WORK

EN V IR ON M EN T
DESIGN
VISUAL SENSE
2022
TABLE
OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION V I S I O N A N D THE EYE LIGHTING A N D I L L U M I N AT I O N

▸VISUAL D E F E C T S ▸LIGHT A N D W O R K P L A C E
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ▸VISUAL S Y S T E M LI GH TI N G
▸ S Y M P T O M S OF I M P R O P E R
LI GH TI N G
P R I N C I P L E OF LIGHTING D E S I G N
▸ E L E M E N T S OF L I G H T I N G
▸ M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Vision is the most valuable human sense. Human are visually directed and depend on their eyesight
every waking minute of the day. The way they use their eyes can define how well they learn, work, and
perform throughout their lives. Eyes are dependent on light and lighting, one of the most overlooked
and underemphasized components of workplaces. Continuously increasing, tasks are done at close
viewing distance and employees work under a variety of workplace conditions. Employees visual
system must adjust to these changes to function optimally. Whether the job is being done at a
computer or in a warehouse, the field of vision must be free of reflections and glare. Lighting is
effective in the workplace when it allows the worker to see the details of a given task easily and
accurately. Lighting and vision are mutually dependent, and both must be considered when designing a
working environment for maximum efficiency.
LEARNING
OBJ ECTIV ES
Upon completion of this module the students
will be able to:

1.Solve appropriate light level for a particular

space or work area.
2.Examine how lighting can affect human
performance, morale, and safety.
 VISION AND THE
EYE
THE H U M A N EYE THE ST R U C T U R E OF THE EYE V I S U A L D EF EC T S VISUAL S Y S T E M
THE H U M A N
EYE
The eye can detect bright light or
The human eye is the organ which
dim light, but it cannot sense
gives us the sense of sight and
objects when light is absent.
allowing us to observe and learn more
about the surrounding world than we
70 percent of all sensory receptors
do with any of the other four senses. are in the eyes
The vision is a photoreceptor sense
 2022

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

HOW DO
WE SEE?
2022
 2022

HOW WE SEE
 2022

VISUAL DEFECTS
Many people have difficulties in focusing on objects due to
myopia (near-sightedness), hyperopia (far-sightedness),
astigmatism (the vision along vertical axis is different from
the horizontal axis), and presbyopia (changes due to age).
Refractive errors are caused by the shape of the eye and by
the changes in the lens of the eye.

VISUAL DEFECTS
Myopia is sometimes referred to
Asthenopia is as ‘nearsightedness’ because the
near point is closer to the eye in
diminished visual acuity
myopic people (for an equal
associated with
amount of accommodation) than it
eyestrain, pain in the
is to a healthy eye. Myopic
eyes and headache. It is
individuals cannot bring distant
common in people who objects into focus. Myopic
individuals can often carry out
carry out near visual work
close tasks such as VDU work or
for long periods and
sewing with ease but experience
naturally reverses shortly
difficulties with tasks such as
after the cessation of driving when target objects are
close visual work. more than 5–10 meters away.
Hypermetropia is sometimes
referred to as ‘farsightedness’
because the near point is
farther away from the eye (for
an equal amount of
accommodation) than it is in a
healthy eye. Hypermetropic
individuals can be said to lack
refractive power and may tire
quickly when carrying out
work in which the viewing
distance is short (such as
using a VDU).
2022
In astigmatism, there is an
unequal curvature of the refractive
of the eye such that the refractive
power
is not the same in one plane as in
another. When an object of
complex shape is viewed, the
retinal image may be out of focus in
one plane but not in others.
Astigmatic individuals often perform
quite well when given simple eye
tests because the defect is
corrected by the depth of focus of
the eye. However, they may
experience severe difficulties at
night or when there is excessive
glare.
 2022

VISUAL S Y S T E M
A complete eye examination is more than just reading letters on a chart 20 feet away.
This is simply one test to measure the function of one part of the visual system.
The eyeball is just the receiver of light.
Visual processing is accomplished in the brain, where visual perception occurs.
The visual cortex is the largest system in the human brain and is responsible for
processing the visual image. It lies at the occipital lobe of the brain above the cerebellum.
Eyesight is the process of properly focusing the incoming light to the correct area of the
retina, whereas visual perception is the process of taking that information into the brain,
making sense of it, and reacting appropriately
 2022

VISUAL S Y S T E M
When we walk into a dark movie theatre, it will take a few minutes before the eyes
adapt to the darkness. After that, we can see the surrounding people. This process is
called dark adaptation, and it is achieved by photo-chemical processes in the eye.
When light hits the photopigments, they undergo a chemical reaction that converts
the light energy into electrical activity. This chemical reaction is referred to as light
adaptation. In this process, the photopigments are decomposed. Intense light will
decompose the photopigments rapidly and completely, thus reducing the sensitivity
of the eyes so that it becomes difficult to see in dim light.
 2022

