Journal of Quantity Surveying - Construction Business

JOURNAL
OF
QUANTITY SURVEYING
&
CONSTRUCTION BUSINESS
Editors
Khairuddin Abdul Rashid

&
Christopher Nigel Preece
Volume 7 Issue 1
EDITORS AND INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL
BOARD
EDITORS
Professor Sr Dr Khairuddin Abdul Rashid
E-mail: khairuddin@iium.edu.my
Professor Dr Christopher Nigel Preece

E-mail: christopher.preece@adu.ac.ae
ASSISTANT EDITORS
Assistant Professor Dr Sharina Farihah Hasan

Email: sfarihah@iium.edu.my
Assistant Professor Dr, Mohamad Saiful Nizam Mohd. Suhaimi

Email: saifulnizam@iium.edu.my
Assistant Professor Dr. Puteri Nur Farah Naadia Mohd Fauzi

Email: puteri@iium.edu.my
INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD
Professor Dr Richard Fellows

Loughborough University
Professor Dr Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz

Universiti Sains Malaysia
Professor Roy Morledge

Nottingham Trent University
Professor Dr Abd. Ghani Khalid

Iskandar Malaysia UTM Research Centre
Professor Dr Low Sui Pheng

National University of Singapore
Professor Dr Russell Kenley

Swinburne University of Technology
Dr Steven Male
University of Bristol
Professor Dr Kiyoshi Kobayashi
Kyoto University
ii
Editors and International Editorial Board
Associate Professor Dr Razali Adul Hamid

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Professor John Barkai

University of Hawaii
Associate Professor Dr Muhammad Abu Eusof

International Islamic University Malaysia
Associate Professor Dr Mohd Wira Mohd Shafiei

Universiti Sains Malaysia
Professor Dr Mohammad Abdul Mohit

Professor Martin Betts

Griffith University
Professor Dr Peter R Davis

The University of Newcastle
Sr Basar bin Juraimi

Principal of Basar & Harun Sdn Bhd
Mr Jonathan Selwood-Hogg
Senior Proposals Manager, Carillion plc
Professor Kerry London

University of South Australia
Associate Professor Dr Abdul Azeez Kadar Hamsa

Dr Mohamad Syazli Fathi

Razak School of Engineering & Advanced Technology
Universiti Tecknologi Malaysia
Dr John Rogers
Executive Director, Building SMART Malaysia
Assistant Professor Sr Dr Tan Chin Keng

Assistant Professor Dr. Mohd. Fairullazi Ayob

iii
JOURNAL OF QUANTITY SURVEYING & CONSTRUCTION BUSINESS
Volume 7 Issue 1
VOLUME 7 ISSUE 1 2016
Editorial vi
Improving Co-Learner Interactions through Web-Based Online

Assessments within Distance Learning Settings: Case Studies
Findings from the Built Environment
1
Sharifah Mazlina Syed Khuzzan Alhabshi and Bingu Ingirige
Impact of Design Changes on Construction Project

Performance: Insights from a Literature Review
Hamzah Abdul Rahman, Wang Chen and Jeffrey Yap Boon Hui 31
Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives: Performance, Problems and

Future Path
Nadiya Adnan, Hasniyati Hamzah, Mohd Nasir Daud and
55
Yasmin Mohd Adnan
Technical Study on Conservation and Restoration of Niavaran

Palace’s Embroidered Pateh
Mina Janpourtaher and Mandana Barkeshli 75
Notes for Contributors 94
iv
Published by
Procurement and Project Delivery System Research Unit
Copyright © 2016 Procurement and Project Delivery System Research Unit.
All rights reserved. The authors are solely responsible for the statement made and
opinions expressed in it and its publication does not imply that such statements and/or
opinion are or reflect the views or opinions of the Editors and Publisher. While every
effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, however if infringement
should have occurred, the Editors and Publisher tender our apologies and upon this
being pointed out would take steps to make the necessary correction.
v
Volume 7 Issue 1
EDITORIAL
Welcome to Volume 7 Issue 1 of the Journal of Quantity Surveying

& Construction Business.
In this Issue there are 4 papers. The first paper discusses

online and distant learning in construction programmes, the second
and third papers relate to construction management and co-
operatives as housing providers respectively and the fourth and final
paper reports on a study on conservation and restoration of historical
textiles. The diversity, albeit within the knowledge areas of quantity
surveying and construction business, reflect the interest of authors
and readers on works published by the Journal.
The first paper by Sharifah Mazlina Syed Khuzzan Alhabshi

and Bingu Ingirige reports on a study on assessment strategy in
online and distant learning (DL) in construction programmes. The
author presents a summary of findings on method of delivery,
method of interaction, method of assessment, problems faced by
learners and recommendations on improving co-learners interaction
within a DL setting.
The second paper by Hamzah Abdul-Rahman, Wang Chen

and Jeffrey Yap Boon Hui reviewed literature on design changes and
rework and their impact to project performance, the latter in terms of
time and cost overruns. Their study showed that on the one hand
design changes are among the key reasons leading to time and cost
overruns but on the other hand published works on the subject in the
Malaysian context failed to recognize the presence of such a
relationship. The authors highlighted the significance of the
relationship between design changes and rework and the
consequential impact to project performance and proposed an
analytical framework for use in future studies.
The third paper by Nadiya Adnan, Hasniyati Hamzah, Muhd

