The International Journal of Management Education 19 (2021) 100548

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The International Journal of Management Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme

Organisational Citizenship Behaviour of MBA students: The role of

mindfulness and resilience
Anand N. Asthana a, b, *
a
CENTRUM Católica Graduate Business School (CCGBS), Lima, Peru
b
Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (PUCP), Lima, Peru

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This research examines the relation between mindfulness and Organisational Citizenship
Organisational citizenship behaviour Behaviour (OCB) of future business leaders, viz., MBA students through the lens of resilience. We
OCB also evaluate the impact of mindfulness on their academic performance in their business schools
MBA
which is an indicator of future business success. The study found that mindfulness is a significant
Resilience
Business education
predictor of OCB as also of grades achieved by the students in the MBA programme. Further, we
Management education find evidence for the partial mediation model. We find that one third of the effect comes from
higher resilience while the remaining two thirds comes directly from mindfulness. In case of the
grades obtained by the MBA students, 37.5 per cent of increase comes through resilience whereas
the rest comes from mindfulness directly. We find that mindfulness fulfils this objective of the
students in addition to broader social objective of enhancing their OCB.

1. Introduction

While MBA programmes have been around for more than a century, the last quarter of a century has been an extraordinary period
for MBA education. On the one hand the rise of business accompanied by globalisation accorded prestige to the MBA degree, on the
other hand corporate scandals in the US caused a general deligitimisation of management as a profession. The criticism of MBA
programmes became widespread at the beginning of 21st century and was joined by respected vocal educators and researchers of the
time like Ian Mitroff (2004) and Sumantra Ghoshal (2005). They argued that there is nothing surprising about the scandals considering
that business schools are promoting a management theory that focuses on the economic aspects of business to the exclusion of all
others. The companies that were subject of laudatory case studies taught in business schools – Tyco, Enron and scores of others - turned
to dust and some of the alumni lionised by their business schools turned out to be crooks. The financial meltdown of 2007-09
strengthened the belief that business schools share the blame for the crisis by implicitly inculcating a culture of amorality among
their students.
Businesses have come to realise that shareholders still expect managers to maximise shareholder value but only through ethical
means. In turn business schools which play a key role in shaping the mindset of budding business leaders are realising the need to focus
not only on the in-role performance of MBA students but also on what supports the social and psychological environment in which the
task performance takes place. This change in focus is leading to the examination of what can promote Organisation Citizenship
Behaviour (OCB) among the future business leaders. OCB has become one of the most widely studied fields in industrial organisational

* CENTRUM Católica Graduate Business School (CCGBS), Lima, Peru.

E-mail address: aasthana@pucp.pe.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100548
Received 24 April 2021; Received in revised form 7 July 2021; Accepted 30 July 2021
Available online 19 August 2021
1472-8117/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A.N. Asthana The International Journal of Management Education 19 (2021) 100548

psychology and human resource management literature (Ocampo et al., 2018) and is making significant inroads in management
education.
Business scholars are gaining insights from neuroscience to understand why ‘brilliant’ leaders often make bad decisions. As a result
of this convergence and cross-fertilisation of ideas, there is increasing attention to a strand of research developed under the heading of
‘mindfulness’ with inputs from Psychology, Organisation Science, Education Science and related streams of knowledge. This research
tries to examine and clarify the significance, structures, as well as causes of such decisions. According to recent literature search by
Nishtha Arora (2020) there is a dearth of literature examining the impact of mindfulness on OCB. Like mindfulness, resilience has also
become a buzz word in business. Specifically, there has been little research on how mindfulness can improve OCB of management
students and whether resilience has a mediating role. This research aims to fill this gap. We also examine the role of mindfulness and
resilience on the academic performance of MBA students.