LIGHTING AND
ILLUM IN ATION
LI GH T S O U R C E S OF LIGHT W O R K P L A C E L IG H T IN G E L E M E N T S OF L IG H T IN G M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
WHAT I S LIGHT?
Light may be defined as electromagnetic radiation that can
affect the sense of sight.
The sun, a lamp, or an electronic display generates light.
The moon, the walls of a room, or a page of print reflect
light.
The most important factor for human vision is luminance, the
light energy reflected from a surface (unless we stare into a
light source).
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SOURCES OF LIGHT
Daylight

Electric Lighting
 2022

W OR KP LACE
LIGHTING
An important factor that affects workers’ ability to see well in the workplace is the
quality of light. Quality lighting, created by attention to brightness, contrast,
quantity, and color of light, results in visibility and visual comfort. Contrast between
a task object and its immediate background must be sufficient to enable the worker
to clearly view the task. Contrast ratios should be established to maximize
productivity without increasing eyestrain. In general, a 1:3:10 ratio is ideal; that is,
the task area should be less than 3 times as bright as its immediate surroundings
(within 25° of the visual target) and 10 times brighter than the peripheral area (past
25°).
W OR KP LACE
LIGHTING
Lighting in the workplace has many different functions.
The following are some of these functions:
contributes to the overall workplace environment,
illuminates specific tasks so that they can be completed accurately and
efficiently,
plays an important role in accident prevention, and
contributes to security in and around the workplace.
A proper lighting system for a workstation considers the visual demands of the
task(s) and balances general or ambient lighting with task specific lighting to
achieve comfort, efficiency and accuracy.
 2022

WHAT H A P P E N S WHEN LIGHTING

IS IMPROPER?
S Y M P T O M S F R O M TOO LITTLE
S Y M P T O M S F R O M TOO M U C H
LIGHT INCLUDE:
LIGHT INCLUDE:
Double vision and headaches.
irritation, burning, tearing, Reduced ability to quickly adjust focus between
and redness of the eyelids. near and far objects.
Reduced sharpness of vision and sensitivity to
reduced sharpness of vision and
contrast.
sensitivity to contrast. Musculoskeletal problems from adapting poor
postures to compensate for the inadequate light.
 2022

WHAT H A P P E N S WHEN LIGHTING

IS IMPROPER?
EFFECTS O N W O R K INCLUDE:
decrease in productivity
decrease in accuracy
decrease in quality of work.
increase in accidents.

Poor lighting is also a workplace security hazard, especially for shift workers who may
not have coworkers nearby or must walk to a bus or parking lot after dark.

ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
Q U A N T I T Y OF
LIGHT
The level of quantity of light falling on a
surface is called illuminance. More
light is needed for fast paced fine
detailed work with low contrast, such as
rapid reading of small letters in pencil,
than for rough assembly work. The
Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, has developed
recommended illuminance levels that
account for the task, the age of the
worker, and the speed and accuracy
required.
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QUALITY OF
LUMINANCE
LIGHT amount of light reflected or
coming from a light source or
There are several elements
surface. It is important that there
of light quality that must also
is not a great difference between
be
the luminance levels for the task
accounted for when determining
and that of the surrounding area.
the proper lighting for a
Luminance levels for the
workstation or work environment.
immediate area surrounding the
These include luminance,
tasks should be one third that of
reflectance, contrast, glare,
the task. The further from the
and color.
task the less light is needed.

ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
REFLECTANCE
The percentage of light falling on a
surface that is reflected. In an office the
most reflective surface should be the
ceiling; the least reflective should be the
floor and in between are the reflectance of
walls and furniture. In general, reflections
from surfaces within the field of view
should be minimized. Color and finish are
used to control the reflectance of a
surface. A totally black surface reflects no
light. For a white surfaces the reverse is
true. Also a matte finish reflects less light
than a shiny one of the same color.
CONTRAST
The relationship between the light
coming from an object and the
immediate background, such as
words on paper. High contrast is
important for fine detail work.
Using a black pen in place of a
pencil for handwritten copy will
increase the contrast and improve
the readability.
2022
GLARE
occurs when there is too much direct or
reflected light within the field of view.
Glare causes a decrease in contrast which
results in decreased visibility and physical
discomfort. Even low-level indirect glare
that may not be noticeable can cause eye
strain and fatigue. The adverse effect of
glare on visibility increases with age. Glare
can be controlled by using indirect light
sources and positioning direct and
reflected light sources outside the field of
view. Special anti-glare screens are
available for visual display terminals if
necessary.
 2022

ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
Color can affect both the mood and the perception of size in a workplace.
Blues and greens are considered relaxing or soothing.
Orange, yellow and brown colors are thought to be stimulating.
Red and violet are considered alarming or aggressive.
Pastel colors reduce the impact of color.
Cool colors such as blues and greens can make a space seem
larger. Reds and oranges can make a space seem smaller.

