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A specific indicators approach for the assessment of water resources

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DOI: 10.1080/02626667.2021.1924379

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A specific indicator approach for the assessment

of water resource vulnerability in arid areas: the
case of the Souss-Massa Region (Morocco)

Imane Mansir, Lhoussaine Bouchaou, Bouchra Chebli, Yassine Ait Brahim &
Redouane Choukr-Allah

To cite this article: Imane Mansir, Lhoussaine Bouchaou, Bouchra Chebli, Yassine Ait Brahim &
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vulnerability in arid areas: the case of the Souss-Massa Region (Morocco), Hydrological Sciences
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HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL
https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2021.1924379

A specific indicator approach for the assessment of water resource vulnerability in

arid areas: the case of the Souss-Massa Region (Morocco)
Imane Mansira, Lhoussaine Bouchaoub,c, Bouchra Cheblia, Yassine Ait Brahimd and Redouane Choukr-Allahe
a
Laboratory of Mechanic, Process Energy and Environment, National School of Applied Sciences, University IBN ZOHR, Agadir, Morocco; bLaboratory
of Geology and Geo-Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Agadir, Morocco; cMohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), International Water Research
Institute, Benguerir, Morocco; dDepartment of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; eLaboratory of Salinity and Plant
Nutrition, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, Agadir, Morocco

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This work aims to study the water resource vulnerability in the Souss-Massa Region, Morocco. In our case Received 11 August 2020
35 subdivisions were investigated for their water resource vulnerability. Based on an indicator approach Accepted 25 March 2021
and a participatory weighting method, 10 indicators and their weights were identified for the vulner­ EDITOR
ability assessment, reflecting three aspects: exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. A vulnerability S. Archfield
index map was created to compare and rank areas in terms of their vulnerability threshold. The results
indicate that many regions suffer from water exploitation with an index higher than 100%, which is ASSOCIATE EDITOR
mainly due to the high population density and to the strong water use for irrigation. Only two subdivi­ (not assigned)
sions are not vulnerable to water stress, while the most vulnerable areas are generally located in the KEYWORDS
northwest of the region. Our results reflect various water management strategies, enabling decision water resources;
makers to shift towards using unconventional water resources as an alternative to improve adaptive vulnerability; indicators;
capacity. Souss-Massa; assessment;
water stress

1 Introduction
For several decades, urbanization, intensive agriculture, global
warming and growing demand for socio-economic develop­
ment have mainly reduced freshwater resources around the
world and made them increasingly vulnerable to water stress
(WWAP 2016). Vulnerability is the degree to which a region,
resource or community (system) is unable to cope with adverse
effects and hazards, including climate variability and extreme
phenomena (EEA 2004a). It is a function of exposure, sensi­
tivity and capacity to adapt to hazards (Metz et al. 2001,
Gallopín 2006). As described in Fig. 1, the exposure and
sensitivity indicators both represent the potential impacts of
hazards on the analysed systems, in contrast to adaptive capa­
city indicators. Vulnerability increases when the exposure or
sensitivity to water stress increases, and it decreases with an
increase in the adaptive capacity (Metz et al. 2001).
Several numerical experiments have investigated the vul­
nerability of water resources, combining climate model out­
puts, water balances and socio-economic information along
digitized river systems and showing that a large part of the
world’s population is currently under water stress (Downing
et al. 2006, Hamouda et al. 2009, Iglesias et al. 2009, Stathatou
et al. 2016). Many statements indicate that the world will face
a global water deficit of 40% by 2030 (Connor 2015). Three-
quarters of the inhabitants of the Middle East, North
African and Eastern Nile basin countries live below the water
scarcity threshold of 1000 m3/year, and almost half are in an
extreme situation with less than 500 m3/year, particularly those
in Egypt and Libya (WWAP 2016, El Gayar and Hamed 2017).
The vulnerability of water resources in these countries is
mainly linked to hydro-physical factors and high pressures
on available water resources. In the case of poor countries
(e.g. Sudan and Ethiopia), water resource vulnerability is
directly linked to poverty, underdevelopment, poor water dis­
tribution and deterioration of water quality (Hamouda et al.
2009). Vulnerability due to water stress is also documented in
the Western United State America, some provinces of China,
Mexico, Southeast Australia and India (Zhou 2004, Liu et al.
2013, Connor 2015, Stathatou et al. 2016, WWAP 2016,
Stathatou 2017).
Morocco is qualified as a bioclimatic and ecological transition
country that contains fragile and vulnerable water resources
threatened with rapid degradation in the coming decades
(Tagma et al. 2009, Schilling et al. 2012, Ouhamdouch et al.
2016, Heiß et al. 2020, Hssaisoune et al. 2020). Although the
growth of the Moroccan population is increasing, water con­
sumption has dropped from 830 m3/capita/year in 1990 to
411 m3/capita/year in 2020, mainly in the southern part
(ABHSM 2006, Hssaisoune et al. 2020). In particular, the Souss-
Massa basin suffers from severe depletion of water resources
(Mansir et al. 2018). Climate change and human pressure impact
strongly the available water resources due to the expansion of
irrigated areas, and due to urban and industrial growth. There is
evidence of groundwater overexploitation throughout the region
(Brahim et al. 2016), with a declining trend of 1–2 m/year
(ABHSM 2010, Bouchaou et al. 2011). This decrease of