2. OCB in business education

MBA programmes originated in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century when the country industrialised and
companies sought scientific management. Till the 1960’s, business schools were entrusted with the charge of educating the ignorant
and producing good managers. This was sought to be achieved by emulating other good managers with input from Frederick Winslow
Taylor’s theories of scientific management. The faculty comprised “good ole boys dispensing war stories, cracker-barrel wisdom, and
the occasional practical pointer” (Bennis & O’Toole, 2005, p. 98). A revolution in MBA programmes came in the 1960’s when on the
basis of reports of Ford Foundation and Carnegie Foundation the business schools decided to transform themselves into academic
institutions of substance whereby ‘Business’ came to be seen as not just a profession but also an important academic discipline (Usdiken
et al., 2021). This was also the time when business schools started proliferating all over the world.
Next revolution in MBA education came, in the last decade of the twentieth century as a follow up to the rise of the business and
decline of the nation state under the new world order (Schmidt, 1995). Earlier business schools claimed a dual mission: to educate
practitioners and to create knowledge through research. Now most schools claim that they are producing world leaders. Their mottos
now make extravagant claims, e.g., ‘Change lives. Change organizations. Change the world’ (Stanford) and ‘Educate leaders who make
a difference in the world’ (Harvard). These claims, combined with excessive media attention to business moguls, led to a certain
amount of hubris among MBAs (Holt, 2020; Sadler-Smith & Cojuharenco, 2021) especially among those specialising in Finance who
viewed themselves as ‘masters of the universe’ (Das, 2011; Pitesa & Thau, 2013). After corporate scandals beginning late 1990’s
business schools came under fire since much of the wrongdoing was the work of alumni of the top business schools. In the summer of
2002 in the Academy of Management session “Crisis in Corporate Confidence” role and culpability of business educator was high­
lighted (Bartunek, 2002). Prescient business scholars themselves started criticising deterministic and materialistic values being pro­
moted by business schools that are driving business managers to choose expediency and short-term profits over ethical behaviour. As
could be expected, not everyone shared this viewpoint (e.g., Neubaum et al., 2009). Could it be a problem of self-selection with a
certain type of persons opting to for MBA? Is there any evidence that moral standards of the graduating students were lower than their
moral standards when they joined the programme? Isn’t there corruption in sports and politics as well?
Business schools were not oblivious to the criticism much of which was coming from the conscientious members of their own
faculty. After the scandals at the turn of the century, Business schools started expanding the scope of subjects like corporate social
responsibility (CSR) and business ethics in their curricula and hurriedly rewrote the case studies of ‘highly successful’ (later bankrupt)
companies. After the financial meltdown of 2007–09, this activity has increased. Several business schools are also engaging in sus­
tainable entrepreneurship training to encourage MBA students address growing social problems by starting sustainable enterprises
(Kummitha & Kummitha, 2021). “What more must we do?”, the faculty have been asking themselves in grave seminars as also over
lunch tables. One of the most important things that emerged from introspection was a concern for OCB, the roots of which go back
perhaps a century or more.
Drawing on Chester Barnard’s (1938) concept of the ‘willingness to cooperate’ the concept of OCB was developed by Dennis Organ
and his colleagues in 1980’s by expanding on Daniel Katz’s (1964) work on how people become functioning units of social systems.
Smith et al. (1983) first proposed that OCB is composed of altruism and general compliance. Later, Organ (1988) deconstructed the
dimension of general compliance and added additional dimensions of OCB identifying altruism, courtesy, conscientiousness, civic
virtue, and sportsmanship as dimensions of OCB. The concept has since been evolving along with the changing role of the manager.
Organ (1997) later admitted that an exact definition of OCB is difficult to delineate especially in view of the emerging overlapping
concepts of extra role behaviour, pro social behaviour, contextual performance, to name a few. Of the multiple conceptualisations of
discretionary work performance, OCB has received the preponderance of research though questions remain regarding the dimen­
sionality of the OCB construct as well as its differentiation from task performance (Hoffman et al., 2007). Broadly OCB indicates
performance that supports the social and psychological environment in which task performance takes place.

3. OCB and mindfulness

Currently there is a flourishing exploration of mindfulness and its potential uses in medicine, psychology, neuroscience and many
other fields. This is quite remarkable because it represents the confluence of two domains of human knowledge that have never before
encountered each other: medicine and science on the one hand and ancient contemplative practices on the other.
In early Eastern contemplative traditions, a unified mental experience is made up of numerous factors of which one important
factor is mindfulness which enhances attentional stability and clarity (Wallace, 2005). Buddhist and Western conceptualisations of

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mindfulness differ at the levels of context, process, and content. While most Western scholars prefer to subtract mindfulness from
Buddhist philosophy, some have argued that Buddhist teachings can enrich Western psychology and Buddhist insights can continue to
be developed, enhanced, and adapted by Western psychological theory, thereby expanding its horizons (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). In
the sphere of Eastern wisdom and that of Western knowledge, mindfulness can be considered an enhanced attention to and receptive
awareness of the present that includes acceptance and non-judgement (Kabat-Zinn, 2021). Mindfulness refers to a process that leads to
a mental state characterized by nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment experience, including one’s sensations, thoughts,
bodily states, consciousness, and the environment, while encouraging openness, curiosity, and acceptance (Bishop et al., 2004).
Scientific research into mindfulness has proven that it has the potential to provide a method whereby management students can
learn to increase awareness and develop insight that could result in more ethical decision making (Lampe & Engleman-Lampe, 2012).
Daryl Cameron and Fredrickson (2015) in a study of 313 participants found that the two dimensions of mindfulness - present-moment
awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance - predicted helping behaviour. In a study of 68 respondents who underwent training in
mindfulness, Leroy et al. (2013) found increase in mindfulness positively correlated with work engagement. Since altruism, helping
behaviour and work engagement are components of OCB, mindfulness can be predicted to be positively correlated to OCB (Arora,
2020; Mulligan, 2018).
H1 Mindfulness will be positively related to OCB.