Different types of lights will influence how colors are perceived. If the light source is not
coordinated with the color of a work area colors may be perceived as off or strange. Visibility
may be more different.
 2022

ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
VISUAL ACUITY VISIBILITY
Visual acuity can be defined in several ways, usually done is the clarity with which a human can see an
as the ability to detect small details and discriminate small
object. There are 3 critical factors in visibility:
objects by eyesight. Visual acuity depends on the shape of
visual angle, contrast and illuminance.
the object and on the wavelength, the illumination, the
luminance, the contrast, and the duration of the light Visual angle: size of target on retina; the angle the
stimulus. Visual acuity is usually measured at viewing image takes up on retina.
distances of 6 m (20 ft) and 0.4 m (1.3 ft), because factors
Contrast: relative difference in luminance (light
that determine the resolution of an object differ in far and
reflected) for two surfaces
near viewing. For determining acuity, high-contrast patterns
are presented to the observer. The most common patterns
are either Snellen letters. The smallest detail detected or
identified is taken as the threshold. These measures of acuity
primarily depend on the ability to see edge differences Where L is the luminance of each surface.
between black and white stimuli at rather high illuminance
levels.
M EAS UR EM EN T
OF LIGHT
Measurement of light is essential in the design and evaluation of workplaces.
Because the eye adapts to light levels, automatically compensating for any
changes in illumination, subjective estimates of the amount of light in a work
area are likely to be misleading. Data concerning the visual response of the eye
have been used to define lighting measures. The measurement of light is known
as photometry. The main photometric units are luminous intensity,
luminous flux, luminance and illuminance.
2022
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
Illuminance
Lighting intensity is measured in candalas (cd), or lumens, where 1 cd = 12.57
lumens.
Illuminance is the amount of light shining on an object, measured in foot-candles
(fc):

where d is in feet.
Intensity is foot-candles (fc)
luminous intensity is candela, luminous flux is lumens
Illuminance can be measured also in lux = cd/m2
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
Luminance
the amount of light reflected from an object,
It impacts our ability to see objects,
It is measured in foot-lamberts (fL):

Luminance can be measured by a photometer (pointed at surface).

 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF ILLUMINATION
AND LUMINANCE
Reflectance
determined by the physical and color properties of an object; how much light is
absorbed or thrown back at the viewer? It is the property of a surface which is
determined by both color and surface finish and expressed as a percentage of light
reflected (luminance).
Reflectance is a ration between:
The measured reflectance of the target surface,
The measured reflectance of a standard Kodak neutral test card = 0.9
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
Reflectance
the proportion of light reflected by a lighted surface is referred to as reflectance.
That is,

REFLECTANCE = L U M I N A N C E / I L L U M I N A N C E

when luminance is measured in ft-lamberts, and illuminance in ft-candles.

if the luminance is measured in candelas/m2, illuminance in lux, the reflectance

becomes:
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
TABLE 1.1 A N D 1.2, S H O W S THE T YPIC A L REFLECTANCE VALUES
 R ECOM M EN DED
ILLUM IN ATION

Table 2, shows how much

light (in fC) is needed for
different types of tasks.

2022
R ECOM M EN DED
ILLUM IN ATION

Similar to Table 2, it
shows General and
Specific Illumination
Recommendations
(Adapted from IESNA,
1988.)
2022
 2022

M E A S U R E M E N T OF LIGHT
To compute or measure recommended illumination:
Pick general category based on activity
Adjust for this three factors. The amount of light needed is a function of:
The nature of the task (speed/accuracy of task),
The worker (age and visual health),
The reflectance of the task background.

This Table 3, shows the weight factors used in the light needed.
 2022

M E A S U R E M E NT OF LIGHT
For Example, table 2 will give you a range of lighting levels (low, medium, high) suitable for a
general task category:

After determining each weight and summing them, a similar set of rules are used to assign a high,
medium, or low value within the range of illumination values suggested for the particular category. That
is, choose between
Low: -3 -2
Medium: -1 0 +1
High: +2 +3
 2022

EXAMPLE 1
A luminaire producing a luminous intensity of 1500 candela in all directions
below the horizontal, is suspended 4m above a surface. Calculate the
illuminance produced on the surface immediately below the luminaire.
 2022

SOLUTION:
Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2

1 meter = 3.281 ft; 4m = 13.124 ft.