CONTACT Imane Mansir iman.mansir@gmail.com Laboratory of Mechanic, Process Energy and Environment, National School of Applied Sciences, University
IBN ZOHR, Agadir, Morocco
© 2021 IAHS
2 I. MANSIR ET AL.
Figure 1. Methodology of vulnerability index calculation: (i) exposure: the extent to which a system experiences significant hazard. It is characterized by its frequency,
duration or extent in space; (ii) sensitivity: the degree to which a system can be influenced or modified, by an internal or external disturbance or set of disturbances; (iii)
adaptive capacity: the ability to adapt to hazards, mitigate potential damage, take advantage of opportunities, and/or cope with the consequences.
groundwater level, combined with long and severe droughts,
induces a deterioration of water quality linked to anthropogenic
activities (Mansir et al. 2018). The soil and water are saline in
many areas because of marine intrusion and water–rock interac­
tion (Bouchaou et al. 2011, Tagma et al. 2009). Reduced water
quantity and degraded water quality in the Souss-Massa Region
are expected to become more acute in the near future (Seif-Ennasr
et al. 2016).
To address current challenges related to the water sector, it
is imperative to assess and monitor the vulnerability of water
systems, as well as to adopt a sound integrated management
strategy that seeks and applies alternatives for more efficient
use and reduced vulnerability. Over the past 20 years, many
indices have been developed to quantitatively assess the vul­
nerability of water resources. The main issue for characteriza­
tion of water stress lies in water use, supply and scarcity
(Stathatou 2017). The selection of water assessment criteria
can be a political as well as a scientific decision (Brown and
Matlock 2011).
Vulnerability assessment is a difficult task in defining criteria
and methods of quantification (Babel et al. 2011). Various vulner­
ability approaches have been developed, and each has its advan­
tages and/or disadvantages (Hamouda et al. 2009, Stathatou
2017). According to Stathatou (2017), indicator-based approaches
are the most widely used; they express vulnerability through
a series of individual proxy indicators (analytical approach), or
by calculating composite indicators (aggregated approach).
Despite their widespread use, the reliability and objectivity of
composite indicators have been questioned in different regions
around the world (OECD 2008, Hamouda et al. 2009, Stathatou
et al. 2016, Stathatou 2017). There is strong controversy over the
use of individual proxies versus composite indicators to assess
vulnerability in water resource management specifically. Many
scientists and experts have suggested that the use of composite
indicators can lead to a loss of information compared to the use of
numerous indicators, which allow for a more detailed and com­
prehensive analysis (Downing et al. 2006, Hamouda 2006,
Hamouda et al. 2009). For these reasons, it is often preferable to
develop “vulnerability profiles” by taking into consideration
a number of proxy indicators (Zhou 2004, Downing et al. 2006,
Stathatou et al. 2016).
Composite indicators are increasingly used by statistical
offices of national and international organizations to report
information on the performance of countries and regions in
areas such as the environment, the economy, social and tech­
nological development, etc. (Saisana and Tarantola 2002).
However, composite indicators provide condensed infor­
mation and allow for a broad variety of issues to be addressed
using a single value. Moreover, composite indicators can easily
communicate assessments to decision makers for their use in
the protection of water resources, by providing information on
complex issues in a simple and understandable form (Babel
et al. 2011). Moreover, vulnerability indices have been adopted
in several water-related studies (Hamouda 2006, Alessa et al.
2008, Stathatou et al. 2016, Stathatou 2017). Regardless of the
approach selected for vulnerability assessment, special atten­
tion should be given to the selection of appropriate indicators,
taking into account the different dimensions that make up
vulnerability, as well as to avoiding misleading interpretation
of the assessment results.
In this work, we aim to study the vulnerability of water
resources to water stress in each subdivision (called circles and
municipalities) of the Souss-Massa Region of Morocco. The
use of tools and methods to characterize and assess the vulner­
ability of water resources is therefore necessary and can make
a substantial contribution to the integrated management of
water systems. The proposed approach is used to assess the
extent to which water resources are vulnerable to various water
conditions by using internationally recognized indicators
reflecting physical, natural, institutional and socio-economic
aspects. Additionally, we develop a vulnerability index (VI)
map of the region in order to compare and rank areas, as well
as to benchmark areas in terms of their vulnerability threshold.
The framework adopted here allows for a comprehensive
assessment of the vulnerability of water systems in the Souss-
Massa Region, as well as an analysis of the potential for
improvement of the systems through the use of non-
conventional water resources as additional resources to
address the water resource vulnerability.
2 Study area
The Souss-Massa Region is located in Southwestern Morocco
(Fig. 2). The region covers an area of 31 577 km2 and has a total
permanent population of 2 674 697 inhabitants (HCP 2014). In
2015, Morocco adopted a new territorial division, announced
by the advanced regionalization project of 2011. The Souss-
Massa Region contains six provinces, which include 19

Figure 2. Map of the Souss-Massa Region.
municipalities and 16 circles, which are territorial collectivities
grouping together several communes, endowed with a legal
personality and benefiting from financial autonomy (Fig. 2)
(HCP 2014).
This zone is characterized by a semi-arid to sub-desert climate.
Most of the rainfall is limited to the period between November
and March, while the dry season lasts from May to October.
Rainfall varies locally, depending on the topographic region, in
frequency and quantity, ranging from 200 mm/year in the plain to
600 mm/year in the mountains (with a decrease in average annual
rainfall from 343 mm in Aoulouz to 232 mm in Taroudant). In
general, according to a study by Bouchaou et al. (2011), monthly
measurements over the last 50 years indicate high seasonal irre­
gularities and a downward trend in rainfall (Fig. 3(a)). Over the
last four decades, the Souss-Massa Region has experienced five
periods of drought with relatively high temperatures, often caused
by the east wind in the Sahara region. The average annual tem­
perature varies between 14°C in the High Atlas Mountains and
20°C in the Anti-Atlas (Tagma et al. 2009). In contrast to rainfall,
seasonal variations in temperature, according to a 12-month
moving average, indicate an increase in temperature over the
last few decades (Fig. 3(b)) (Bouchaou et al. 2011).
The economy of the region is based on agriculture, fishing
and tourism. Agriculture is a strategic sector for the economy
in the Souss-Massa Region. It employs more than 51% of the
working population and contributes 13% of the regional gross
domestic product (GDP). This region is intensively cultivated,
ensuring it a leading position at the national level, especially in
HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 3
the production of citrus and vegetables (more than 50% of the
national export volume) (Moha et al. 2016). Concerning water
resources, groundwater is pumped mainly from the Souss,
Chtouka and Tiznit aquifers (Fig. 2) (ABHSM 2006, Mansir
et al. 2018). In addition, large-scale hydraulic management
allows the exploitation of surface water resources for irriga­
tion, drinking water supply to Agadir and artificial recharge of
the Souss aquifer.
The influence of intensive pumping and the decrease of
precipitation are causing a decline of the groundwater level.
In fact, the region mobilizes around 1 billion m3 of surface and
groundwater per year, which generates a deficit of 290 million
m3/year. This negative balance is compensated by ground­
water pumping and consequently a depletion of the piezo­
metric level, at a rate of 1–3 m/year. Most of the available
water is used for agricultural purposes, and the remainder is
used by industry and as potable water (Choukr-Allah et al.
2016).
3 Methodology
A water vulnerability assessment was carried out in the
Souss-Massa Region using an indicator-based approach.
The methodology used is a holistic approach that expresses
the multifaceted nature of vulnerability. The vulnerability
assessment indicators proposed in this analysis were selected
because they adequately and equally express the three
4 I. MANSIR ET AL.

Figure 3. (a) Annual rainfall measured at the Taroudant, Aoulouz and Agadir measuring stations over an 80-year period (modified from Bouchaou et al. 2011); (b)
seasonal variation of monthly temperature in Agadir showing an increasing temperature trend (modified from Bouchaou et al. 2011).

components of vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity and adap­ assigning weights to each indicator to finally develop the
tive capacity), while reflecting its diversity (physical, material, vulnerability index.
technical, economic and social). Vulnerability assessment
frameworks found in the literature often use a large number
of indicators and parameters, which allow a detailed and 3.1 Division of the Souss-Massa Region map and data
thorough analysis of aquatic systems but are difficult to collection
apply, especially in many areas simultaneously as this
After taking the current circles and municipalities (subdivi­
requires the collection of a large volume of data, which are
sions) as the anunitary territory of application (Fig. 2), the next
generally not available (e.g. Sullivan et al. 2003, p. 22; Alessa
step is to collect data on each subdivision to establish the
et al. 2008, p. 25; Gbetibouo and Ringler 2009, p. 19;
current situation in terms of water demand, available resources
Hamouda et al. 2009, p. 32; Salmivaara 2009, p. 23) or
(groundwater, surface and alternative resources), climatic con­
focus more on the natural hydrological dimension of water
ditions (temperature, rainfall and evapotranspiration) and
system vulnerability (e.g. Hurd et al. 1999, Salmivaara 2009,
data concerning the socio-economic sector (population den­
Jun et al. 2011). The proposed indicator framework takes into
sity, education level, active population and GDP).
account both the hydrological and the socio-economic char­
acteristics of the systems under study (as did Zhou 2004,
Alessa et al. 2008, Gbetibouo and Ringler 2009, Hamouda
3.2 Selection, calculation and normalization of indicators
et al. 2009, Huang and Cai 2009, Babel et al. 2011, Sullivan
2011). In addition, the proposed framework can be revised 3.2.1 Selection and calculation of indicators
and adapted to the needs of the areas under study, in order to The indicators were selected following an extensive review
more fully express the particular existing conditions. of the literature on water resource management and vul­
The complete analysis of the vulnerability of the examined nerability (Zhou 2004, Hamouda 2006, Hamouda et al.
region includes several complementary methodological steps 2009, Tagma et al. 2009, Stathatou et al. 2016, Stathatou
involving division of the map, data collection, selection, calcu­ 2017), in order to identify the indicators that are most
lation and standardization of proxy indicators, in addition to widely used and accepted.