4. Mindfulness and managerial performance

The practice of mindfulness has come out as an antidote to mindless cognition and behaviour and has demonstrated powerful
positive effects for managers in diverse fields. The mechanisms through which mindfulness improves managerial performance is a
subject of continuing research. Mindfulness improves project evaluation by reducing sunk cost bias (Hafenbrack et al., 2013), reduces
possibility of serious accidents (Rerup, 2009), improves outcomes in negotiations (Pérez-Yus et al., 2020) and arbitrations (Marian &
Wright, 2017, pp. 231–266) and makes managerial feedback mechanisms effective (De Villiers, 2013). An online survey of 238
business leaders (with MBA qualification) in Austria conducted by Dirk Ulmcke (2016) it was found that Mindfulness positively in­
fluences leadership behaviour. The evidence of the impact of mindfulness on performance at the workplace is also evident from the fact
that the successful businesses are promoting it among their staff. While much of executive training focuses on how to do more, better
and faster, of late some management gurus have been offering advice about taking a moment to pause and reflect. The IT-intensive
companies are in the forefront in this line of thinking (Ramiller & Swanson, 2009; Valorinta, 2009). Hosted annually in San Fran­
cisco since 2010, the Wisdom 2.0 conference brings together thousands of tech entrepreneurs, venture capitalists and various Buddhist
philosophers and mindfulness luminaries to investigate how to live and work with greater awareness, compassion and wisdom in our
high-speed, interconnected age. Google offers a 19-hour course on mindfulness which is taken up by thousands of its employees each
year. With endorsement of mindfulness from celebrities like Oprah Winfrey and Goldie Hawn as also business titans like Bill Gates and
late Steve Jobs, it is not surprising that it has become very difficult to get slots for expensive 30 min sessions on mindfulness by Jon
Kabat Zinn at Davos and similar events. At Davos 2020 mental health experts mentioned that bipolar is now known as ‘CEO disease’
and explained that mindfulness is a useful tool in their armoury in tackling the issue.
As of now the effect of mindfulness on performance of management students has not been studied much. A few studies available
have examined the effectiveness of meditation on increase in mindfulness (Blackburn, 2015) but not the effect of mindfulness on
performance. Kuechler and Stedham (2014, 2018) describe an MBA programme in which Mindfulness intervention was introduced as
an elective. Qualitative analysis of student journals and post-course surveys indicated that transformational learning took place during
the course resulting in a significant perceived benefit for the students. According to the authors, mindfulness increases learners’
awareness of their own and others’ perspectives and decreases resistance to novel ways of seeing and doing things. Marshall et al.
(2018) conducted an empirical study of MBA students undertaking Supply Chain Module and found that mindfulness had positive
impact on students’ ability to focus for longer periods of time. However, the exercise did not have a control group and it was not
examined whether mindfulness resulted in higher grades as well. Recently, in a study that did have control group it was found that
increase in mindfulness was a significant factor in the marks obtainined by the students in business case study tests (Asthana, 2021).
H2 Mindfulness will be positively related to academic performance.

5. Mediating role of resilience

For centuries people have been fascinated by accounts of youth who face great danger or grow up under adverse circumstances and
nonetheless turn out well. In fiction these people are often assisted by a kind hearted person or some magical figure; in real life
resilience arises from ordinary resources and processes. Resilience science in psychology and related fields emerged from clinical
research on the risk for psychopathology but has matured over the last two decades with advances in theory, methods, and knowledge
(Masten et al., 2021). Research on resilience took an interdisciplinary turn facilitating integrative research after it was funded by the
US National Science Foundation under the Human and Social Dynamics Initiative (Masten, 2021).
While outcomes of interest in resilience research are varied, they share the characteristic that they are indicators of “doing well
under adverse conditions” (Newman, 2005, p. 227). Contemporary research on resilience is not restricted to bouncing back from
something apparently incomprehensible and intolerable - serious challenges: trauma, chronic illness, loss, etc.; nor is it limited to
children and adolescents. Resilience is presented as a crucial ingredient, perhaps the crucial ingredient to a happy, healthy life (Reivich
& Shatte, 2003) with psychologists even using handling of petty squabbles in the office or at home as examples. It links in with the
positive psychological school of thought that is moving the study of this area forward rather than the constantly looking back over the

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shoulder of previous schools to find out what is wrong rather than what is right. Resilience is an ordinary phenomenon; if it is magic, it
is ‘ordinary magic’ (Masten, 2015).

