
writing or pretend to be erasing a word.

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 3. MATHEMATICAL DIFFICULTIES.

Mathematics deals mainly with numbers and logical thinking. This is one of the core areas
where children with learning difficulties can be identified. These children often struggle a lot
to understand number concepts such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. We
can also see that these children face problems while they deal with time concepts. They are
unable to make proper judgments between words like before, after, last week or tomorrow
which are words dealing with time. When it comes to word solving problems, these learners
usually have trouble in solving these multi-step problems as they are unable to extract
information from the word problem and fail to apply logical thinking to manipulate these
information.

4. DIFFICULTIES IN SOCIALIZATION.

School is a place where socialization cannot be avoided and it is one of the major aspects of
learning. Sometimes we can come across children who are usually alone and sits in a corner
with minimum interactions with his peers. Such children often have learning difficulties.
Very often they prefer to stay alone due to a lack of self-esteem or a lack of confidence.
These difficulties arise as these learners actually struggle to interpret nonverbal cues such as
gestures, they may have low social status or have problems in following social rules. Thus
they prefer not to mingle with others as they may feel inferior or ashamed of their identity or
just because they may display appropriate verbal and non-verbal cues in conversations.

5. ATTENTION AND BEHAVIOUR.

Attention and behaviour are one of the major characteristics of children with learning
difficulties. These children are easily identified as they are the noise makers or the center of
attention of his friends. In relation to attention, we can see that such learners often have short
attention span. Their concentration in class during explanations does not last long as they are
easily distracted or because of low motivation. They also meet difficulties to follow
directions given by the teacher because they do not pay proper attention to what is being said
or because of poor memory. These children may also display behavioural problems in the
classroom. We can find many students who like to seek attention in the classroom. Often
such children are hyperactive or they are mischievous just to be the center of attention of their
friends or the teacher. These children prefer having one to one support or attention for better
understanding.

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Question (b)

Learning difficulties in children is a very common problem which we encounter in

classrooms. There are various small causes which give rise to these difficulties such as
dyslexia, indiscipline, family background, classroom setting or the experience of the teacher.
These sub parts of causes of learning difficulties can be categorized in five major parts
namely; the environment, the learner, the teacher, physical factors and behavior. The causes
of learning difficulties in children can be addressed using these five major causes.

THE ENVIRONMENT

The environment refers to the social and physical environment or forces that are external to
the children. In other words these environmental factors are external factors such as the
family, the society, mass media, the school or the physical surrounding which can be the
causes of learning difficulties in children. The social environment of children is related
basically to the family, the society and the mass media. We can see that these factors
influence the learning process of the children. Very often children who come from
unfavorable family backgrounds have difficulties in learning. It can be that the parents
themselves lack education or often these children have to face effects of broken families or
domestic violence. We can find a lack of readiness and motivation in these learners which
leads to learning difficulties. These causes can also come from a social aspect where the child
lives in a society where there is no progress where people are not adapting themselves to
changes in lifestyle and to technology. Thus the learner will not be encouraged to learn and
thus this factor causes an obstacle in his learning process. In relation to the physical aspect,
physical conditions needed for learning comes under environmental factor. One factor which
affects how efficiently learning is taking place is the condition in which learning is going on.
This includes the classroom, the resources used and the teaching style and technique. In the
school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favorable and adequate if
teaching is to produce the desired results. If these physical conditions are not catered for, the
learners will definitely face learning difficulties.

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THE TEACHER

The teacher is plays an important role in the learning environment or in failures and success
of students. The teacher may be the cause of learning difficulties in children as most of the
time he is the center of attention during classes. Firstly the personality of the teacher impacts
very much on the learning process of a student. The power of a teacher does not depend only
on his ability to do his routine works but also on his ability to lead the students and to inspire
them to learn with fewer difficulties. The level of teaching in the class also depends on the
level of learning the teacher has acquired whether academically or emotionally as a teacher
who is academically well qualified will have a better knowledge of his content and will be
able to better deliver in his classes. With emotional experience and intelligence he will be
able to address the difficulties of children. Along with this the management skills, level of
interest and the reediness to teach of the teacher is very determining in whether a learner will
end up having learning difficulties or not. Very often a lack of these factors in a teacher will
lead to learning difficulties in students.