Several specific criteria were taken into account in selecting
the vulnerability indicators (Hamouda 2006, Stathatou et al.
2016, Stathatou 2017):
● Availability of data: the choice of indicators focuses pri­
marily on the availability and accessibility of data via
national or regional reports and publications;
● Relevance to the context of the study sites: the qualitative
and quantitative indicators chosen are likely to be critical
and applicable to the analysed areas;
● Avoiding overlaps: To avoid double counting and over­
valuation of specific problems, the analysis should not
include indicators that express similar parameters to the
analysed systems.
Eventually, a non-exhaustive list of 10 indicators was devel­
oped, which is sufficiently flexible for use in other study areas
as well if they meet all the requirements (Table 1).
For the case of GDP, only the GDP values of the major cities
are available: Agadir, Inzegane, Taroudant and Tiznit (OMPIC
2018). The GDP of the remaining zones was calculated using
Equation (1):
GDPSouss ¼ GDP of the subdivision
Massa average
(1)
� Population in the subdivision
3.2.2 Normalization of indicators
The objective of normalization is to adjust the indicators for
smoothed dimensions over time against cyclic variability and
then to put them on a common basis (OECD 2008). Exposure,
sensitivity and adaptive capacity indicators have been
expressed in such a way that a higher indicator value expresses
a greater contribution.
To normalize the indicators, their values are divided by the
relevant threshold. Hence, the normalized value is equal to value/
threshold. Some indicator values are inverted so that higher
indicator values will indicate important contributions to the
system. After normalization, the threshold values are equal to 1
and the value for each indicator is between 0 and 5, corresponding
to the limit of each indicator. The number 5 is a threshold value
indicating the theoretical maximum possible value for each index,
which means that values greater than 5 are considered equal to 5
(Stathatou et al. 2016, Stathatou 2017). This threshold value is
used to facilitate the presentation of results and their illustration/
mapping. The advantages of this method are its simplicity and its
robustness against outliers (Stathatou et al. 2016).
3.3 Assignment of weights to indicators
To determine the weight of each indicator, we used the parti­
cipatory weighting method (Garmendia and Gamboa 2012).
A group of scientists and other experts in environmental,
hydrological and agricultural fields, who have already carried
out studies of the Souss-Massa Region, were invited to answer
an online questionnaire aimed at comparing the 10 indicators
of the VI. Careful recognition and selection of specialists is
required to cover a wide range of knowledge and experience to
ensure that appropriate weights are assigned to the indicators
HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 5
(OECD 2008). Based on their experience and subjective judge­
ment, the experts’ answers are used to estimate the weight of
each indicator according to its influence on water resources,
taking into account different conditions of the region.
Indicators to which more points are awarded are considered
more important than those with fewer points. This method is
appropriate if the composite indicator consists of a maximum
of 10 to 12 indicators (OECD 2008).
The analytical hierarchy is based on a ranking in increasing
order of importance of the five indicators of exposure and
sensitivity that represent potential impacts (PIs). The same
procedure is applied afterward to the adaptive capacity indi­
cators. Preference is expressed based on a scale of 0 (no
influence) to 4 (great influence) (Coste 2018). Figure 4
shows the different scores assigned for each indicator accord­
ing to the responses of the 30 experts.
In the next step, the weight values of each indicator are
calculated using Equation (2):
wi ¼ðΣðxi :ei Þ�Wmax Þ=ðxmax �etot Þ (2)
where:
wi: Weight of the index i;
xi: Score given by the experts for the index i;
ei: Total number of experts who voted for the index i;
Wmax: Maximum weight value;
xmax: Maximum score;
etot: Total number of experts who answered the
questionnaire.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Exposure indicators
4.1.1 Renewable water resources per capita – Falkenmark
indicator (F)
According to the results (Table 2), only three among the 35
subdivisions in the east of the Souss-Massa Region (Taliouine,
Irherm and Tafraoute circles) show a Falkenmark indicator (F)
greater than 1700 m3/year/capita. This high value is explained
by the low population density and not by high rainfall (HCP
2014, MDGCL 2015). Water resource availability in the middle
and western parts of the region is less than 1700 m3/year/
capita, whereas for the majority of the areas (27 of 35), the
F values do not exceed 1000 m3/year/capita (Table 2). This
represents a major constraint on the quality of life
(Falkenmark 1989). The standard deviation was found to be
much higher than the average in all provinces except Agadir
Ida Ou Tanane and Inzegane-Ait Melloul, which indicates
a great variability among municipalities and circles (Fig. 5(a)).
The areas suffering most from the scarcity of water
resources, with low F values (less than 500 m3/year/capita),
are generally located in the west of the region. This can be
explained by a strong seasonal rainfall variation because the
region frequently experiences long dry periods without rainfall
(Fig. 3); other factors are its high population density (e.g.
Agadir, Inzegane, Dcheira, Lqliaa and Tiznit municipalities),
intensive agricultural activity (Massa-Belfaa, Biougra, Ouled
Teima, El Guerdan, Taroudant circles) and important indus­
trial activity (Ait Melloul).
6 I. MANSIR ET AL.

Table 1. Exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity indicators used to study the vulnerability of water resources to water stress.
Indicators Proxy for Thresholds
Exposure Falkenmark indicator (F): renewable water Population pressure on available water resources (water 1700 m3/capita/year (Falkenmark
indicators resources per capita scarcity) 1989)
Untreated wastewater discharge as percentage Pollution of water environment by anthropogenic activities 10% (Huang and Cai 2009)
of available water resources (WW)
Sensitivity Water exploitation index (WEI) Increased water demand as stress on available water 40% (EEA 2004b)
indicators resources (water resource exploitation)
Irrigated crops (IC) Water dependence of agricultural production 35% (world mean) (Hamouda
et al. 2009, AQUASTAT 2014)
Population density (DENS) Localized stress on water systems 57 capita/km2 (world mean)
(World Bank 2014a)
Adaptive Vegetation cover of the area (VEG) Capacity in improving land cover and reducing flood and 31% (world mean) (World Bank
capacity erosion risk 2014b)
indicators Consumption of alternative water resources Use of alternative water resources to cope with demand 10% (world mean) (Stathatou
(ALT) et al. 2016)
Economically active population (EC) Social capital with access to financial resources 69% (world mean) (World Bank
2014b)
Population that did not proceed to secondary Educational level of society (social capital with access to 28% (world mean) (Roser and
education (ED) technology, knowledge and information) Ortiz Ospina 2016)
Gross regional domestic product per capita Standard of living of society (access to technology and $10 280 per capita (world mean)
(GDP) resources to adapt in water-stressed conditions) (World Bank 2014b)

Figure 4. Mean values of scores assigned by the experts: (a) exposure and sensitivity indicators; (b) adaptive capacity indicators.