Nasir Daud and Yasmin Mohd Adnan conducted an empirical study
on the current issues and challenges faced by Malaysian housing co-
operatives in undertaking housing development. Their study was
motivated by the rapidly diminishing number of co-operatives that
develop houses in Malaysia since the late 1980s as opposed to co-
vi
Editorial
operatives in other countries. They found out that the Malaysian co-
operatives face management, operational and funding issues. The
authors proposed an alternative model that could be used by co-
operatives in effort to address their current predicament.
The fourth and final paper in this Issue reports on a historical

and scientific study on a historical textile from a palace’s collection.
In the paper, the authors described the techniques they used in
identifying the materials and contents for the textile and the
subsequent method to restore and preserve it. They highlighted that
“using inadequate and inaccurate methods of restoration and
conservation can cause more damage than good to a material
heritage…”
In this issue, the Editors would like to express their gratitude

to the members of the Editorial Board that have decided to move on
and warmly welcome the new members.
As always, the Editors are very grateful to all for their continuous
support.
Professor Sr. Dr. Khairuddin Abdul Rashid

Professor Dr. Christopher Nigel Preece
Editors
vii
IMPROVING CO-LEARNER INTERACTIONS
THROUGH WEB-BASED ONLINE
ASSESSMENTS WITHIN DISTANCE
LEARNING SETTINGS: CASE STUDIES
FINDINGS FROM THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Sharifah Mazlina Syed Khuzzan Alhabshi1 and Bingu Ingirige2
ABSTRACT
Distance Learning (DL) is an educational model in which the

student and instructor are separated by time and space is currently
the fastest growing model of domestic and international education
which has come into prominence during the last two decades of the
20th century. One of the major influencing factors for achieving
intended learning outcomes in a programme is the assessment
strategy adopted. Tutors in DL programmes have adopted various
methods of assessments that could broadly be described as formative
and summative assessments. A well documented formative and
summative feedback for learners, especially early on in a course,
will facilitate in their learning and provides opportunities for
students to gain insight into their understanding of the course
content. However, learners often express their need for a more
empowerment within their modules to enhance their active
involvement and interactions within the programmes.
This paper firstly looks into the literature; with respect to

assessments within DL settings and set out the overall methodology
of the paper. Then, through a survey of eight construction courses
offering DL within five identified universities in the UK, the
currently used web-based online assessment tools within the DL
settings were identified. This paper also includes other issues within
the area in improving the co-learner interactions within the DL, i.e.
factors and barriers in improving co-learner interactions, gaps and
flaws within the available tools, etc. The result and conclusion
derived from this paper will recommend guidelines in improving co-
1
2
University of Huddersfield
1
Volume 7 Issue 1
learner interactions within DL settings through ‘effective’ use of

web-based online assessment tools.
Keywords: Distance Learning (DL), co-learner interactions, web-based online

assessments
INTRODUCTION
Advances in information technology (IT) is continually evolving;

opening up additional channels for today’s higher education (Chen
et al, 2001), i.e. distance education technologies. Distance education
technologies have become more prominent during the last decade of
the 20th century (Ingirige et al, 2005). Moreover, Chen et al (2001)
noted that the application of IT has allowed universities to deliver
multimedia course contents and enable students to communicate
with their instructors and fellow students in both synchronous and
asynchronous formats; hence making distance learning (DL)
possible. DL, an educational model in which the student and the
instructor are separated by time and space, is considered the current
fastest growing model of domestic and international education
(Poley, 2000).
In the domain of higher education (HE) in the construction
industry, DL has become a major source by which many HE
institutes conduct their courses, particularly at postgraduate level.
The new developments in technology have impacted the overall
delivery process of the DL in construction programmes. It has been
considered that one of the major influencing factors for achieving
the intended learning outcomes of these programmes within an
overall information and communication technology (ICT) enabled
delivery process is the assessment strategy adopted. Assessment is
considered a crucial issue in teaching and learning at all levels of
education. One of the most important challenges facing educators is
to devise and successfully implement new assessment strategies for
their use in the twenty first century classroom (Kilpatrick, 1993;
Niss, 1993), as assessments can be considered as a significant way
of interaction and providing feedback from the instructor to the
learner and a medium for the co-learners to interact with each other
(Syed Khuzzan and Ingirige, 2008). Hence, due to the significance
of this area, a study was conducted to improve the interactions of co-
2
Improving Co-Learner Interactions through Web-Based Online Assessments within Distance Learning
Settings: Case Studies Findings from the Built Environment
learners through web-based online assessments tools within DL