PHYSICAL HEALTH FACTORS

Under the category of physical factors usually we address the health, physical development,
nutrition and visual or physical defects that causes learning difficulties in children. It is
important to know that bad health retards physical and motor development and malnutrition
affects learning as well as physical growth. It cannot be denied that health level changes from
person to person. Very often we come across children who suffer from visual, auditory or any
other physical disability. Such children have problem in reading, listening and even speaking
which are the effects of their physical disabilities. These factors are the base of learning and it
is obvious that the learning process of such children would differ from others with the
implications of these problems. The reason behind this is that due to these health related
problems these children have learning difficulties. We can also see that due to lack of
resources certain child face mal-nutrition. This often results in poor concentration lack of
strength both mental and physical in the children which disrupts the learning process of a
child.

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THE MENTAL HEALTH OF THE CHILD

The mental health of the children may also be the cause of learning difficulties in children.
We can see that attitude falls under this category. The efficiency of the work from day to day
and the rapidity with which it is achieved are influenced by the attitude of the learner. The
attitude of a child will also define his behavior and emotions. Inappropriate behavior and
inability to manage emotions often disrupt the learning process. It is often observed that
children with behavioral problems are often hyperactive. . They suffer from Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) which is one of the most common childhood disorders,
therefore they tend to forget their learning process and engage themselves in other activities.
A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning as it reduces learning difficulties in those
children.

THE LEARNER

Various factors about the learner must be taken in consideration so that learning difficulties
can be minimized. We should also consider the fact that only the learner can determine if
learning has really taken place or not for him. The content to which the children is being
exposed to should be appropriate to their age because a certain level of understanding is
needed to understand certain concepts and if the child is introduced to these concepts before
the required age it is quite obvious they will face learning difficulties. The learning styles of
the student can also be the cause of learning difficulties. Different child has different learning
styles therefore if the teaching style of the teacher is not varied then certain learners will be
left aback and thus they will face learning difficulties. The intelligence level and ability of the
students can also be a cause of learning difficulty as if the teacher adapts a way of teaching
which is only catering for high flyers those slow learners will always lag behind and their
learning process will not be smooth.

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Question (c)

Often for one reason or the other certain students lag behind in the class and in their learning
process. To give additional help and support to these learners remediation is needed.
Remedial education, also known as basic skills development, is an instructional program
provided to students who need more support because of difficulties or deficiencies in
learning. Remedial encourage problem solving through critical and creative thinking from the
child. It also helps to improve communication and social skills of the learner along with
developing a sense of self in them. It is important that the teacher has a good understanding
of the strength and weaknesses of the learner so that appropriate teaching approaches can be
adopted to meet the needs of the student thus remedial helps in achieving this.

Remediation can be applied through four basic approaches namely; behavioral approach,
cognitive approach, collaborative approach and multisensory approach.

THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

The behavioral approach is based on the law of association and the law of reinforcement.
Law of association reflects to how stimuli from the environment affect behaviour.
Behaviourists assume that behaviour is learnt and it is a response to a stimulus (Glassman and
Hadad, 2013). Association explains behaviour in terms of stimulus and response in Skinner’s
operant conditioning and reinforcement. The law of reinforcement is the use of positive or
negative ‘reinforcers’ for example rewards or punishment which is a stimuli which change
behavior. The use of this approach can be justified as these are the most appropriate methods
to deal with behavioural issues in classrooms. Furthermore the advantages of behavioral
approach are that it can be easily put into practice and simple to understand. We can have
instant results of such approach and it is age and ability appropriate. However on the other
hand the drawbacks of behavioral approach are that very often punishment is used more
frequently than rewards, it is not always easy to change the behaviour of a child and certain
learners might also rebel against what is being instructed.