This water shortage significantly decreases economic Rijsberman 2014). It should be noted that F measures the
growth and social well-being when available water resources theoretical water potential of a region and does not relate to
are less than 1000 m3/year/capita (EEA 2004b, Cosgrove and actual exploitable water resources, because it does not take into
 HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 7

Table 2. Calculation of the exposure indicators in the Souss-Massa Region before and after normalization (Nor). F: Falkenmark indicator; Mun.: municipality; SD:
standard deviation; WW: untreated wastewater discharge as percentage of available water resources.
Provinces Subdivisions F WW
3
F (m /capita/year) Nor Mean SD WW (%) Nor Mean (%) SD
Agadir (Mun.) 23.88 5 367.15 335.26 27.55 2.76 9.71 0.15
Agadir Ida Ou Tanane Circle: Agadir Banlieue 383.78 4.43 1.07 0.11
Circle: Agadir Atlantique 693.79 2.45 0.51 0.05
Ait Baha (Mun.) 24.24 5 351.14 734.57 40.00 4.00 22.62 0.19
Biougra (Mun.) 5.07 5 43.96 4.40
Chtouka Ait Baha Circle: Ait Baha 1665.03 1.02 0.05 0.01
Circle: Biougra 26.54 5 12.52 1.25
Circle: Belfaa- Massa 34.81 5 16.58 1.66
Ait Melloul (Mun.) 22.32 5 20.29 7.66 74.29 5.00 44.03 0.33
Dcheira El Jihadia (Mun.) 26.32 5 40.00 4.00
Inzegane-Ait Melloul Inezgane (Mun.) 21.12 5 80.00 5.00
Lqliaa (Mun.) 7.08 5 22.84 2.28
Circle: Ait Melloul 24.63 5 3.04 0.30
Lakhsas (Mun.) 44.24 5 788.28 877.96 10.77 1.08 10.86 0.15
Sidi Ifni Sidi Ifni (Mun.) 13.88 5.00 32.00 3.20
Circle: Ifni 1603.66 1.06 0.44 0.04
Circle: Lakhsas 1491.36 1.14 0.23 0.02
Ait Iaaza (Mun.) 13.13 5 1022.02 2056.57 22.27 2.23 9.99 0.12
Aoulouz (Mun.) 18.12 5 30.92 3.09
El Guerdane (Mun.) 38.66 5 10.09 1.01
Irherm (Mun.) 840.64 2.02 0.16 0.02
Oulad Berhil (Mun.) 12.31 5 18.98 1.90
Taroudant Oulad Teima (Mun.) 6.75 5 17.40 1.74
Taliouine (Mun.) 80.61 5 1.95 0.20
Taroudannt (Mun.) 21.15 5 26.54 2.65
Circle: Irherm 7571.80 0.22 0.01 0.00
Circle: Oulad Berhil 1252.02 1.36 0.11 0.01
Circle: Oulad Teima 796.47 2.13 0.52 0.05
Circle: Taliouine 1870.56 0.91 0.02 0.00
Circle: Taroudannt 764.04 2.23 0.92 0.09
Tafraout (Mun.) 274.04 5 2225.18 3480.59 5.85 0.58 7.70 0.13
Tiznit (Mun.) 28.69 5 30.50 3.05
Tiznit Circle: Anezi 1534.98 1.11 0.08 0.01
Circle: Tafraout 8362.16 0.20 0.06 0.01
Circle: Tiznit 926.04 1.84 2.00 0.20

account the water resource quality or the availability of appro­ et al. 2020). As shown in Table 3, in 23 of the 35 subdivisions,
priate infrastructure and its mode of exploitation. the values of the water exploitation index (WEI) greatly exceed
the limit of 40% (EEA 2004b).
The value of WEI for 14 zones is equal to or greater than
4.1.2 Untreated wastewater discharge (WW)
100%, indicating that available resources in the region have
The standardized value of the untreated wastewater discharge
been fully depleted and are not sufficient to satisfy the demand
(WW) indicator for the 35 subdivisions in the region varies
(Table 3); furthermore, there is a large dispersion of the values
from place to place, and the amount of untreated wastewater
with respect to the mean within the provinces of Sidi Ifni and
discharge seems to be non-normally distributed within the
Tiznit (Fig. 6(a)). It is therefore necessary to extract and
subdivisions of Agadir Ida Ou Tanane, Sidi Ifni, Taroudant
transport water from other parts of the basin, especially in
and Tiznit provinces, as presented in Fig. 5(b) and Table 2. In
the provinces of Chtouka Ait Baha, Taroudant and Inzegane-
18 of the 35 subdivisions, it exceeds the threshold of 10%. The
Ait Melloul, where there is intensive agricultural activity and
municipalities Inzegane, Ait Melloul and Biougra have the
elevated population density. In addition, aquatic ecosystems
highest values for this indicator (more than 40%), due to the
might be at risk if water use exceeds 40% of available water
low amount of renewable resources, important industrial
resources (EEA 2004b, Alcamo et al. 2017).
activities and high population density. The lowest values for
WW (less than 2%) are generally found in agricultural areas
(Taroudant, Tiznit and Sidi Ifni). These results can be
4.2.2 Irrigated crops (IC)
explained by the use of groundwater for irrigation, which is
More than 70% of the cultivated lands are irrigated in the
not part of wastewater discharge.
circles of Massa-Balfaa, Biougra, Ouled Teima, Ouled Berhil
and Taroudant (Table 3) and about 40% of the region’s agri­
cultural area comprises irrigated crops (IC) (Fig. 6(b)).
4.2 Sensitivity indicators
Additional irrigation yield is a necessary step for land cropping
4.2.1 Water exploitation index (WEI) when the annual rainfall is less than 250 mm (ABHSM 2006).
Limited overexploitation of available resources is a common In areas with annual rainfall ranging from 250 to 500 mm,
challenge in the majority of the analysed areas (Hssaisoune some crops could be grown using rain.
8 I. MANSIR ET AL.
Figure 5. Distribution of exposure classes for each province of the Souss-Massa Region against their respective thresholds (black line): (a) Falkenmark indicator map; (b)
untreated wastewater discharge map.
However, to achieve higher and more stable yields, irriga­
tion is needed (ABHSM 2006). Irrigation is the largest water
user in the region, as 93% of the Souss-Massa water resources
are used for agriculture (ABHSM 2006, Seif-Ennasr et al. 2016,
Hssaisoune et al. 2020).
Increased water demand for irrigated areas further
exacerbates the water scarcity situation, particularly
because of the great dependence of agricultural production
on water irrigation. Several steps and efforts are adopted
for the conversion of irrigation modes from flooding to
sprinkling and to drip irrigation). In fact, the conversion to
localized irrigation allows farmers to consume less water
and thus will have a positive impact on future global water
demand.
 HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 9

