Y10 History

The complete exam guide

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Notes

Introduction: Britain (David Lloyd George) USA (Woodrow Wilson) France

(Celemenceau)

These 3 nations decided what to do with Germany and other defeated countries.

● Britain: Lloyd-George wanted trade

● Lloyd-George was an experienced politician; he was often in the middle between
Clemenceau and Wilson
● He wanted Germany to lose its colonies and navy (as he thought these threatened the
British Empire)
● He was keen to make sure Germany became a good trading partner so didn’t want them
to be crushed – before the war Germany had been Britain’s 2nd largest trading partner
● He had problems from the British public who wanted to ‘Squeeze Germany until the pips
squeaked’ and ‘Hang the Kaiser’ (popular newspaper headlines) since they had lost
many men in WW1
● Was in a dilemma as he won the 1918 election after promising to ‘make Germany pay’.

● USA: Wilson wanted peace:

● USA: Woodraw Wilson was often seen as the idealist.
● His aim was to rebuild a better, peaceful Europe from the ruins of WW1.
● He believed Germany should be punished, but not too harshly so as to avoid revenge
● He wanted democracy to be strong, so that the German people would not allow their
leaders to go to war
● He had his famous ’14 points’ to help achieve peace.
● These points included ‘No Secret Treaties’ ‘Disarmament’ and Point # 14: The League of
Nations.
 ● He strongly believed in ‘Self Determination’ – he wanted Eastern Europe to rule itself
rather than be part of an Empire.

● France: Clemenceau wanted revenge:

● 2/3rds of French army had been killed or injured
● Clemenceau felt Germany to be her biggest threat
● French President (Poincare) wanted Germany broken up into 16 states
● Wanted a treaty that would weaken Germany forever – France’s population was
in decline and they had lost large sections of industry and land.

Disagreements

The Big Three soon found themselves unable to agree on what to do with the defeated
nations.

● The USA had not been affected as much as France and Britain – Wilson’s aims
were therefore much more idealistic – e.g. his 14 points, League of Nations and
self determination.
● There had been no war on US soil; the French therefore felt their idealistic aims
were unrealistic and famously said '14 points?! The good Lord only has 10!'
● Wilson was weakened by a lack of support back home – the US didnt wanna b
stuck in the middle, US Senate rejected both the Treaty and the League of
Nations. The US had become isolationist
● Clemenceau wanted France to be secure from future German attacks. This meant
weakening Germany and reducing its military strength.
● France wanted revenge on Germany for the destruction the war had caused.
● Lloyd-George wanted to protect British interests but knew he needed trading
partners. He was in a tricky situation as he had promised the British people that
he would ‘squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeaked’ and ‘Hang the
Kaiser’ but did not actually think that this was best

Treaty Of Versailles
It was decided that nobody would represent Germany in the upcoming treaty. The big 3 created
the ‘Treaty of Versailles’ WITHOUT any German input.

● Territory
● Germany lost: Alsace-Lorraine to France, The Polish Corridor’ (West Prussia and Posen)
to Poland, the port of Danzig to the LON, Upper Silesia to Poland, North Schleswig to
Denmark
● Rhineland was to be demilitarized
● forbidden Anschluss
● all colonies as ‘mandates’ to the League of Nations.
● All in all it lost 10% of land, 12.5% of its population, 16% of coalfields and almost 50% of
steel industry.

● Military
● Army was limited to 100 000 men
● conscription was banned (soldiers had to be volunteers)
● Germany was not allowed any tanks, submarines or aircraft
● navy was allowed 6 battleships
● the Rhineland became demilitarized (no troops allowed in)

● Reparations
● Article 231: Germany was to accept all blame for starting the war or risk partition
● Reparations: Germany had to pay £6.6billion – this was designed to be paid up until
1984! Taken in the form of valuable coal and iron ore resources.