Therefore,
Illuminance = 1500cd/(13.124ft)2 = 8.709 fc or
Illuminance = 1500cd/(4m)2 = 93.75 lux
 2022

EXAMPLE 2
H & R Block (tax preparation company) hires retired people (60 +
years old) to prepare taxes from January thru April. The task must
be done with reasonable speed (particularly in April) and high
accuracy. The notes people give to their tax preparers range from
high quality printed receipts, to handwritten pencil notes on yellow
notebook paper (low contrast) Is it sufficient to light the tax
preparer’s desk with a single 800 lumen 1 incandescent bulb, if the
bulb is 5 feet above the worker’s desk, and the surroundings are
cream colored?
 2022

EXAMPLE 2

C O N S I D E R T H I S Q U E S T IO N I N TWO
PA R T S :

How many fc’s are needed?

Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient to provide that illuminance, if
the light source is 5 ft. from the work?
 2022

M E A S U R E M E NT OF LIGHT
For Example, table 2 will give you a range of lighting levels (low, medium, high) suitable for a
general task category:

After determining each weight and summing them, a similar set of rules are used to assign a high,
medium, or low value within the range of illumination values suggested for the particular category. That
is, choose between
Low: -3 -2
Medium: -1 0 +1
High: +2 +3
 2022

S OLUTION :
1. How many fc’s are needed?
Find reflectance of surroundings: light cream gives you approximately 75% reflectance.
Find the general task category: Category F
Find weighting factors based on:
Task characteristic value weight
Age of workers 55 + +1
Reflectance of surroundings greater than 70% -1
Criticality: speed and accuracy critical +1

Total Weight = 1 + (-1) + 1 = + 1

To find amount of light needed, use weighting factor to pick illuminance value:
since total weight factor is equal to +1, it requires medium illumination, need at least 150 fc!
 2022

SOLUTION:
2. Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient?

Is a 800 lumen bulb sufficient to provide 150 fc on the work surface, if the light source is 5 ft.
from the work surface?
1 cd = 12.57 lumens
800 lumens to candela: 800 lumens * 1 cd/12.57 lumens = 63.64 cd

To compute Illuminance (fc):

Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2
63.64 cd/(5ft)2 = 2.5 fc

Therefore, this bulb at 5 ft is inadequate! (Ok for general lighting in a public area).
 2022

EX AM P LE:
A female worker who is 40 years old is sitting at her desk illuminated by a
200-candela source 1.5 meters above it. She is writing with green ink
having a reflectance of 30 percent on a yellow note pad with reflectance
of 60 percent. The speed and accuracy are important. Determine if the
existing light source is sufficient given that the task of a female worker
belongs to the E-category.
 2022

SOLUTION:
How many fc's
needed? Medium = 75
fc

To compute Illuminance (fc):

Illuminance (fc) = intensity/d2
200 cd/(4.92ft)2 = 8.26 fc

Therefore, the existing light source is

inadequate!
 2022

EX AM P LE:
In the Dorben Company, an industrial engineer designed a
workstation where the seeing task was difficult because of the
size of the components going into the assembly. The desired
brightness was 100 foot Lamberts and the workstation was
painted a medium green having a reflectance of 50 percent.
What illumination in foot candles would be required at this
workstation to provide the desired brightness? Estimate the
required illumination if you repainted the workstation with a light
cream paint.
 2022

LIGHTIN G
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES S T R AT E G I E S IMPROVEMENTS GUIDELINES

PRINCIPLE OF LIGHTING DESIGN
1.Provide enough lighting to ensure an adequate level of
visibility for the tasks that will be performed.
2. Less illumination is needed when the visual acuity
needed to perform the task is low, or when the contrast
between a visual detail and the background is high.
3.Provide general illumination over a room for the most
typical tasks and supplement with auxiliary light sources
for more exacting visual tasks.
4.More illumination and contrast is often helpful to people
who are older or visually impaired.
5.More illumination or contrast is needed when viewing
times are short. This is also true if the critical visual
details are on moving targets, or if their location or
presence is unpredictable.
2022
6.Increasing either the contrast between an object and its
background or the size of critical details can be a better
strategy than increasing the amount of illumination.
7.Ambient illumination of luminous displays such as CRTs and
LEDs should be minimized to improve contrast. Light sources
should be placed so they do not directly illuminate the surface
of luminous displays.
8.Eliminate or try to minimize direct sources of glare or
shadows by using indirect lighting or by appropriate positioning
of light sources.
9.Avoid or minimize extreme transitions in illumination levels
between adjoining areas of the task or environment.
10.Match the color and color rendering properties of light
sources to the task-related needs of the people using the
environment.

STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY S A V IN G S AND
EFFICIENCY
1.more efficient lamps, ballasts, and
fixtures.
2. better placement and arrangement of light
fixtures, shields, and shades.
3. use of daylight.
4.timers and occupancy sensors that turn
lights off when they are not needed.
5.on-off and dimmer switches in convenient
locations so that people can turn off or
reduce unneeded lighting.
2022
6.photoelectric sensors that sense the amount
of daylight in the room and
either switch lamps on or off or adjust the lamp
brightness accordingly.
7.localized lighting in areas where more light is
needed.
8.reduced lighting levels in nonproduction
areas.
9.regular cleaning of lamps, fixtures, windows,
skylights, walls, and ceilings.
10. placing lights in better locations.
 2022

STRATEGIES FOR AMBIENT

ILLUMINATION
1.providing shades and window curtains to keep direct sunlight off the
surfaces of CRTs or other displays.
2. placing shades on lamps and light fixtures.
3.locating light sources well above the work surface so they are not directly
casting their light on the screen.
4.providing dimmer switches so people can adjust the light levels
downwards.
5.changing the orientation of workstations to reduce reflections off of the
display surface.
 2022

I M P R O V I N G VISIBILITY
One can improve visability in several ways:
▸Increase source intensity (increase wattage, change to more efficient type:
florescent, halogen)
▸Bring target closer to viewer
▸Bring target closer to light source
▸Increase contrast
▸Increase target size (big print books)

Solutions to Glare
▸Change to indirect lighting,
▸Change lighting angle, or work surface angle,
▸Use non-glare surfaces,
▸Use polarizing filters on light sources or eyewear
 2022

GUIDELINES FOR THE VISUAL DESIGN OF VDU

TASKS
 2022

VISUAL
ER GON OM ICS
 2022

ISO 8995-1:2002(en) Lighting of work

ISO FOR places — Part 1: Indoor. This

LIGHTIN G International Standard was prepared

jointly by CIE-TC 3-21 and ISO/TC
DESIGN 159/SC 5. It replaces publication CIE
AND 29.2-1986 and deals with Lighting
Requirements for Indoor Work Places.
REQUIRE BSI Standards Publication_ Light and
MENTS Lighting of Workplaces.pdf
QUESTIONS
FOR
DIS CUS S ION
2022
September 2022

Work Environment
Design
AUDITORY SENSE
 AUDITORY SENSE

1 Introduction

To d a y ' s 2 Learning Objectives

A ge nd a 3 Our Ears

4 Noise and its Health Effects

5 Noise Measurement

6 Noise Control Strategies

 AUDITORY SENSE

In t r o d u c t io n

Hearing forms a vital part of our daily life. I t allows us to perceive the world of acoustic
vibrations all around us and provides us with our most important channels of
communication. I n this module, it will review the basic mechanism of hearing, beginning
with the anatomy and physiology of the ear and the brief review of the auditory pathways
up to the auditory cortex.
Meanwhile, workplaces and other environments may contain equipment and machinery
that produce significant levels of noise. More so, every operating machine tool, fan, or
compressor in a building is a potential source of noise. This module provides an overview of
the events which deals with the effects of noise on human performance and comfort. I t will
discuss related problem about auditory sense and are addressed from a human factors
engineering perspective while several important noise related standards and regulations
will also be covered.
 Learning
O b je c t iv e s

Upon completion of this module the students will be able to:

Evaluate noise hazards in a workplace or

1
environment.
Illustrate engineering methods for reducing noise
2
in the workplace.
Icebreaker
Before we start with the session, let's warm up a little with this icebreaker question:

Do you like listening to music?

What's the loudest sound you heard today?
What’s the softest/lowest sound you heard today?
What's your favorite sound?
What sound do you find irritating?
What do you feel when there's too much noise?
 Auditory Sense

Our Ears
 1 Our Ears

Sound can reach the inner ear via t wo different paths. Sound may be transmitted through bony structures,
but this requires very high intensities to be effective.

Normally, the sound that we perceive is airborne and travels through the ear canal, where it excites the
eardrum and then the structures behind it, as described in the following:
Outer ear. After traveling through the ear canal, a sound wave arriving at the eardrum makes it vibrate
according to the frequency of the sound. Resonance effects within the outer ear and the canal amplify the
intensity of the sound by 10–15 decibels by the time it reaches the eardrum.