Table 3. Calculation of the sensitivity indicators in the Souss-Massa Region before and after normalization (Nor). DENS: population density; IC: irrigated crops; Mun:
municipality; SD: standard deviation; WEI: water exploitation index.
Provinces Subdivisions WEI IC DENS
2
WEI (%) Nor Mean (%) SD IC (%) Nor Mean (%) SD DENS (capita/km ) Nor Mean SD
Agadir (Mun.) 138.54 3.46 92.85 0.46 27.83 0.80 22.58 0.12 4440.46 5.00 1551.76 2502.20
Agadir Ida Ou Tanane Circle: Agadir Banlieue 45.99 1.15 31.37 0.90 157.81 2.77
Circle: Agadir Atlantique 94.00 2.35 8.54 0.24 57.01 1.00
Ait Baha (Mun.) 100.00 2.50 94.46 0.53 31.94 0.91 53.58 0.20 1417.00 5.00 1104.14 1608.13
Biougra (Mun.) 121.26 3.03 32.73 0.94 3793.30 5.00
Chtouka Ait Baha Circle: Ait Baha 2.27 0.06 57.41 1.64 26.77 0.47
Circle: Biougra 119.01 2.98 72.51 2.07 173.87 3.05
Circle: Belfaa- Massa 129.76 3.24 73.30 2.09 109.79 1.93
Ait Melloul (Mun.) 100.00 2.50 90.93 0.31 16.15 0.46 25.36 0.11 6364.70 5.00 5738.96 5033.55
Dcheira El Jihadia (Mun.) 100.00 2.50 27.62 0.79 11 148.44 5.00
Inzegane-Ait Melloul Inezgane (Mun.) 100.00 2.50 15.58 0.45 10 025.62 5.00
Lqliaa (Mun.) 36.77 0.92 42.52 1.21 730.13 5.00
Circle: Ait Melloul 117.90 2.95 24.94 0.71 425.90 5.00
Lakhsas (Mun.) 44.87 1.12 33.05 0.41 21.43 0.61 34.22 0.18 525.44 5.00 355.17 404.69
Sidi Ifni Sidi Ifni (Mun.) 85.64 2.14 22.62 0.65 847.76 5.00
Circle: Ifni 1.12 0.03 59.18 1.69 23.28 0.41
Circle: Lakhsas 0.58 0.01 33.64% 0.96 24.21 0.42
Ait Iaaza (Mun.) 168.01 4.20 80.08 0.57 50.09 1.43 49.41 0.22 1358.00 5.00 639.71 917.22
Aoulouz (Mun.) 83.30 2.08 56.87 1.62 95.65 1.68
El Guerdane (Mun.) 83.67 2.09 57.48 1.64 665.57 5.00
Irherm (Mun.) 11.93 0.30 10.82 0.31 30.98 0.54
Oulad Berhil (Mun.) 166.73 4.17 48.87 1.40 1837.22 5.00
Taroudant Oulad Teima (Mun.) 125.85 3.15 43.51 1.24 2979.57 5.00
Taliouine (Mun.) 23.47 0.59 8.84 0.25 244.62 4.29
Taroudannt (Mun.) 98.04 2.45 39.11 1.12 890.54 5.00
Circle: Irherm 0.08 0.00 47.90 1.37 11.54 0.20
Circle: Oulad Berhil 99.58 2.49 80.72 2.31 40.03 0.70
Circle: Oulad Teima 100.96 2.52 77.70 2.22 78.29 1.37
Circle: Taliouine 0.26 0.01 48.95 1.40 23.61 0.41
Circle: Taroudannt 79.12 1.98 71.52 2.04 60.58 1.06
Tafraout (Mun.) 9.93 0.25 34.73 0.58 46.18 1.32 50.92 0.05 97.32 1.71 280.95 531.89
Tiznit (Mun.) 137.51 3.44 50.85 1.45 1230.63 5.00
Tiznit Circle: Anezi 2.02 0.05 52.09 1.49 34.20 0.60
Circle: Tafraout 1.42 0.04 46.64 1.33 9.11 0.16
Circle: Tiznit 22.79 0.57 58.83 1.68 33.49 0.59

4.2.3 Population density (DENS)
According to Fig. 6(c) and Table 3, economic development and
rapid population growth have resulted in a non-homogeneous
population density (DENS) within the five provinces, and a high
population density particularly in the municipalities of Agadir,
Ait Melloul, Inzegane, Dcheira-El Jihadia, Ouled Teima, Ouled
Berhil, Biougra, Ait Baha and Tiznit (more than 1230 capita/
km2), which exerts localized pressure on water resources. The
threshold value of the DENS indicator (which was considered to
be 57 capita/km2 according to the World Bank’s open-source
data: World Bank, 2014a and World Bank, 2014b) is exceeded
in 24 of the 35 subdivisions in the Souss Massa Region.
Although the region is still characterized by a predominance
of rural areas, it nevertheless has a high degree of urbanization,
with a growth rate in urban areas of 3.20% compared to
a decrease (of −0.50%) in rural areas (HCP 2014). The urbaniza­
tion rate of the region reached 56.30% in 2014, against 48.10% in
2004 and 39.50% in 1994 (HCP 2014). Several factors are related
to the urbanization progress, including the natural increase of
the urban population, the rural exodus and the extension of the
urban perimeter by the integration of certain rural localities.
4.3 Adaptive capacity indicators
4.3.1 Vegetation cover of the area (VEG)
The results obtained (Table 4) show that in most of the areas
(22 of the 35 subdivisions), the vegetation cover indicator
(VEG) is above the limit value of 31% (World Bank 2014b).
The agricultural areas are mainly in the provinces of Chtouka
Ait Baha and Taroudant, which are the highest vegetable- and
citrus-producing areas in the country (Choukr-Allah et al.
2016) (Fig. 7(a)). The area covered by vegetation, all species
combined (forests, wetlands and agricultural land), amounts to
12 356.5 km2, which represents 39.13% of the total area of the
region. Despite the existence of regional forest diversity (argan,
jujube, holm oak, cedar pine and juniper), the argan trees
dominate more than 63% of the regional forest area, covering
about 730.13 ha (MDGCL 2015).
The removal of vegetation can affect the hydrological cycle
and modify the hydrological properties in the soil surface area,
causing negative effects on the functioning of aquatic ecosys­
tems and contributing to water resource vulnerability. In addi­
tion, deforestation can increase the volatility of significant
rainfall, simultaneously causing erosion and sedimentation at
rivers downstream.
4.3.2 Consumption of alternative water resources (ALT)
According to the data originally collected by the Hydraulic
Basin Agency of Souss-Massa, 7.15% of total water consump­
tion in the region comes from unconventional resources (ALT
indicator), specifically in the municipalities of Agadir, Biougra,
Tafraout and Tiznit and the circle of Ait Baha (Fig. 7(b) and
Table 4). This unconventional water is reused for agricultural
land irrigation in the areas of Tiznit, Ait Baha, Tafraout and
10 I. MANSIR ET AL.

Figure 6. Distribution of sensitivity classes for each province of the Souss-Massa Region against their respective thresholds (black line): (a) water exploitation index
map; (b) irrigated crops map; (c) population density map.