● LON
● The League of Nations was established, as Point Number 14 of Wilson’s ‘14 points’
● Germany was not invited until it proved itself to be peaceful

The Treaty was signed by the new German government - soon to be called the Weimar Republic
- led by Ebert. National outrage followed in Germany but there was little they could really do,
Germans despised the Weimar Republic-’November Criminals’, Stabbed in the back myth.

From here on, they were supposed to adhere to the terms laid out by Clemenceau, Wilson and
Lloyd-George.
The negotiations did not go smoothly though. The Big 3 had very different ideas about what
they wanted. The Treaty was anything but harmonious.

Consequences of TOV on Germany

Almost as soon as the Treaty of Versailles was signed, Ebert was faced with an uprising: the
Kapp Putsch. Here, a former army General Luttwiz and Wolfgang Kapp mustered around 12
000 returning soldiers (known as Freikorps) to march on Berlin and install a new government.
Initially it worked, and the government fled

The Putsch ended because of Berlin’s workforce going on strike – around 50 000 workers
downed-tools and the government was paralysed. The real army didn't join Kapp and so he fled.

Nevertheless, the strike added to the financial chaos of Germany

Germany had fallen behind reparation repayment by 1922 and so in 1923 the French invaded
the Rhur Valley and took what they felt was owed to them.

This led to another strike, known as passive resistance where workers downed-tools again,
further crippling the economy

The French reacted to this by killing 100 workers and expelling 100 000 from the region –
Germany was now creating no goods and paying its workers no money

This led to Hyperinflation in 1923 as the government printed more money in order to try and
pay its debts and workers. German marks became worthless and prices spiraled out of control.

Only the careful management of a new leader - Gustav Stresemann - avoided more war. In his
100 Days programme, he called off passive resistance, reformed the currency and negotiated
loans from the USA in the Dawes Plan of 1924, which helped repay the French.

A last consequence of the TOV was the Munich Uprising. In 1923 Hitler attempted to overthrow
the government in what became known as the Munich Putsch. Here, he marched on Berlin
(trying to copy Mussolini's March on Rome) with his SA, hoping the people and army would
join in. Neither joined in, and the Bavarian police ended up shooting the Nazi revolters,
resulting in Hitler's arrest and imprisonment (though the judges were so leniant they only gave
Hitler 9 months and allowed him 4 hours on the radio during his trial).

Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles

● The Treaty was labeled the 'Diktat' as Germany felt it had been dictated to them
● Diktat is what the Germans called the TOV as it had been dictated to them without
proper consultation.
● The German government (called the Weimar Republic) were labeled 'November
Criminals' for signing the deal
 ● Many Germans believed they had been betrayed; this became known as the 'Stab in The
Back Myth'; they felt that Jewish politicians had betrayed the military
● There was particular hatred for the War Guilt Clause, but the whole treaty was felt not
to reflect what was agreed during the armistice; that Wilson's 14 points would be the
basis of any peace settlement. For many people the peace was unjust and the war
unfinished.

Other Treaties

Hungary: Treaty of Trianon

● Lost swathes of land to Romania, Yugosloavia and Czechoslovakia

● Thousands of ethnic Hungarians lived outside their homeland as the border was
redrawn with neighbouring powers
● It lost 60% of its population
● Lost all trading routes via the Med; real loss of income
● Popular phrase for the Treaty in Hungary was 'No, No, Never!
● Very humiliating considering its former size and influence
● Breaking up the Hapsburg Empire meant a loss of markets and trade restrictions
● They never could afford to pay back the reparations
● Italy felt it did not get enough land in Hungary!

Austria: Treaty of St Germain

● The Hapsburg Empire had fallen and was ordered to be dismantled

● Bohemia and Moravia were given away to newly formed Czechoslovakia
● Yugoslavia could would have Bosnia and Herzegovinia
● Humiliated by being denied union with Germany.
● Felt hard done by as they lost land to 5 countries
● Lost a lot of their economic industrial land to ally-friendly Czechoslovakia

Turkey: Treaty of Sevres

 ● The Ottoman Empire had fallen after hundreds of years
● All colonies were stripped and given away e.g. Syria and Palestine
● Had to totally disarm
● Lost land to its neighbour and rival, Greece.
● Split the country into civil war as they refused to sign it.
● Mustafa Kemal renegotiated the whole treaty in 1923 Treaty of Laussane!
● Reclaimed Anatolia at this meeting
● Muslim factions disdained Western occupation in the region
● Turks resented Western insistence that all financial matters go through them first!

Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilley

● * Had to toally disarm

● * Ordered to pay $100m reparations
● * Lost land to neighbours such as Yugoslavia, Greece and Romania
● * Lost access to the seas

Justification for the Treaty of Versailles

● Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was harsher (signed between Germany and Russia 1918): in this,
Russia lost 34% of its population, 32% of its agricultural land, 54% of its industry, 26%
of its railways, 89% of its coalmines and had to pay 300 million gold roubles.
● By 1925 German steel production was twice as great as Great Britain’s
● During WW1 the German finance minister claimed he would make the allies pay for the
war if Germany won. Surely it was fair then, that if they lost, the Germans would have to
pay
● Germany played a large role in starting the war After all, they did sign the Blank Cheque
which then drew other countries into an alliance struggle.
● Considering the problems the Big Three had it was the fairest they could hope for
● France had lost 2/3rds of its army to injury or death in WW1. Clemenceau needed to be
sure of not being attacked again. He also remembered how Germany had attacked before
in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
● Britain had also suffered greatly, losing 1 million men
Arguments against the Treaty of Versailles

● Germany lost 12.5% of its territory and 7m Germans to other countries=

● Germany claimed the allies were trying to bankrupt them - £6.6bn would take up until
1984 to pay off!
● Clemenceau was acting out of revenge due to the Franco-Prussian war and a hatred of
Germany.
● The Terms were worked out in secret Germany was not invited to the TOV – they
therefore had no say in their fate Germany lost all their colonies but the allies kept them
● Germany felt Britain and France were just trying to take advantage and add to their
Empires – they had no real wish to make a fair peace.
● Germany was the only country that had to disarm They felt that this was highly unfair as
it left them vulnerable to an attack; this was the case in the 1923 Invasion of the Rhur
Valley by France
● Britain had also suffered greatly, losing 1million men
● It was criticized by the world's most famous economist who wrote a book called
"Economic Consequences of the Peace"
● French Marshall Ferdinand Foch said 'This is not a peace, it's an armistice for twenty
years' (although he was claiming it was too leniant!)

The Organisation of the League of Nations

After the signing of the Paris Peace Treaties, it was agreed - under Woodraw Wilson's 14 Point
Programme, that a League of Nations would be set up to deal with any future disputes, in order
to avoid another horrendous war. Unfortunately for Wilson, the US Senate rejected the idea,
whilst neither Germany nor the USSR were invited to join the organization initially.

Aims of the League

● Avoid aggression between nations

● Facilitate disarmament
● Improve living and working conditions globally
● Enhance global cooperation, through trade
Structure of the League

● The Assembly

This was the central componant of the League of Nations: it admitted new members, financed
the budget and discussed main agenda ideas. Decisions had to be unanimous and they only met
once a year.

● The Council

This was designed to settle major disputes and had 4 permanant members (Britain, France,
Italy and Japan) as well as temporary members voted in by the Assembly. Each permanant
member had a veto, whilst the Council could also administer economic sanctions or muster an
international force if agreed. Germany became a permanant member in 1926.

● The League of Nations Commissions

These were branches of the League set up to deal with problems caused by the First World War,
such as refugees, global health and working conditions. They included: The Health Committee,
the Mandates Committee, and the Refugees Committee.

● The Permanant Court of Justice

This was the League's court - set in the Hague, Netherlands. It was the Court which would give
decisions on border disputes, and passed any laws. It also gave legal advice to the Assembly and
Council. Primarily its responsibility came in upholding or ammending peace treaties.