5.1. Mindfulness and resilience

In the recent years, mindfulness has increasingly gained attention as a factor thought to contribute to resilience (Asthana &
Asthana, 2012; Rogers, 2013). Verplanken and Fisher (2014) found that mindful people worry less. Other studies have found that they
are better able to respond to difficult situations without reacting in automatic and non-adaptive ways, tend to be more creative, and
can better cope with difficult thoughts and emotions without becoming overwhelmed or shutting down (e.g., Langer & Moldoveanu,
2017). These qualities contribute to resilience. Neuroscience offers insights into how and why mindfulness may foster resilience
(Congleton et al., 2015). Mindfulness weakens the chain of associations that keep people obsessing about and even wallowing in a
setback. Mindfulness strengthens the connections between the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala, promoting an equanimity that
prevents people from spiralling down the setback thoughts (Davidson & Begley, 2012). Mindfulness interventions can be effective in
building resilience in persons engaged in professions with moderate to high level of stress (Meiklejohn et al., 2012).
Evidence of mindfulness as a predictor of resilience comes from empirical studies in several countries and in diverse populations.
These studies are given in Table 1.
Some of these studies are correlational. In others, the effectiveness of Mindfulness Based Interventions in increasing resilience
points towards causality. A review of empirical studies on the effects of mindfulness on psychological health conducted by Keng et al.
(2011) concludes that there is a clear convergence of findings from correlational studies, clinical intervention studies, and
laboratory-based, experimental studies of mindfulness—all of which suggest that mindfulness improves certain aspects of psycho­
logical health that contribute to resilience. In a systematic review and meta-analysis Joyce et al. (2018) find a positive effect of
mindfulness on resilience. Similar results were found in a review by Wells and Klocko (2018).
Countless manuals used in the industry explain how to plan for crises and make it sound like everything will go smoothly if you just
plan correctly. All the same, MBA students are told that we cannot plan for everything; something unexpected can happen - from a
natural calamity to catastrophic product malfunction. According to Weick and Sutcliffe (2011), planning can actually get in the way of
useful responses, because people see the world through the lens of their plans and interpret events to fit their expectations. Planning
focuses action on specific, anticipated areas, which shuts down improvisation. Scholars in the field of accident emphasise role of
mindfulness in resilient performance during crises prevention especially in low probability-high impact scenarios.
H3 Mindfulness will be positively related to resilience.

5.2. Resilience and OCB

Being a psychological resource capacity, resilience is one of the important positive constructs influencing OCB. Resilient people are
able to pursue new knowledge and experiences and get into deeper relationships with others (Luthans et al., 2007). The sense of
exploring new experiences (Tugade et al., 2004) motivates people to build social relationships at the workplace and engage into
activities which are beyond their defined roles. In a study of industrial workers in Northern India, Paul et al. (2016) found resilience
positively corelated with OCB. In the latest available study conducted in 15 companies of Eastern province of Saudi Arabia in April
2020, Iqbal et al. (2020) found similar result.
H4 Resilience will mediate the relation between mindfulness and OCB.

5.3. Resilience and work performance

The role of resilience in higher work performance has been found under normal times as also under crisis situations. Several authors
have suggested that the resilient employees are motivated to provide more time and energy for their work, which, in turn, contributes

Table 1
Mindfulness as a predictor of resilience.
Location Study Sample

USA Chavers (2013) in a sample of 208 primarily young female Caucasian participants;
Chin et al. (2019) in a sample of 137 participants between the ages of 18 and 67 (two-thirds female, two thirds white, 15 %
African-American, 10 % Asian and the rest other ethnicities)
Lu et al. (2021) 172 homeless individuals
UK Zarotti et al. (2020) 811 university students
Mitchell (2021) 106 student nurses
Australia Keye and Pidgeon (2013); Pidgeon 141 (102 female and 39 male) University students
and Keye (2014)
Pidgeon et al. (2014) 46 (37 female 9 male) human service professionals aged 24–64 years from a not-for-profit community and
family services organisation.
India Bajaj and Pande (2016) in a study of 327 undergraduate students (91 female and 236 male) aged 18–23 years
Paul et al. (2019) 345 industrial workers (46 female and 299 male) aged 23–70 years
China Chen et al. (2021) 875 vocational students with disadvantaged characteristics
Turkey Sünbül and Güneri (2019) 752 underprivileged students (426 female and 326 male) aged 14–19