Biougra and for golf irrigation in Agadir municipality
(ABHSM 2010, Malki et al. 2017).
4.3.3 Economically active population (EC)
The economically active population (EC) threshold selected in
this analysis is the world average for 2014, which is equal to
69% (World Bank 2014b). The value of the EC indicator in all
circles and municipalities is lower than the world average; it is
between 16.76% (Irherm circle) and 37.98% (Agadir munici­
pality) (HCP 2014).
This indicator reflects the social status of the population
and the physical strength of society to cope with water scarcity
Table 4. Calculation of the adaptive capacity indicators in the Souss-Massa Region before and after normalization (Nor). ALT: consumption of alternative water resources; EC: economically active population; ED: population who did
not proceed to secondary education; GDP: gross regional domestic product per capita; Mun: municipality; SD: standard deviation VEG: vegetation cover of the area.
Provinces Subdivisions VEG ALT EC ED GDP
VEG (%) Nor Mean (%) SD ALT (%) Nor Mean (%) SD EC (%) Nor Mean (%) SD ED (%) Nor Mean (%) SD GDP ($/capita) Nor Mean SD
Agadir (Mun.) 23.36 0.75 46.29 0.20 2.61 0.26 0.87 0.02 37.98% 0.55 32.80 0.04 55.10 0.51 71.04 0.14 5695.49 0.55 3204.50 2157.26
Agadir Ida Ou Tanane Circle: Agadir Banlieue 52.67 1.70 0.00 0.00 29.94 0.43 77.04 0.36 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Agadir Atlantique 62.83 2.03 0.00 0.00 30.49 0.44 80.97 0.35 1959.01 0.19
Ait Baha (Mun.) 17.63 0.57 54.29 0.27 0.00 0.00 20.53 0.28 30.77 0.45 30.92 0.07 74.30 0.38 77.97 0.09 1959.01 0.19 1959.01 0.00
Biougra (Mun.) 39.57 1.28 53.37 5.00 35.90 0.52 67.33 0.42 1959.01 0.19
Chtouka Ait Baha Circle: Ait Baha 58.26 1.88 49.28 4.93 19.61 0.28 90.93 0.31 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Biougra 88.35 2.85 0.00 0.00 35.76 0.52 81.28 0.34 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Belfaa- Massa 67.64 2.18 0.00 0.00 32.58 0.47 76.04 0.37 1959.01 0.19
Ait Melloul (Mun.) 61.61 1.99 60.85 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 34.01 0.49 34.19 0.02 66.19 0.42 67.03 0.07 1959.01 0.19 2254.63 661.03
Dcheira El Jihadia (Mun.) 17.96 0.58 0.00 0.00 36.54 0.53 56.58 0.49 1959.01 0.19
Inzegane-Ait Melloul Inezgane (Mun.) 60.77 1.96 0.00 0.00 36.10 0.52 66.40 0.42 3437.12 0.33
Lqliaa (Mun.) 78.93 2.55 0.00 0.00 32.86 0.48 71.26 0.39 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Ait Melloul 84.99 2.74 0.00 0.00 31.45 0.46 74.71 0.37 1959.01 0.19
Lakhsas (Mun.) 26.27 0.85 15.74 0.09 0.00% 0.00 0.00 0.00 28.86 0.42 28.08 0.05 68.14 0.41 73.64 0.11 1959.01 0.19 1959.01 0.00
Sidi Ifni Sidi Ifni (Mun.) 19.98 0.64 0.00% 0.00 34.76 0.50 61.51 0.46 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Ifni 8.04 0.26 0.00% 0.00 24.28 0.35 79.56 0.35 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Lakhsas 8.67 0.28 0.00 0.00 24.41 0.35 85.33 0.33 1959.01 0.19
Ait Iaaza (Mun.) 61.21 1.97 59.83 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 31.24 0.45 28.76 0.04 67.46 0.42 77.57 0.10 1959.01 0.19 1975.91 60.92
Aoulouz (Mun.) 52.14 1.68 0.00 0.00 28.22 0.41 79.73 0.35 1959.01 0.19
El Guerdane (Mun.) 86.00 2.77 0.00 0.00 32.71 0.47 69.30 0.40 1959.01 0.19
Irherm (Mun.) 28.66 0.92 0.00 0.00 26.48 0.38 74.91 0.37 1959.01 0.19
Oulad Berhil (Mun.) 87.75 2.83 0.00 0.00 29.65 0.43 74.21 0.38 1959.01 0.19
Taroudant Oulad Teima (Mun.) 79.00 2.55 0.00 0.00 31.91 0.46 70.73 0.40 1959.01 0.19
Taliouine (Mun.) 50.91 1.64 0.00 0.00 27.75 0.40 68.98 0.41 1959.01 0.19
Taroudannt (Mun.) 71.96 2.32 0.00 0.00 34.45 0.50 61.34 0.46 2178.67 0.21
Circle: Irherm 36.12 1.17 0.00 0.00 16.76 0.24 92.07 0.30 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Oulad Berhil 55.39 1.79 0.00 0.00 27.31 0.40 88.57 0.32 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Oulad Teima 76.53 2.47 0.00 0.00 28.38 0.41 82.25 0.34 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Taliouine 22.79 0.74 0.00 0.00 29.84 0.43 91.76 0.31 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Taroudannt 69.41 2.24 0.00 0.00 29.13 0.42 87.11 0.32 1959.01 0.19
Tafraout (Mun.) 15.19 0.49 18.24 0.14 31.09 3.11 18.29 0.27 37.57 0.54 27.51 0.08 67.97 0.41 76.08 0.11 1959.01 0.19 1873.75 190.65
Tiznit (Mun.) 7.00 0.23 60.34 5.00 33.15 0.48 61.57 0.45 1532.70 0.15
Tiznit Circle: Anezi 12.82 0.41 0.00 0.00 18.84 0.27 88.26 0.32 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Tafraout 13.02 0.42 0.00 0.00 23.15 0.34 83.37 0.34 1959.01 0.19
Circle: Tiznit 43.16 1.39 0.00 0.00 24.84 0.36 79.25 0.35 1959.01 0.19
HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL
11
12 I. MANSIR ET AL.

Figure 7. Distribution of adaptive capacity classes for each province of the Souss-Massa Region against their respective thresholds (black line): (a) vegetation cover, (b)
consumption of alternative water resources; (c) economically active population; (d) population that did not proceed to secondary education; (e) gross regional
domestic product per capita.

and associated stresses. An economically active population has
access to financial resources and can more easily adapt to any
changes that may result in limited water resource availability.
The EC indicator values for the 35 subdivisions show that
68.10% of the population is economically inactive and thus it
may be difficult for them to adapt to possible changes (Table 4
and Fig. 7(c)). Higher values of this indicator reflect higher
flexibility of individuals in adapting to new conditions and
living patterns that may be brought about by increased stresses
in water resources system, therefore, having higher human
resources capacity.
4.3.4 Population that did not proceed to secondary
education (ED)
In the whole region, the proportion of the population that did
not proceed to the secondary education level (ED indicator) is
73.16% (HCP 2014). The limit value selected for this indicator
is the global average in 2015, which, according to the collected
data, was 28% (World Bank 2014b). For all areas in the region,
the standardized value of ED is well below the threshold,
suggesting that the educational level of the region’s population
is not high compared to other regions of the country or to the
rest of the world (Table 4 and Fig. 7(d)).