The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the pharynx (part of our breathing apparatus). When the tube
is open, it allows the air pressure in the middle ear to remain equal to the external air pressure. But when the
tube is obstructed, such as in the case of a cold or an ear infection, pressure equalization may not function,
and one feels pressure in the ear, even pain, and cannot hear well.
I n an airplane, especially during rapid descent, a clogged Eustachian tube can delay the equalization of
pressure between the inner ear and the surroundings.
You may try to open the tube by chewing gum or by willful excessive yawning, but “pumping” your outer ear
with the hand will not help your middle ear.
 AUDITORY SENSE

The S t r u c t u r e
of the Ear

The ear converts sound waves in air

into nerve impulses, which travel along
the auditory nerve to the brain. Further
processing in the brain results in the
perception of sound and the
recognition of auditory patterns. A
simplified diagram of the ear is
presented.
The S t r u c t u r e o f t h e Ear

Hearing requires three main steps. I n each, energy is converted from one form to another:
1.Pressure variations due to longitudinal waves in the environment are guided into the
external auditory meatus where they cause a mechanical vibration of the tympanic
membrane (eardrum). The tympanic membrane is connected to three small bones
(ossicles) in the middle ear which, in turn, are caused to vibrate

2.Mechanical vibration of the auditory ossicles is converted to wave motion in the

cochlear fluid at the oval window.

3.Wave motion in the cochlear fluid is converted to nerve impulses in the auditory
nerve by hair cells in the cochlea.
 AUDITORY SENSE

Humans can hear a remarkable

r a n g e o f sound. W e c a n
d i f f e r e n c e in l o u d n e s s a s w e l l a s
p i t c h , w h i c h is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
b u i ldi ng b l o c k o f m e l o d y .
Hearing Sounds

Sound is a vibration that stimulates an auditory sensation.

A sound contains a mixture of frequencies, whereas a tone is a single-frequency

oscillation.

The measurement unit of frequencies is hertz (Hz; oscillations per second).

We often describe our personal perception of tone frequencies as pitch.

Frequencies t h a t w e H e a r

We cannot hear sounds below 16 Hz, but we may feel such infrasonic
vibrations; nor can we hear ultrasonic, above 2 0 kHz, but dogs and other
animals do.
Infants can hear tones from about 16 to 20.000 Hz (20 kHz), a span of nearly
nine octaves.
With aging, the human ability to hear high frequencies strongly diminishes. Old
people can rarely hear high tones above 10 kHz. Our normal hearing is most
sensitive between about 1 and 5 kHz.
I n human speech, vowel sounds are below 1 kHz, while sibilant consonants
can exceed 5 kHz; yet most speech occurs within the 300–700 Hz range.
AUDITORY SENSE

HOW WE
HEAR?
We humans perceive sound pressure in a roughly
logarithmic manner.Therefore, loudness is measured
in a logarithmic unit called decibel (dB). The
threshold of hearing serves as the reference. This
leads to stating the sound pressure level (SPL) as
the ratio between t w o sound pressures: P is the
present sound pressure (rms) and Po is the
threshold of hearing.
 Auditory Sense

Noise a n d its
Health
Effects
 2 Noise a n d its H e a l t h E f f e c t s

Noise is any unw ant ed and object ionable sound, loud or quiet : many aspect s of noise are
psychological and subjective.
Noise surrounds us, day and night: at home, at work, anywhere.
Any sound may be annoying and t hus felt as noise. The t hreshold for noise annoyance varies
depending on the conditions, including the sensitivity and the mental state of the individual.

Noise can:
Create negative emotions, feelings of surprise, frustration, anger, and fear.
Delay the onset of sleep, awaken a person from sleep, or disturb someone’s rest.
Make it difficult to hear desirable sounds.
Produce temporary or permanent alterations in body chemistry.
Interfere with human sensory and perceptual capabilities and thereby degrade the performance
of atask.
Temporarily or permanently change one’s hearing capability.
N o i s e E f f e c t in W o r k i n g E n v i r o n m e n t

There are four different aspects that can make noise

unacceptable in the working environment:

1.Noise can cause hearing loss

2. Noise can affect performance and productivity
3. Noise can be annoying
4. Noise can interfere with spoken communication
Health E f f e c t s o f Noise

Exposure to noise Short-term exposure Prolonged exposure

can cause a
can cause a variety to noise over a
temporary loss of
of health effects period of years
hearing, normally
varying from referred to as a generally causes
insomnia and stress temporary threshold permanent loss of
to hearing loss. shift. hearing.
 AUDITORY SENSE

T h e n o i s e - c a u s e d c h a n g e in h e a r i n g c a p a b i l i t y
o f s o u n d is p h y s i c a l , n o t m e r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l .
The e x p o s u r e t o intense sounds, such a s a n
explosion, c a n c a u s e a p e r m a n e n t t h r e s h o l d
s h i f t (PTS), w h i c h is a n i r r e c o v e r a b l e l o ss o f
h e a r i n g ; i f t h e e x p o s u r e is l e s s a c u t e , t h e r e s u l t
m a y be a t e m p o r a r y threshold shift, f r o m which
t h e hearing eventually returns t o normal.
H e a r i n g Loss

High-intensity noise can cause damage to hearing. I n industrialized countries, noise-

induced hearing loss (NIHL) usually occurs around 4 0 0 0 Hz. I t may spread into lower
ranges, but it mostly extends into higher frequencies, culminating at about 8 0 0 0 Hz.