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to their efficient performance (Meyer & Allen, 1997; Varghese & Jabamala, 2019). Luthans et al. (2005) studied performance of
workers in three Chinese factories undergoing significant organizational change. In a sample of 422 workers they found positive
relationship between resilience and work performance. Several years later, using a larger sample of 2040 employees in the Chinese
banking industry, Cooke et al. (2019) found that resilient employees possess the ability to manage stressful and difficult situations and
to bounce back from challenges. They also tend be more inventive leading to higher level of efficiency in performance. In a study of 360
Czech workers in helping professions, Kašpárková et al. (2018) confirmed that resilient workers perform better In a recent study of 96
managers in automobile sector in Tangiers, Morocco, Mhenna et al. (2020) found that resilient managers were more committed to
work and performed at higher level. These studies relate to workers. No studies are available in respect of management students.
H5 Resilience will mediate the relation between mindfulness and performance.
These hypotheses are shown in Fig. 1.

6. Methods

6.1. Procedure and sample

Since our goal is to test the hypotheses outlined above deductively, we decided to take a quantitative, rather than qualitative,
approach. All full time MBA students from three business schools in Croatia were invited to participate. It was explained that all the
measurements will be through questionnaire and not by clinical instruments. Anonymised data from business schools was available for
the whole cohort. Of those who volunteered a computer programme selected 200 students in a way that the sample reflected the
population characteristic. Of these students 164 completed all the background questionnaire and the assessment. Thus, the sample was
40 % female, 60 % male. All the students were well educated and had previous experience in management as the admission criteria for
MBA is a good second class undergraduate degree and a minimum of three years of managerial experience. The demographics are in
Table 2. Personal information was encoded with a secure key code. When the measurements were completed, participants could get a
personal report on request containing their scores. Questionnaires and research data were not made accessible to the faculty or
administrators.

6.2. Measurements

Mindfulness: Measurement of mindfulness has always been controversial. Even within Buddhism, there are many diverse meanings
given to mindfulness (Tobin, 2020) with many Buddhist scholars insisting that discussion of mindfulness without including other
integral aspects of Buddhist practice is meaningless (Gethin, 1998). Mindfulness measures are prone to overly simplistic language,
which not only fails to capture the multifarious factors and mechanisms of mindfulness but can also be interpreted quite differently by
different groups (Grossman & Van Dam, 2011). There being no exact definition of mindfulness nor any agreement among experts as to
what needs to be measured, a large number of questionnaires and scales have been developed during the last two decades attempting to
capture the level of mindfulness, none of which commands universal acceptance. Since we are not differentiating among various
dimensions of mindfulness, we preferred a unidimensional scale rather than a multidimensional one. We use Mindful Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS), an instrument with sufficient psychometric qualities (Brown & Ryan, 2003) mainly because it is the best
known and most common of the scales. While the MAAS, like other measures has many detractors, it has been validated through
numerous studies and has gained a considerable amount of reliability (Carlson & Brown, 2005). In our study Cronbach’s alpha was
0.90 which is an indicator of good internal consistency.
OCB: Notwithstanding growth in empirical research in the field of OCB and its determinants there is no consensus in the literature
about measurement of OCB; except on the point that existing OCB measurements need refinement (Pond et al., 1997). Most of the
measurements are based on self-report which is influenced by social desirability that is often found when people are asked to report on
their own performance and effort. To avoid this bias, we use assessments by fellow students. We use OCB scale developed by Konovsky
and Organ (1996). This scale consists of 32 items to which the respondent needs to react on a 5-point Likert-type response scale. In our
modified version of this measure each item was reworded so that it would refer to the fellow student concerned to indicate the degree
to which each of the statements characterised that individual. Such a modification has been used in studies of employees with

Fig. 1. Mediation model of determinant of OCB.