The lowest level of education of the ED indicator is
noted in the Irherm circle, where 92.07% have not reached
the second level of education, the highest being in the
municipality of Agadir with 55.10% not having completed
their secondary studies. The population without secondary
education is considered likely to have difficulty in adapting
to any changes that may reduce the water resource avail­
ability in their way of life. The main causes of school
dropout are the school failure experienced by many chil­
dren, especially in rural areas, and the low attractiveness of
the public school, which offers no extracurricular activities
that are a source of fulfillment to children. This low attrac­
tion often leads to a lack of interest in education, school
failure or even dropping out by a significant portion of
students. In addition, school programmes do not offer
space for arts education, experimentation, and the question­
ing of children, activities that are essential to their develop­
ment. As a result, the population’s ability to adapt to
possible changes is considered to be at a low level.
4.3.5 Gross regional domestic product per capita (GDP)
In the whole region, the GDP is about $2409.34 per capita
(HCP 2014). The limit selected for the GDP in this analysis is
the world average in 2013, which is estimated at €10 280 per
capita according to the World Bank (2014b) database.
For all of the study areas, the standardized GDP value is
below the world average, as shown in Table 4 and Fig. 7(e),
indicating that the standard of living of the regional population
is low compared to other regions and countries of the world.
High values of the indicator reflect increased population access
to technology and financial resources, which can be used to
address potential water scarcity and scarcity problems (Babel
et al. 2011).
4.4 Global vulnerability index (VI)
After the determination and calculation of the weights of each
indicator, the following equation was obtained (Equation (3)).
Then, on the basis of this equation, a comparative assessment
of the level of vulnerability among 35 subdivisions was car­
ried out.
VI ¼ð0:23 � F þ 0:15 � WW þ 0:28 � WEI
þ0:20 � IC þ 0:14 � DENSÞ
(3)
ð0:24 � VEG þ 0:28 � ALT
þ0:19 � EC þ 0:17 � ED þ 0:12 � GDPÞ
According to the VI values, different levels of vulnerability can
occur, depending on different combinations of exposure, sen­
sitivity and adaptive capacity of the studied systems. In high-
exposure areas, high vulnerability results from increased sen­
sitivity and low adaptive capacity, while resistance is high in
systems with high adaptive capacity and less exposure to risks.
VI values greater than zero indicate that the system is vulner­
able to water scarcity, and those below zero indicate a robust
system. For the interpretation of VI, the scale was divided into
four ranges, each one indicating vulnerability or resilience
conditions of the studied systems (Fig. 8(a)).
HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 13
As shown in Fig. 8(a) and Table 5, most areas of the Souss-
Massa Region are marginally vulnerable to water stress (VI
> 0). Two of the 35 zones are resistant to water scarcity, with
IV values less than zero (Ait Baha circle and Irherm circle, with
the former being the most resistant). These two zones combine
very low exposure and sensitivity with an adaptive capacity
greater than the margin. The circles of Ifni, Lakhsass,
Taliouine, Tafraout and Anezi and the municipality of
Irherm are moderately vulnerable to water scarcity (0 ≤ VI <
0.50). The remaining areas are vulnerable or very vulnerable to
water scarcity due to their very high exposure, sensitivity and
moderate adaptive capacity (VI > 0.50).
According to the comparative assessment of the circles and
municipalities of the Souss-Massa Region, the municipality of
Ait Baha (VI = 3.02) is the most vulnerable and the circle of Ait
Baha (VI = −1.31) is the least vulnerable. These areas are
vulnerable to adverse water-related conditions to a smaller or
greater extent, requiring intervention measures to improve
their status and to meet natural and societal needs.
The statistical analysis shows that the values are normally
distributed and that there is no great variability between the
provinces, with the exception of the province of Chtouka Ait
Baha, where the standard deviation is well above the average,
indicating a preponderance of low values (Fig. 8(b)).
4.5 Vulnerability index contribution
Many complex indicators for assessing the vulnerability of
water systems found in the literature are applied at regional,
national or international levels, making it impossible to deter­
mine the specific local pressures and needs of a small commu­
nity or watershed (Alessa et al. 2008, Babel et al. 2011).
Analysis on such a large scale does not provide sufficient
information to understand complex local problems and iden­
tify solutions to resolve them, but can serve as a preliminary
step to identify areas for further analysis or for rough compar­
isons and localization.
In addition, the application of other complex indicators for
assessing the vulnerability of water systems, which are applied
on a smaller scale, is limited to the administrative boundaries
of study areas (e.g. Sullivan 2011) or areas with specific char­
acteristics (e.g. Alessa et al. 2008, Gbetibouo and Ringler 2009).
In the present paper, vulnerability assessment of water systems
is carried out at the spatial scale of the watershed to capture the
current situation. However, there are no restrictions on the
spatial or temporal scale of application of the proposed
method. VI can be used to compare vulnerability between
regions, but also between time periods for these regions,
which can range from entire states to sub-basins of
a watershed or small communities, with appropriate adjust­
ment of indicators. VI is also a measure for evaluating possible
interventions, helping to identify the most appropriate mea­
sures to address water scarcity in the areas under study, and
can be used as a decision-making tool on issues related to
water resource use and management (in combination, of
course, with other tools that assess different factors, e.g. eco­
nomic ones).
Despite numerous vulnerability studies carried out in
Morocco and the Souss-Massa Region (Tagma et al. 2009,
14 I. MANSIR ET AL.
Figure 8. (a) Thematic vulnerability index map of the Souss-Massa Region; (b) graph of the vulnerability index for each province of the Souss-Massa Region.
Schilling et al. 2012, Ouhamdouch et al. 2016, Baki et al. 2017,
Mansir et al. 2018), this is the first time that this method has
been applied in the region to identify, calculate and assess the
vulnerability of water resources in each circle and municipality
of the region. The adaptation and application of this method,
as proposed in this paper, provide a systematic framework for
the analysis of the identified indicators, with appropriate mea­
sures to address them. Finally, through the application of the
proposed methodological framework, a database is being cre­
ated with the vulnerability indicators used for the calculation
of the vulnerability index of the region. This database is an
innovative contribution of this work, as most of the data it
contains are not readily available at this spatial scale and have
been developed after calculations and research within the
framework of this analysis.
4.6 Formulation and assessment of alternative
adaptation strategies
To develop strategies for mitigating vulnerability, the critical
vulnerability indicators, i.e. those having higher weights in the
VI equation (Equation (3)), must be taken into account and
their values must be reduced. Based on the indicators in the VI
equation and their corresponding weights, diverse
 HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES JOURNAL 15