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THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

The cognitive approach focuses basically on the role of an active mind in the learning process
and its development. Cognitive approach promotes a learner centered learning environment
where the teacher who chooses the most appropriate way to convey knowledge. The use of
cognitive approach is appropriate as it helps to consolidate weak areas of cognition of
learners through focused activities that helps to reduce learning difficulties in those weak
areas. The advantages of this approach are that it has many practical applications and can be
used on different learners with a wider range of interventions. Also the activities begin at the
individual student's level and increase in difficulty as the individual experiences success.
However the disadvantages of the cognitive approach are that we cannot directly observe the
processes of this approach. It relies on inference as we cannot see if the mind of a learner has
really changed. We can only deduce it through his feedback in class.

THE COLLABORATIVE APPROACH

As mentioned earlier learning also has a social aspect, thus to cater or remediate to learning
difficulties in such areas the collaborative approach can be adopted. Collaborative learning is
based on four principles, basically, the learner is the primary focus, interaction and ‘doing’
are primarily important, group works as a mode of learning and structured approaches to
develop solutions. The use of this approach can be justified as such type of learning usually
occurs peer to peer. Peer learning is a type of collaborative learning where the learners work
in pairs or groups thus promoting collaboration and socialization. Among its advantages we
can find that the collaborative approach learning difficulties can be remedied as it helps to
develop higher level thinking, self- management as well as leadership skills through
responsibilities in learners. It also promotes interaction among friends thus developing the
communication skills of students and leveling up self-confidence. Such approach may have
drawbacks like difficulty to manage the children, certain child may have difficulty in working
in groups, it can also happen that not everyone is contributing in the group work.

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THE MULTISENSORY APPROACH

Different children have different learning styles namely visual, auditory, tactile and
kinesthetic. To meet up the requirements of these learners multisensory techniques are
frequently used for example use of pictures, videos and games for teaching. The use of this
approach is beneficial as these techniques encourage students to use their senses to gather
information, to link these information to concepts they already know, learn to solve problems,
to acquire nonverbal reasoning skills and to help them to recall information more
appropriately. The advantages of multisensory techniques enable students to use their
personal areas of strength to help them learn. However the major drawback of such an
approach is that usually in a class the learners will have different learning styles. Due to time
restrictions we cannot implement all the learning styles at one go in a lesson.

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Question (d) (Refer to appendix B for the learner’s background)

(i) COGNITIVE STRATEGIES

A cognitive strategy serves to support the learner as he or she develops internal procedures
that enable him or her to perform tasks that are complex (Rosenshine, 1997). Cognitive
learning strategies are strategies which improve learners’ academic functioning through
facilitating learning processes (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1993). The most convenient strategies
which can be adapted to address the cognitive needs of the children are concept map,
chunking, repetition or rehearsal and imagery.

To answer to these strategies, during my observations in my professional practice, I noted

that fifteen upon twenty of the students understood the lesson. The student in my case study
was among the remaining five. Thus these strategies were applied to address the cognitive
needs of the learner.

CONCEPT MAP

Concept mapping is a way to graphically represent relationships among ideas (Smith &
Ragan, 1999). It is a process where learners construct a model for organizing and integrating
the information they are gathering during classes. Concept mapping can be very interesting
ways to address the cognitive needs of the children. When concept mapping was used the
learner said that he was better presented to the topic. The student interpreted the information
rather quickly through this visual mode. He was also able to see the links and hierarchy
between the ideas presented. He provided better feedback as they could already visualize the
outcomes in their mind. Thus this technique was appropriate for the child as he was able to
understand the topic through visual learning.