● International Labour Organisation

This brought together employees, employers and governments to try and create better working
conditions. It collected information and advised governments

● The Secretariat

This was the part of the League that did the office work; translating documents and keeping
records

Why did the USA not join?

● It was seen as linked to the TOV, deemed unfair by many Americans

● It was seen as upholding colonial interests of Britain and France, e.g. 'mandates'
● They had no need to join; the WW1 had made them rich and powerful, a policy of
isolationism.
Points of strength and weakness in organization

● The Assembly
● Only met once a year; events started speeding up, this was a disaster - events were often
over before they could be dealt with!
● Decisions had to be unanimous - this made it very difficult, as everyone had to agree.
When dictatorships began taking control of Europe, they became very difficult to
bargain with and could block measures easily by voting them down.
● Did not include major powers USA (who never joined), Germany (joined 1926) or USSR
(joined 1934)

The Council

This was ultimately hampered by a lack of an army; given that the Leagues' members had such
different aims, it needed its own army to ensure it had teeth. Instead, the League itself became
known as the 'Toothless Tiger'. Also, the Council's work often merged with the Assembly's -
there was no real way of knowing who was responsible for certain events.

The League of Nations Commissions

The Permanant Court of Justice

Althought it could pass laws, it could not enforce them. Acted in an advisory role, with no way
of ensuring any of its laws got passed. Only dealt with cases between nations, not individuals,
and could only carry weight when member countries were involved.

International Labour Organisation

Only met once a year; Relied on donations for funding, which limited how much it could
achieve

The Secretariat

Documents had to be translated into numerous languages (its official languages were French,
English and Spanish) and the whole department was understaffed, with fewer than 1000
workers

● Achievements of the LON Commissions and Agencies

● Mandates Commission – this made sure former German and Austro-Hungarian
colonies were run smoothly after WW1
● The Refugees Committee – this helped return refugees after WW1; very successful in
Turkey
● The Slavery Commission – This worked to abolish slavery around the world. Freed 200
000 slaves in Sierra Leone.
● Reduced death rate on Tanganyika railway from 50% to 4% for workers.
● The Health Committee – attempted to deal with disease and health. They banned lead
paint
● Permanent Court of Justice - enforced the peace treaties effectively (e.g. ruling Treaty
of Laussane was legal and Treaty of Neuilly, where it upheld the League's decisions on
reperations).
Successes

● Aaland Islands, 1921 Sweden invaded this tiny collection of Scandinavian islands.
Finland appealed to the LON. They discussed the situation with both countries, before
deciding it should remain with Finland.
● Upper Silesia, 1921 This Polish-dominated part of Germany was allowed to hold a
plebiscite on who to belong to. The vote was close, so it was divided along regional
lines. Everyone was happy.
● Bulgaria, 1925 Fighting broke out between Greece and Bulgaria at the border. Bulgaria
evacuated its troops and complained to the LON. Greece was forced to pay
compensation and left Bulgaria.

Failures

● Liberia Complained of slave labour on American Firestone plantation. LON agreed but
claimed govt was corrupt. President resigned. LON did nothing more
● Vilna, 1920 Poland and Lithuania both wanted the city of Vilna. Poland then marched
their troops in. LON called for a plebiscite. Poland disagreed and it didn’t happen.
Lithuania remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927!
● Corfu, 1923 Italy and Greece came close to war over Corfu. Albania and Greece were
having a border dispute. Italian LON representatives were sent out. When one –Tellini—
was murdered in Greek territory, Italy retaliated by bombing Corfu! They demanded
compensation. LON agreed and Greece had to pay it
● Geneva Protocol, 1924 This was an agreement which all countries would sign,
promising to take any international dispute to the LON. Br and Fr created it but a
general election in Britain meant there was a govt change and it was never passed!
Agreements that helped the League

● The Washington Conference 1921: Britain, France and the USA agreed to limit
their naval sizes relative to each other
● The Dawes Plan 1924: Put American loans into Germany. Boosted jobs and
industry. The basis for Golden Era
● Locarno Treaties 1925: 7 nations agreed on borders, including Germany: LON
was ratified
● The Kellog-Briand Pact 1925: 65 nations agreed that peaceful negotiations
would settle disputes. Led by British and French foreign ministers

What was the Great Depression?