Table 5. Calculation of the water resources vulnerability index (VI) in the Souss- The IC, WW, WEI, VEG and ALT indicators would be
Massa Region. Mun: municipality; SD: standard deviation.
directly affected by the implementation of unconventional
Provinces Subdivisions Value Mean SD
water resource use strategies. This approach also indirectly
Agadir Ida Ou Tanane Agadir (Mun.) 2.88 1.67 1.09
Circle: Agadir Banlieue 1.35
affects the rest of the socio-economic indicators, such as
Circle: Agadir Atlantique 0.77 GDP, EC, ED, DENS and also F, which is directly related to
Ait Baha (Mun.) 3.02 1.56 1.68 DENS.
Biougra (Mun.) 1.65
Chtouka Ait Baha Circle: Ait Baha −1.31
Treated wastewater or desalinated seawater has been pro­
Circle: Biougra 2.15 ven to be a reliable alternative water resource that can play
Circle: Belfaa- Massa 2.30 a vital role in integrated water resources management, addres­
Ait Melloul (Mun.) 2.73 2.47 0.47
Dcheira El Jihadia (Mun.) 2.96
sing both water demand and supply, as well as wastewater
Inzegane-Ait Melloul Inezgane (Mun.) 2.71 disposal and environment protection. Furthermore, the use
Lqliaa (Mun.) 1.90 of unconventional water resources in agriculture can be com­
Circle: Ait Melloul 2.03
Lakhsas (Mun.) 2.07 1.38 1.19
bined with additional vulnerability mitigation interventions,
Sidi Ifni Sidi Ifni (Mun.) 2.71 such as the use of water-saving irrigation techniques to avoid
Circle: Ifni 0.44 losses to the irrigation system (Mansir et al. 2018).
Circle: Lakhsas 0.31
Ait Iaaza (Mun.) 2.99 1.52 1.02
The region has six main wastewater treatment plants: two of
Aoulouz (Mun.) 2.19 them operate by percolation/infiltration on sand and four by
El Guerdane (Mun.) 2.07 natural lagoons. There are also many private and public treat­
Irherm (Mun.) 0.31
Oulad Berhil (Mun.) 2.73
ment plants (e.g. airport, Douar-Oulad-Mimoun station in
Taroudant Oulad Teima (Mun.) 2.45 Chtouka, agricultural cooperative) and several small stations
Taliouine (Mun.) 1.43 spread over different municipalities and circles in the region.
Taroudannt (Mun.) 2.40
Circle: Irherm −0.05
In addition, several wastewater treatment plants are under
Circle: Oulad Berhil 0.99 construction in the Souss-Massa Region, particularly in the
Circle: Oulad Teima 1.09 Agadir Atlantic circle (Malki et al. 2017). However, connection
Circle: Taliouine 0.22
Circle: Taroudannt 0.94
to the sewerage network remains relatively weak in some
Tafraout (Mun.) 0.63 0.72 0.70 municipalities, such as Taroudant and Ouled Teima where
Tiznit (Mun.) 1.92 only 63–85% of infrastructure is connected to the sanitation
Tiznit Circle: Anezi 0.42
Circle: Tafraout 0.10
network (Malki et al. 2017).
Circle: Tiznit 0.54 Given the persistence of several climatic conditions and the
overexploitation of water resources in the region, and to mate­
rialize the efforts started in recent years, decision makers have
opted to build a seawater desalination station to compensate
vulnerability mitigation strategies can be developed and for­ for the lack of irrigation water and to increase the supply of
mulated for the domestic, urban and agricultural sectors. The drinking water in the region. The project, launched as
results of the present evaluation can contribute useful input in a participatory concept between the private and public sectors,
the classification of adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerabil­ will be achieved by June 2021. We noted also that many farm­
ity, and can assist with decision-making and planning pro­ ers practice the use of brackish water in the coastal area of
cesses for enabling the application of recommended Chtouka aquifer. Furthermore, The National Plan of Liquid
interventions, if united with alternative assessment tools. Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment Program (PNA) was
For the purpose of tackling the problem of water resource launched in 2005, jointly by the Department of the
vulnerability and to meet the needs of the growing population, Environment and the Ministry of the Interior (MEMDE
the region is urged to take up the challenge of mobilizing 2011) and sets the following specific objectives for 2030:
unconventional water resources, such as desalination and was­
tewater reuse, for agricultural and industrial purposes. The use ● Achieve an overall level of connection of wastewater
of unconventional water resources specifically in agriculture production units to the wastewater evacuation network
can contribute substantially to more efficient use of water of 90% by 2030;
resources and can reduce water scarcity problems (Stathatou ● Reduce domestic pollution by 90% by 2030;
et al. 2016, Mansir et al. 2018). Moreover, it would directly ● Treat and reuse 100% of collected wastewater by 2030.
influence indicators linked to water use in the agricultural
sector, which is the largest consumer of water in the region. The efforts of using treated wastewater for landscape forage
Strategies for agricultural applications of unconventional irrigation will contribute to efficient integrated water resource
water instead of freshwater resources are most effective in management (IWRM) in the region of Souss-Massa.
terms of vulnerability mitigation because they include the
majority of indicators with significant weights. In addition,
5 Conclusion
freshwater would then be devoted mainly to domestic use.
However, consideration of the ALT consumption indicator is The current water-related problems affecting the Souss-Massa
rarely found in assessments of the vulnerability of water sys­ Region are caused by imbalances between supply and demand,
tems that are proposed in the literature (e.g. Hamouda et al. with WEI exceeding 100% in many circles and municipalities.
2009, Jun et al. 2011). High population growth in urban areas (of 3.20% per year), heavy
16 I. MANSIR ET AL.
dependence of agriculture on irrigation (for 42.75% of the crops),
water pollution and insufficient funds for the exploitation of
available resources require integrated management of water
resources.
The adopted methodology facilitates the study of vulner­
ability and a comparison of each circle and municipality of
the region. The relevance of the study area, the availability
of data and the avoidance of duplication were the three
main criteria for the selection of the 10 indicators, which
take into account both the hydrological and socio-economic
characteristics of the studied water systems. At the same
time, these indicators express the three components of vul­
nerability: exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. This
method can be very easily replicated and applied in other
areas or sub-basins around the world, as a relatively small
number of indicators (10 indicators) are used, which
limits the amount of data needed to assess the vulnerability
of water systems to manageable levels. Furthermore, the
proposed indicators are among those most widely used,
and for their calculation there generally are readily available
data.
The assessment of the water resource vulnerability in each
subdivision of the Souss-Massa Region, based on 10 specific
indicators used to calculate the composite VI, shows that the
region seems highly vulnerable. The majority of subdivisions
have reached high levels of water resource vulnerability (VI >
0.50), with the exception of Ait Baha and Irherm, where the VI
is negative and equal to −1.31 and −0.05, respectively.
Statistical analysis showed that for most of the exposure and
sensitivity indicators, the standard deviation is higher than the
average value, which indicates a heterogeneity between sub­
divisions within each province. On the other hand, we noted
that there is not a great variability between the subdivisions of
each province regarding the calculation of the VI, except in the
case of the province of Chtouka Ait Baha.
The results of this research allow users to reflect on the
various measures to be reevaluated, whether in terms of
reviewing resource allocation or mobilizing other resources
to improve adaptive capacity. Overexploitation and limited
availability of freshwater are a main challenge in the region.
To reduce the pressure on blue water resources prioritized
for drinking water supply, agricultural fields (at least large
farms) should make greater use of unconventional water
resources, which are now part of the integrated and sustain­
able management of water resources. It is an interesting
measure for adapting to climate change and reducing water
vulnerability in arid areas, and allows mitigating the pressure
on conventional water through appropriate and safe man­
agement. Furthermore, with its inherent flexibility, the
approach has demonstrated its potential for application in
different times and areas for monitoring and comparison
purposes.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the funding received from the European
Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme
(MADFORWATER). This work was carried out also with the support of
the CHARISMA project with the assistance of Academy of Hassan II.
Thanks to the editor and reviewers for their comments and suggestions
for improving this manuscript. We also thank the Hydraulic Basin
Agency of Souss-Massa (ABHSM), National Office of Electricity and
Drinking Water (ONEE), Autonomous Multi-Services Agency of Agadir
(RAMSA), High Commission for Planning (HCP) and Regional Office for
Agricultural Development of Souss-Massa (ORMVA) for providing the
necessary data.
Data availability statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corre­
sponding author. The data are not publicly available.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
Funding was received from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research
and Innovation program under Grant Agreement no. 688320
(MADFORWATER project; www.madforwater.eu) and from the the
CHARISMA project with the assistance of Academy of Hassan II.
Author contributions
Imane Mansir: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investi­
gation, data curation, writing – original draft, writing – review and
editing, resources, visualization. Lhoussaine Bouchaou: conceptualiza­
tion, supervision, validation, investigation, writing – review and editing,
project administration, funding acquisition. Bouchra Chebli: supervision,
validation, investigation, writing – review and editing. Yassine Ait
Brahim: writing – review and editing, formal analysis. Choukr-Allah
Redouane: conceptualization, supervision, validation, investigation, writ­
ing – review and editing, project administration, funding acquisition.
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