CHUNKING

Another cognitive strategy which can be used is chunking. Chunking in psychology is a

process by which individual pieces of information are bound together into a meaningful
whole (Neath & Surprenant, 2003). In short chunking refers to grouping separate pieces of
information together. The use of chunking was quite effective as the learner was able to
understand the topic and its key points more easily and effectively. When evaluation was
carried out to test the understanding of the learner, he was able to better recall the retained

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information and provided correct feedback. He also stated that he received the necessary
amount of information and no overload of information occurred.

REPETITION OR REHEARSAL

Repetition is an instructional strategy used to maintain information in working memory

(Driscoll, 2000). It is an information coding stage as a form of meaning in short-term
memory and is transferred to long-term memory. It was observed that the learner developed a
certain consistency as being exposed to a particular area again and again he adapted to it and
ultimately learnt it. Through repetition and practice, it was also noted that certain technical
aspects such as the writing skills, reading skills and basic mathematical applications of the
learner was improved. However it was observed that where critical and logical thinking was
evaluated, the repetition technique did not help much as the learner did not go beyond was
taught to him.

IMAGERY

Imagery is the use of pictures, illustrations, graphics or simply instructions to form images
related to text material (Driscoll, 2000). Imagery is usually easiest with concrete concepts,
but can be useful for learners in developing a visual to concretely represent a more abstract
concept (Smith & Ragan, 1999). Such technique is very much appreciated by learners as they
can actually visualize what is being explained to them. It has been observed that this method
instantly grasps the attention of the learners. They are more motivated in writing as the
concepts are displayed visually hence easily accessible to them. They also provide detailed
feedback of what has been explained as through the images or presentations they could easily
understand the explanations and were able to draw good conclusions. However this technique
also has some disadvantages like the topic in question should interest the learners so as they
show interest in the images displayed to them.

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 (ii) BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGIES

Behavioural strategies serve to create a positive environment for learning and uses strategies
that encourage positive behaviour to reduce the chance of poor or antisocial behaviour. These
strategies is to enhance prosocial behavior and increase student academic engagement
(Emmer & Sabornie, 2015; Everston & Weinstein, 2006). To address behavioural needs of
the student in my case study strategies such as effective classroom management, rewards and
praises, negative reinforcement and positive feedback.

EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

For effective behaviour management to take place, the must be able to successfully create a
well-managed, structured classroom environment so that learning can occur. For effective
classroom management to deal with behaviour issued we should have a set of rules and
routines which the learners understand. To implement these strategies, the students were
allowed to decide their rules which were clear, comprehensible and enforceable. These rules
were placed on the classroom wall and re-visited every day. Along with the rules, the daily
routines were also set which were displayed frequently and the teacher went over them every
day. It was observed that through the rules the discipline level of the class gradually went up.
The teacher had less trouble in dealing with misbehavior during classes especially with the
learner in the case study. Eventually more time was available for the teaching and learning
process. As for the routines, the learner was less engaged in distractions. Thus he reduced
wasting time and was more focused in learning.

REWARDS AND PRAISES

Reward is something to which the children aspire to and want to have. Rewards (or
reinforcers), when they follow behaviour, make that behaviour more likely to occur again.
There are two types of rewards, namely tangible and non-tangible. Tangible rewards are
material rewards such as gifts or tokens. Rewards such as praise and complimenting good
behaviour are the non-tangible rewards. Praise encourages children to engage in the desired
behaviour as it focuses on a child‘s effort rather than on what is actually accomplished. Such
type of strategies promote positive reinforcement as during my observations it was noted that
the learners were more interested in the class and showed an increase in participation in
classroom duties and responsibilities. The learner in the case study rarely came to school on
time. Once it happened he was punctual and he was praised by the teacher and was given a

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token. It was noticed that from that day he made it a must to come early at school and he
rarely got late from then.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