Prolonged noise exposure can cause hearing loss due to auditory nerve damage, also
called neural hearing loss. I n this case the intensity, frequency, and duration of
exposure must be considered.

Yet reduced hearing at 8 0 0 0 Hz (and above) is also brought about by aging. This may
make it difficult to distinguish between cases related to noise or age. Losing some
hearing capabilities as one ages is normal. I n general, we can expect the following
reductions:
10 dB at 5 0 years
25 dB at 6 0 years
35 dB at 70 years
H e a r i n g Loss

Sounds that are sufficiently strong, lasting, or repetitive can damage one’s hearing in the
involved frequencies.

Not all persons respond to sound in the same manner, but, in general, sound levels of
about 85 dBA or more are potentially hazardous because of the energy that they contain.
So the magnitude of the actual hearing loss directly relates to the sound level.

Loss of hearing may also be caused by ear infections, several diseases (mumps, measles,
scarlet fever), and by common colds. Helander suggested that presbycusis may actually
be caused by the cumulative effect of common colds over a lifetime. These viral
infections can destroy auditory nerve cells.
 Noise
M e a sur e m e nt
M e a s u r e m e n t o f Sound
Examples o f Activities and
C o r r e s p o nd i n g Noise Levels
O SHA
Noise
Ex p o s u r e
Limits
Note that the OSHA permissible noise levels require
that the sound measurements be taken on the slow
response dBA scale. OSHA also specifies that
exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not
exceed a 140 dB peak sound pressure level.
One other element of the OSHA standard is that it
mandates a hearing conservation program, whenever
employee noise exposures equal or exceed that of an
8-hour time-weighted average noise sound of 85
decibels dBA. Required elements of a hearing
conservation program include audiometric testing,
exposure monitoring, hearing protection, training, and
notification of the employee.
Safe exposure
levels

I n the USA, OSHA has specified 9 0 dB(A) as the maximum permissible

exposure to continuous noise for an 8-hour shift.

Many other countries, including those in the EU, also regard 9 0 dB(A) as
the maximum permissible level.

However, there is a modern trend worldwide to reduce daily exposures

to below 9 0 dB(A). An exposure level of 85 dB(A) is regarded as the first
action level at which workers must be informed and offered ear
protection.
Noise Dose

Noise dose is total exposure to any sound above 8 0 dBA during an 8 hour day. I f exposure
varies over the day, a noise dose (D) is calculated as follows:
D =100 x (C1/T1 + C2/T2 + …Cn/Tn)
≤ 100 %
Where D =noise dose during an 8 hr day,
Ci =Hours spent at a given noise level,
Ti =Hours permitted at noise level

D must be kept below 100 % of permissible noise dose.

To get the noise level of two or more sounds:

Ltot = 10log10 (10𝐿/10 + 10𝐿/10 )
Noise Dose

Note:
 Noise D o s e E x a m p l e

Problem 1

You are exposed to 3 noise sources during your

work-day:
4 hours at 90 dBA
2 hours at 95 dBA
0.5 hours at 105 dBA

I s your hearing at risk?

Problem 2

A machine subjects its operator to 90 dBA when it

is idle and to 95 dBA when it is used at full power.
Assume 7 hours of use per day, with 2.1 hours at
90 dBA and 4.9 hours at 95 dBA. What is the total
noise dose?
 Answer:

1 2

The total noise dose is calculated accordingly:

Your total noise dose is:
D =100 x (4/8 + 2/4 + 0.5/1) D= 2.1/8+4.9/4
D= 150 % D= 1.487

I s your hearing at risk? Yes. Since the noise dose is greater than 1.0, this work
exposes its operator to excessive noise that is not
permissible.
 Noise D o s e E x a m p l e

Problem 3

What is the combined noise level of two sounds

of 85 and 95 decibles?

Problem 3

During a given work shift of 8 hrs, a worker is

exposed to two consisting sources of noise for 3
hours, one at 87 dB and one at 89 dB. For the
remaining 5 hours, he is exposed to one noise
source of 91 dB. Determine whether this exposure
level exceeds the OSHA permissible noise
exposure.
 Time W eight Noise Ex posure 3

Calculation

The TWA shows a worker's daily exposure to occupational noise (normalized to an 8-hour day),
considering the average levels of noise and the time spent in each area. This is the parameter that
is used by the OSHA Regulations and is essential in assessing a worker's exposure and what action
should be taken.