After World War I, the United States was in a good financial position compared to the old
colonial powers. Europe owed them a lot of money for loan repayments, and the American
public had helped finance the war by buying 'war bonds' - which were essentially certificates
that could be bought from the government and later repaid with interest

After the success of the war bonds, buying stocks became popular; people began to do to
private companies what they'd done to the government. They visited the New York Stock
Exchange on Wall Street (where companies put their stock up for sale) and bought shares (i.e., a
stake in a company) in the hope that they'd increase in value

In the 1920s, they went up in value - a lot. Consumers were spending more money than ever
before as people's incomes rose and they bought new products like washing machines, vacuum
cleaners, and cars. The value of stocks rose, and the 'Roaring Twenties" were a time of boom.

Then, on October 30, 1929, Wall Street suddenly collapsed. Investors stopped buying and tried
to sell. Selling spread as people panicked, fearing they'd have to sell quickly or sell later when
stock prices were even lower. Company values plummeted as investment dried up and people
tried to get rid of their shares

With no investment, companies ran out of cash and began to close or lay off workers.
Businessmen lost their fortunes and the unemployment rate soared - in 1933 it stood at 25%

Effects of the Depression

 ● USA —Wall Street Crash made USA unwilling to give loans and refused to support
sanctions as this would harm their economy.
● Germany now had to pay reparations alone, without US support – no money was
coming in, which led to unemployment, which led to increased protectionist policies,
which led to less trade, and more unemployment. People started voting for radical
parties e.g. Nazis. The stab-in-the-back myth and the November criminals ideas
resurface
● France becomes worried about Germany’s actions and began building a defence line
called ‘The Maginot Line’ along its border with Germany
● Italy tries to combat economic problems by going to war; Mussolini therefore invades
Abyssinia. War economy is initiated.
● Japan’s economy was weakened by the economic collapse, and it therefore went in
search of raw materials in Manchuria, China. Aggressive government becomes more and
more militant
● Britain worries about domestic problems, like unemployment and therefore is unwilling
to get involved in international disputes (seen later through appeasement)

Manchuria

This was the biggest test - and failure -for the League. It all started in 1931 when the Japanese
government claimed that the South Manchurian Railway (a Japanese used railway in semi-
independent Manchuria) had been sabotaged by the Chinese.

Stage 1: Action

The Japanese sent ground and air troops and the soldiers used brutal tactics - as in the
infamous "Rape of Nan King." They quickly set up a puppet government, claiming they were
restoring "order' to a chaotic region. But the Japanese generals kept going because they saw an
advantage, even though their government had told them to stop. They bombed Shanghai, and
when China appealed to the League of Nations, they said it was just a local dispute. The League
of Nations had to act. Unfortunately, they sent Lord Lytton as their reporter ... on a ship. It took
him a year to arrive in Manchuria; September 1932.

Stage 2: Reaction

Lord Lytton quickly concluded that Japan was in the wrong and that Manchuria rightfully
belonged to Japan. The League decided to vote on the matter as the Japanese pushed further
and further into China. The vote was in favour of China. Disgusted, the Japanese government,
ruled by the Divine Emperor, stormed out of the League. The League had to plan action;
sanctions were discussed, but it was a time of hardship and no one wanted to lose valuable
markets after the Great Depression. Everyone offered sanctions to each other, but no one did.
Military action wasn't taken either; it would take a full year to get at Japan and by then they'd
be ready, while only the U.S. and USSR had the power to take on Japan ... and they weren't in
the League. Instead, the LON decided that it was a 'special case, that Japan deserved differential
treatment as it was bringing civilization to a chaotic region. Mussolini and Hitler watched on
with glee.
Why did the Japenese invade Manchuria?