According to B.F.Skinner, in negative reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened

by stopping, removing or avoiding a negative outcome or an unpleasant stimulus. For
example leaving home early (behaviour) to avoid getting late at school (unpleasant stimulus).
However negative reinforcement should not be translated as punishment as they are different.
Negative reinforcement promotes a behaviour while punishment may decrease a behaviour.
During class observations, it was noted that negative reinforcement was easily and quickly
administered. The results of this strategy is also instantly visible. Upon the application of this
technique on the learner in the case study, he was told that if he continued behaving badly he
will not understand anything and will fail his exams. Instantly it could be seen that he stopped
misbehaving in class and started following. Thus we can also see another aspect of such
strategy where even the teacher is reinforced as the problem of the learner is removed
immediately. However this technique did not work with another learner with chronic
behaviour problems. For such learners routines can be used where on the long term these
shall improve their behaviour.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Positive feedback is one of the various strategies to address the behavioural need of learners.
Positive feedbacks in other words focus on positive rather than the negative statements when
interacting with children. The learners should be lead towards positive outcomes rather than
highlighting their mistakes. To add up to this positive relationships should be shared between
the teacher and the learner. Through a positive relationship behaviour becomes more
manageable. Upon the application of this technique, a behavioural change was noticed in the
learner as the teacher was able to connect with him forming a strong foundation and bond.
The learner was in his comfort zone as he did not show any sign of anxiety or stress as he was
in a positive environment where he was accepted. When positive feedback was applied
during my class observations, the learner did not felt that the teacher is pointing at him for
improper behaviour but showed concern for him to bring him back on track. This encouraged
the engagement of the learner during the class. Positive feedback also motivated the learner
as the teacher does not lower the self-esteem of the child in front of his friends through this
strategy. Thus he is less encouraged to misbehave and more encouraged to learn.

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 APPENDIX A

Question (a):
During my professional practice I encountered a student who is very good where
1.
writing and written works is needed and he is confident in what he is doing.
However when it was time to read texts he always hid himself and avoided eye
contact with the teacher. The reason behind this was that he has problem in
reading as he takes longer to identify the words and to understand them. While
reading aloud he has much difficulty in pronunciation of various words and takes
longer time to read as compared to his peers and very often when he is asked to
read aloud he is hesitant and barely reads aloud as he fears his friends laugh at
him.

2. During my practice I came across this difficulty in many classes. I noticed that the
books and copybooks of these students are torn and damaged. They have a bad
handwriting which is often incomprehensible. Their homework and classwork are
filled with mistakes and copy books filled with red circles which are mistakes
identified by the teacher while correcting. Often when we will go and look at what
they are writing they will either hide their work or pretend to be erasing their
work.

3.
In reference to my professional practice, I came across a student who had
problems in identifying and comparing between the four main operations of
mathematics. He was unable to perform a multiplication because he was unable to
understand the concept and steps to perform a multiplication. He usually added the
number repeatedly to as what is required to find the final answer.

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 4. As per my experience, each time I went to school I saw a particular student who,
during recess time, sat alone under a tree each time. He was not mingling with
anyone. I saw one of his classmates calling him with his hands but the child did
not move. I asked his classmate what was the problem of his friend. He told me he
is always like that and he comes from a poor family background and he was a
single parent child

5. I found such a case in lower primary classes where the teacher was explaining
something and suddenly a child stopped her to say what has happened during
recess time just to seek attention. Also this child follows for only 2-5 minutes and
may start playing with his pencil or start drawing in his copybook. When the
teacher asks questions he will raise his hands first but when it comes to answering
he will not utter any word or say he does not know.

APPENDIX B

Question (d): Case study of learner with learning disabilities.

During my professional practice, I came across a student of grade 2 who was facing quite a
lot of learning difficulties. Upon inquiry, it was found that he came from a modest
background. He had various difficulties such as reading difficulties, writing difficulties, he
had short concentration span during classes and disturbed his friends very often. He also had
some disciplinary problems as very often he was late at school, he was often not properly
dress, his shirt were un-buttoned, not tucked in and dirty. The conditions of his books and
copybooks were deplorable and he rarely brought along with him his pencils and other
materials. He often asked his friends to lend him their materials. He was very hyperactive in
class and misbehaved very often.

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