Before working out the worker's TWA, you must measure the different high noise levels that the
worker is subjected throughout a normal working day.

Once you have the Dose% figure, you can calculate the TWA using the following equation:

where:
TWA is the 8-hour Time Weighted Average Sound Level
D is the Dose % as calculated above (or measured with a dosimeter)
Log10 is the Logarithm to base 10
TWA Example:

A worker is exposed to 86 dB for six hours and 92 dB for a

three hours, giving a nine-hour working day. Calculate the TWA.
TWA Example:

Compute for Noise Dose:

Dose = 100 x (6/13.9 + 3/6.1) = 92.3%

Once you have the Dose% figure, you can calculate the TWA
using the following equation:
TWA = 16.61 Log10 (D/100) + 90
TWA = 16.61 x Log10 (92.3 / 100) + 90
TWA = 89.4 dB
 Auditory Sense

Noise
C ont r ol
Strategies
 Noise Control Strategies

Ergonomics designers can and should do a number of things to reduce noise levels. Noise control
strategies are given in the order of their probable effectiveness. Some suggested design principles
are as follows:

1.Reduce the noise level of the source itself. This solution is without doubt the best choice to
start with, and it is likely to be the most cost effective. Identify why the machine makes noise and
then examine the possibility of making design changes to achieve those objectives. At times the
effectiveness of the machine is tied to the noise it makes and so little can be done on this strategy.

2.Enclose the source. This potential solution stops the sound emission at the source, but
enclosures can make machine tending or maintenance operations far more difficult. Also, machine
enclosures can cause the machines to overheat unless additional cooling is developed. Before
enclosing machines, check with the manufacturers of the machines to see if there is any downside
to enclosing. Consider going to a heavier wall construction or a double wall construction so that
structural members on the inside of the wall near the machines are separated from those in the
wall away from the machines.
 Noise Control Strategies

3.Increase the distance between the source and nearby people. Moving the
machine operation away from nearby personnel or moving the personnel away
from the operation will help the attenuate the sound before it reaches the people
around it. Remember, noise levels decrease approximately with the square of the
distance between the source and the receiver.

4.Place sound-absorbing and reflecting barriers in the noise path. Absorbing

materials will help reduce the sound level energy and reflecting barriers will
direct some of that energy away from surrounding personnel so that the sound
wave will need to go a large distance before encountering people and, hence,
attenuate.
 Noise C o n t r o l
Measures

Example of noise control measures that can

be implemented in an industrial building:
S o m e b a s i c s t e p s in t h e
management of
industrial noise
exposure
 Industrial Noise Control
Several ap p roac hes t o noise c ont rol c an b e
identified:
1.Eliminate the threat to hearing by
redesigning the machine or using a less noisy
machine.
2.Remove personnel from the noisy
environment.
3.Protect personnel by issuing ear plugs or
muffs or build an acoustic refuge.
ISO 1996-1:2016
Acoustics —Description, measurement and
assessment of environmental noise —Part 1:
Basic quantities and assessment procedures
ISO 1996-1:2016 defines the basic quantities to be used for
the description of noise in community environments and
describes basic assessment procedures. I t also specifies
methods to assess environmental noise and gives guidance
on predicting the potential annoyance response of a
community to long-term exposure from various types of
environmental noises.

Noise I m p a c t Assessment

A noise impact assessment is a detailed noise survey which is often required for planning
applications. These are requested by local authorities in order to establish the environmental
noise impacts of a development. A noise impact assessment will typically involve an
assessment of the existing noise environment and comparison of the predicted noise level
generated by the proposed development.
References:

Lehto, M. R., Landry, S.J., I n t r o d u c t i o n t o H u m a n f a c t o r s a n d E r g o n o m i c s f o r

Engineers, 2 n d Edition, C R C Press, 2 0 1 3
h t t p s : / / w w w. p d f d r i v e . c o m / f i t t i n g - t h e - h u m a n - i n t r o d u c t i o n - t o - e r g o n o m i c s - h u m a n -
factors-engineering-e158280956.html
https://kuliahdianmardi.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/handbook -of-human-
factors-and-ergonomics-fourth-edition-2012.pdf
http://ssu.ac.ir/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/Daneshkadaha/dbehdasht/khatamat_b
ehdashti/kotobe_latin/Introduction_to_Ergonomics.pdf
h t t p s : / / w w w. p d f d r i v e . c o m / a - g u i d e - t o - h u m a n - f a c t o r s - a n d - e r g o n o m i c s -
e 3 4 3 2 0 31 7. h t ml
h t t p s : / / w w w. i s o . o r g /
QUESTIONS FOR
DISCUSSION
T h a n k you!

Have a great
weekend!