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Table 2
Characteristics of the sample.
Demographics Unit Mean Standard deviation

Age Years 35.10 6.39

Dependent children Number 0.67 0.75
Pre-MBA Postgraduate education in years Years 0.57 0.73
Work experience in years Years 5.1 1.2
Foreign Languages (B2 level or higher) Number 1.86 0.35
Executive development programmes attended Weeks 1.04 0.35
Publications in journals or magazines Number 0.69 0.35

assessment from their peers (e.g., Schlechter & Engelbrecht, 2006). In the case study sessions, students work closely in groups and we
expect the assessments to be reasonably accurate. The Cronbach alpha was 0.90. By using peer assessment, we are also avoiding ‘same
source bias’.
Resilience: To measure individual resilience, the Resilience Scale (also called RS-14 or Wagnild and Young’s scale) was used. This is
a unidimensional measure with good psychometric properties. Comprising of 14 items measured on a 7-point Likert scale, its primary
purpose is for use by researchers in the university setting (Wagnild, 2011). The scores in the scale ranged from 1 = strongly disagree to
7 = strongly agree. The reliability alpha has been reported to be 0.76 to 0.91. For the present study, it was found to be 0.81.
Managerial performance: The main work of a manager is problem solving and decision making, often on the basis of insufficient
information. The business schools train the students to be skilful in business analysis and decision making mainly through the case
study method. Popularised by the Harvard Business School the case study approach is a sensible approach for bridging the gap between
the academic and the practical world. The first case study written by Clinton Biddle (1921) was taken up by Harvard Business School
hundred years ago. It helped the students learn to define and solve ill-defined managerial problems under time constraints, uncer­
tainty, and ever-changing conditions (Donham, 1922). This method has withstood the test of time and now over fifteen million case
studies are sold to the students worldwide every year. Modern cases being studied are much longer than the one page case study of
1921 and additional relevant documentation, such as financial statements, time-lines, short biographies, and multimedia supplements
(such as video-recordings of interviews) often accompany the case studies. Yet the questions sought to be addressed have not changed
much: What’s going on here, and what should managers do to fix it? Since there is no one ‘best’ answer, marks scored depend on how
well the participant can logically justify the recommendations and how well the answers stand up to scrutiny. Establishing objective
assessment of an individual participant in a case study class is a challenging task because the participants work in groups; yet this
assessment is considered a good indicator of the participant’s judgement and decision making capability in a business context. Most
business schools utilise the Socratic method and as much as 50% of the grade is class participation. A good grade is indicative of a
future good managerial performance. Grades have been normalised with maximum marks assumed to be 10.

7. Results

The means standard deviations, correlations and reliability statistics are shown in Table 3. Correlations are significant and, as
hypothesised, positive. Specifically, Mindfulness is positively related to Resilience, OCB and grades; and Resilience is positively related
to OCB as also to grades.
We move on to examine whether increase in resilience by mindfulness is a side benefit or does it have a mediating role. Arguably,
the best method for separating direct and indirect methods is the use of instrument variables; but instrument variables are rarely
available (Angrist & Pischke, 2009; Asthana, 2012). For this research we follow the procedure outlined by Andrew Hayes (2018) using
PROCESS macro SAS for regression. Regression results of mediation model are presented in Table 4. Hypothesis 1 predicted that
mindfulness would be positively associated with OCB. In support of the hypothesis and earlier research (e.g., Arora, 2020; Mulligan,
2018), analysis shows that the total effect of mindfulness was significant for OCB (b = 0.39, p < 0.01; bias corrected lower bound,
BCLB = 0.14; bias corrected upper bound, BCUB = 0.64). Hypotheses 2 predicted that mindfulness would be positively associated with
the Grades. In support of the hypothesis and earlier research cited in section 4, analysis shows that the total effect of mindfulness was
significant for Grades (b = 0.63, p < 0.01; BCLB = 0.25, BCLB = 0.95). Consistent with Hypothesis 3 and with earlier research cited in
section 5.1, the relationship between mindfulness and resilience is positive and significant (b = 0.20, p < 0.01).
Analysis of the mediation Hypothesis 4 found that the indirect effect of mindfulness on OCB was significant (b = 0.13, p < 0.05;
BCLB = 0.01, BCUB = 0.25). The direct effect of mindfulness on OCB was also significant (b = 0.26, p < 0.05; BCLB = 0.04, BCUB =

Table 3
Means, standard deviations, correlations, and reliabilities.
M SD 1 2 3

1 Mindfulness 4.19 0.76 (0.93)

2 Resilience 2.74 0.45 0.35** (0.87)
3 OCB 5.23 0.92 0.33** 0.39*** (0.97)
4 Grades 7.56 1.34 0.34** 0.43*** 0.44*** (0.95)

N = 164; Reliabilities (Cronbach alphas) are in parentheses on the diagonal.***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