● Official Reason. Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the South Manchurian railway, which
was owned by the Japanese.
● Resources and Land.
● To combat the Depression 1930s. Before 1929 Japan exported to the US and China and
had a growing empire, including Korea. The collapse of the US market meant that trade
was no longer an option: they had to fight their way out of trouble. Japan had no raw
materials of its own – they were imported from China. Most of Japan is covered in
mountains; they needed land for farming)
● To prepare for imperialist expansion It had already flexed its muscles with victory
over Russia in 1905 and was now hoping to enter the imperialist elite club.
● To provide for its growing population – Manchuria was 200 000 square miles –
enough to provide land for Japans population

Abyssinia

Ethiopia-rich cultural heritage and resources-Italians waged war with them.

Events

In Italy, Mussolini was building a 'New Rome', and needed raw materials and an empire to fund
his growing military. But he needed to invade a country to help, but w an excuse. This was
when he remembered that Abyssinia had 'humiliated' Italy in 1896 when the Italians had tried
to conquer the country. Here was a perfect opportunity to avenge that defeate.

The excuse came with a dispute at Wal-Wal when some Ethiopian and Italian forces clashed.
Mussolini readied his army, Head from Abyssinia went straight to the League of Nations. The
League of Nations called Mussolini in, and he agreed to stop meanwhile dispatching his forces
to Africa. Britain and France pretended not to notice... after all they wanted an ally against the
increasingly militaristic Hitler. In fact, they even signed the Stressa Pact between them all
promising to stand up to German agression. Abyssinia was not mentioned.

When the British and French public found out, there was a great outcry for Selassie.
Pressurized, Britain and France offer Mussolini part of Abyssinia. He rejects it and launches a
full scale invasion.

The League discusses sanctions and bans all arms sales to Italy. But this is far, far too late. They
also failed to close the Suez Canal which would have forced Italy right round Africa. Without
sanctions from the USA - where Italy got most of their supplies - these were all useless though.
Meanwhile, Hoare and Laval (the British and French foreign ministers) plead with Mussolini
behind the scenes, promising to give him 2/3rds of it in exchange for calling off the invasion.
The Plan is leaked, the governments are disgraced and poor Selassie could do nothing but
watch as he became the last living Emperor of his country.
Since no action is taken, the US increased oil sales to Italy. The League just resigns itself to
defeat. On 2 May 1936 Selassi was forced into exile.

Why were the British and French reluctant to take action over Abyssinia?

● They wanted to have Mussolini as an ally against Hitler

● They feared job losses if they imposed sanctions
● They did not want to risk another war
● Russia was a growing problem

Why did the LON fail?

● Self Interest of Leading Members Hoare-Laval Pact of Dec 1935 showed how Br and Fr
were more willing to appease Mussolini (by giving him a portion of Abyssinia in
exchange for ceasefire) than in real peace. France built the Maginot Line.
● Decisions were slow It was slow – the Council met only once a year, the Assembly 5
times. Lack of speed shown in Manchuria with Lord Lytton’s report.
● Ineffective Sanctions After the devastation of WW1 (and then the Depression) no
country wished to impose sanctions or have them imposed! Without the US they were
useless
● Structural weaknesses Decisions also had to be unanimous; Power of the veto – the
Permanent members had too much power and it was seen as an ‘old boys club’ as the
imperial powers all had the right to overrule action. Also had no army - commonly
known as the ‘toothless tiger.’ Had no overseeing figurehead to direct troops in any
crisis — countries knew this and pushed it further and further.
● Lack of New Superpowers USA not a member, USSR, Germany, not invited – these
were the main powers that could make sanctions effective. Without these they would be
useless (e.g. Abyssinia – USA continued trade) Without their troops, intervention was
unlikely.
● Treaty of Versailles was seen as unfair; why uphold a Treaty that was seen as overly-
harsh? It was a League built on sandy foundations.
● The Great Depression This made it fail - good work was being done until the
Depression; this changed countries’ attitudes and had disastrous effects, as discussed
previously