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Table 4
Regression results for mediation model.
Resilience OCB Grades

b SE t b SE t b SE t

Constant 2.01 0.28 7.18*** 2.39 0.68 3.52*** 3.08 0.96 3.21***
Mindfulness 0.20 0.06 3.16*** 0.25 0.13 1.92* 0.40 0.18 2.22**
Resilience 0.64 0.22 2.86** 1.02 0.32 3.19**
Indirect effect 0.13 0.06 2.17** 0.23 0.11 2.09**
(Confidence Interval) (BCLB = 0.01, BCUB = 0.25) (BCLB = 0.01, BCUB = 0.45)
Direct effect 0.26 0.11 2.36** 0.40 0.18 2.09**
(Confidence Interval) (BCLB = 0.04, BCUB = 0.48) (BCLB = 0.05, BCUB = 0.75)
Total effect 0.39 0.13 3.00** 0.63 0.20 3.15**
(Confidence Interval) (BCLB = 0.14, BCUB = 0.64) (BCLB = 0.25, BCUB = 0.95)
F 9.39*** 8.94*** 9.97***
R2 0.11 0.11 0.11

Unstandardised coefficients are reported. BCLB refers to lower limit of 95 % confidence interval and BCUB refers to upper limit of the 95 % boot­
strapped confidence interval.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

0.48). Analysis of the mediation Hypothesis 5 similarly found that the indirect effect of mindfulness on grades was significant (b =
0.26, p < 0.05; BCLB = 0.04, BCUB = 0.48). The direct effect of mindfulness on grades was also significant (b = 0.63, p < 0.05; BCLB =
0.25, BCUB = 0.95). Thus, mindfulness had both a direct and indirect effect on OCB as also on grades achieved by the MBA students.
Overall, we find that Mindfulness is positively related to OCB as also to grades of MBA students with resilience acting as a mediator.

8. Discussion

In the footsteps of Scott Bishop and colleagues (2006) we approached mindfulness from a secular perspective. We have used a
unidimensional scale for measuring mindfulness. We find that Mindfulness is positively related to Resilience, OCB and academic
performance. We have avoided same source concerns by using peer rating for measuring OCB.
We consider resilience as a mediating variable, not a moderating one. The distinction between moderation and mediation as
explained by Shapiro et al. (2006) is that ‘mediation is an attempt to establish mechanisms by which one variable may be affecting
another, whereas moderation is looking for differences in the relationship between group assignment and outcomes based on pre-­
existing variables’ (p. 384). Our results show partial mediation, i.e., both the mediation effect and the direct effect are significant.
Business students experience a cultural push for working long hours as they compete in a global marketplace (Karakas et al., 2015).
The pressure of time within the MBA curriculum is such that introduction of a mindfulness programme, other than a superficial
introductory one has been difficult so far. Many scholars believe that the question of whether mindfulness training shows equivalent
benefits in education compared to other sectors that have been examined (health care, mental health) remains largely unanswered at
this time (Schonert-Reichl & Roeser, 2016). As more research comes in that indicates mindfulness not only increases OCB but also
lifetime earnings through developing skills in business analysis and decision making, integration of mindfulness programmes in MBA
syllabus may become easier.
Clearly, increase in mindfulness is good for the students but is it good for the society? Purser and Mililio (2015) consider this
denatured mindfulness divorced from its soteriological perspective can be used for promoting a toxic organizational culture. While the
possibility of misappropriation of mindfulness separated from its appropriate context for unethical purpose does exist in theory there is
little evidence to show that such misappropriation is happening in the real world. On the other hand, there exists some evidence to the
contrary. Ho and Lin (2017) conducted a questionnaire survey of 631 purchasing professionals across a broad spectrum of industries in
Taiwan and found a significant negative relationship between mindfulness and unethical negotiation. A recent survey of 653 managers
of large firms in Vietnam by Nguyen Phong Nguyen et al. (2020) showed positive relationship between mindfulness and ethical
behaviour.
Our results are corroborate the literature discussed earlier and add to the storehouse of knowledge in two ways. First, there has
been little research on mindfulness, resilience and OCB on MBA students. Second, this research clearly brings out and quantifies the
mediating role of resilience. We calculate that one third of increment in OCB comes from resilience while two thirds of this increase is
coming directly from mindfulness. In case of the grades achieved by the MBA students, 36.5 per cent of the increment comes from
resilience while 63.5 per cent of this increase is coming directly from mindfulness.
With humility we admit that sophisticated techniques of statistical analysis and heavy artillery of computing power in this and
succeeding research will not bring a closure about mindfulness. There may be levels (or modes of functioning) of the mind below the
surface level of reason, emotion, and ego which are not approachable through the assumptions and logic of our present research
capabilities. Mindfulness is not an exotic executive stress-ball which can be perfected through research. If a metaphor is to be used,
mindfulness is a powerful beast. Twist the tail of the tiger of mindfulness, and out comes the roar of resilience, OCB, performance and
much more - perhaps even wisdom. As Eleanor Rosch (2007) suggests maybe we should just let the tiger eat us.

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8.1. Limitations and directions for future research

Many educationists believe that mindfulness practice needs to be organically connected to its spiritual roots if the educational
benefits of such practice are to be fully realised (Hyland, 2016). Educational philosopher David Lewin (2017) regrets the disregard of
religious traditions that offer rich accounts of attention that go beyond the rather narrow and utilitarian ideas currently popular among
practitioners of mindfulness. Both the examples of effect of mindfulness on ethical practices given in the previous section come from
Asian countries where Buddhism has much influence. Further empirical research is required to find out whether mindfulness devoid of
its spiritual roots can lead to unethical behaviour.
Anyone acquainted with the popular scales for measurement of mindfulness would agree that none of them is measuring either
mindfulness in the narrow Buddhist sense or enlightened awareness in its broader sense (Rosch, 2007). The reason for using MAAS
have been explained in section 5.2. Being a unidimensional scale, it does not take into account various facets of mindfulness that
multidimensional scales do. Multidimensional scales too are subject to much criticism which testifies to the intensity of debate and
interest shown by scholars in the field of measurement of mindfulness. It is more than an issue of developing better multi-variate
statistics; it is a question of the kind of mind with which one perceives the world. It could be worthwhile to see what facets and
what stage of mindfulness can optimise increase in OCB. Such research would be useful because MBA students are usually hard pressed
for time.
While internal validity has been checked, external validity remains a problem in such randomised experiments and projectability of
results to other groups could be compromised due to cultural reasons. In our view, mindfulness is a universal human capacity and so is
resilience. Even so further studies could be useful for further validation of the results in different places, especially in several Asian
countries where Buddhist practices form a part of everyday life. Continuing research is required for creative ferment and new insights.

9. Conclusion

The business school is an effective institution which makes the biggest contribution (financial surplus) to the university. Unlike
some of the nondescript buildings in other parts of a typical university, the graduate business school usually has a shiny new building
with everything inside embossed with a logo. Yet all is not well in the MBA programme. The Universities relentlessly demand higher
surplus from the business schools as the state aid to universities has been on a declining trend in most countries of the world. The
skyrocketing fees in MBA programmes require aggressive marketing by business schools, calling the fee as an investment that will offer
high rewards. The alumni often assume that the high rewards can come either by taking huge risks with other people’s money or by
cutting corners. This slippery slope can even lead to outright criminal behaviour. On the other hand, with confidence shaken in
business leadership, interest has been increasing in the development of leaders who set aside self-interest for the betterment of their
followers and organizations (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005).
Last two decades have been mea culpa time for business schools and one of the fundamental changes in the educational landscape
(along with digital revolution and decrease in public funding) is increased weight placed on ethical decision making (Kaplan, 2018).
Thousands of business schools have joined PRME – a UN-supported initiative promoting the Principles for Responsible Management
Education (Haertle et al., 2017; Abdelgaffar, 2021). Ranking agencies have also joined the bandwagon. FT Global MBA ranking
sponsored by The Financial Times has included “the corporate social responsibility rank” which is based on the proportion of teaching
hours from core courses dedicated to CSR, ethics, social and environmental issues. It carries a weight of three per cent in the overall
ranking. What effect the tweaking of curricula has on the OCB of MBA graduates or corporate behaviour is not yet clear. Nobel Laureate
William Nordhaus recently pointed out that most of the focus in business schools “is on corporate responsibility: do this, do that. The
list of responsible actions is endless, and most firms can find several areas where they excel” (p. 60). The deans never tire of extolling
how much their curricula focus on CSR and business ethics. Yet the question “What more can we do?” persists.
It will be fair to say few individuals would join an expensive MBA programme mainly with a view to develop emotional, social and
cognitive intelligence per se or to become more altruistic and responsible (Boyatzis & Cavanagh, 2018). Primarily, students need
return on investment through increase in lifetime earnings. Prospective employers and recruiters rely on grades obtained in the MBA
programmes as one of the criteria for recruitment. While undergoing an intensive MBA programme the students’ primary objective is
to obtain good grades at the business school while gaining skills and knowledge to equip themselves in their upcoming middle
managerial roles. In this research we found that mindfulness fulfils this objective of the students in addition to broader social objective
of enhancing their OCB.

Acknowledgements

Helpful comments from S. J. Chión Chacón, B. E. Avolio Alecchi, the PUCP Research Group for Business Education and two
anonymous referees are thankfully acknowledged.

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