settings.
METHODOLOGY
The research methodology approach adopted for this paper embraces

the distillation of core research material gathered from a detailed
literature review. The literature review encompassed concepts and
issues surrounding DL and web-based online assessment tools used
within the DL setting. Eight DL programmes in total were looked
into from the five identified universities within the UK and were
used as case studies to achieve the following objectives:
i) To identify the delivery methods currently implemented within

the DL settings;
ii) To identify the methods of assessment currently implemented
within DL;
iii) To identify the available web-based online assessment tools to
be used within DL;
iv) Identify gaps within the available tools and their capabilities in
improving co-learner interactions;
v) Identify barriers in improving co-learner interactions within DL;
Interviews were conducted with the DL tutors from the case

studies identified in achieving the above-mentioned objectives. The
result and conclusion from this paper will be used to recommend the
way forward in order to improve co-learner interactions within DL
settings.
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Learners often express their need for more empowerment within

some of their modules to enhance their active engagement. With all
types of learning, including online learning, it is useful for students
to receive constructive, timely and relevant feedback on their
progress even within DL settings. Therefore, a mix of computer
marked and tutor marked essays could be adopted for summative
assessments. Online marked assessment is sometimes constrained by
the medium in which it is operating. Computer marked assessments
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Volume 7 Issue 1
alone are not appropriate for marking or giving feedback on

assignments such as essays or projects that require more than the
mere production of knowledge (Dede, 1996). With the increase of
DL programmes being offered there has been a corresponding
increase in both synchronous and asynchronous mechanisms being
developed to facilitate these assessments (Dede, 1996; Wilson and
Whitelock, 1997).
Despite addressing the needs of the programme in
developing a regime of assessment strategies, most online learning
communities within a DL setting expresses a feel of isolation (Syed-
Khuzzan and Ingiringe, 2008). According to Ortiz-Rodriguez et al.,
(2005) and Stein et al., (2005), interaction between student peers is
important to give satisfaction in online learning. When interaction
produces a sense of community the result may be an environment in
which learning is facilitated (Lee et al., 2006). In addition, according
to Brown (2001), the need for interaction is more likely important
when new online students have experience with DL; whereby they
have to learn the technology and therefore tend to spend more time
working in isolation (Brown, 2001).
Assessment is considered as an indispensable part of
teaching and learning (Govindasamy, 2002). It can also be
considered as a way of interaction and providing feedback from the
co-learner (e.g. instructor) to the learner. However, the types of
assessment methods used within a DL setting and the barriers in the
form of resource constraints, sometimes affect the provision of
pedagogic requirements such as maintaining appropriate co-learner
interactions within DL programmes. In this respect, it is not only
important to find out the types of web-based online assessment tools
available; but also to identify the gaps within the tools, and how best
it can be used to improve co-learner interactions within a DL setting
– of which is the core reason of this research.
DISTANT LEARNING: DEFINITIONS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Several definitions have been cited for the term DL; among others;
Majdalany and Guiney (1999) define DL as “instruction and
learning practice utilising technology and involving students and
teachers who are separated by time and space”. Jonassen (1992)
defines DL as the volitional control of learning by the student rather
4
than the distant instructor, while Perraton (1988) and Verduin and
Clark (1991) define it as the separation of the teacher and the learner
in space and / or time during at least a majority of the instructional
process.
Hall and Snider (2000) characterised DL with three criteria;
(i) a geographical distance that separates the communication
between the trainer and the participant, (ii) the communication is
two-way and interactive, and (iii) some form of technology is used
to facilitate the learning process. Keramiyige et al (2006) supported
this view by considering the two significant characteristics of DL;
which is (i) the distance between the tutor and the learner (either
geographically or timely) and (ii) the learner centred learning
mechanisms as opposed to the teacher centred learning in a
traditional classroom based learning environment.
The additional characteristics of DL that has been discussed
by Keegan (1986) include:
 The influence of an educational organisation both in

planning and preparation of learning materials and in the
provision of student support services; which distinguishes
DL from the private study and teach-you programme;
 The use of technical media, print, audio, video or computer
to unite teaching and learner and carry the content of the
course;
 The provision of a two-way communication so that the
learner may benefit or even initiate dialogue; a characteristic
which distinguishes DL from the other uses of technology in
education; and
 The quasi-permanent separation of the learning group
throughout the length of the learning so that people are
usually taught as individuals and not as groups, with the
possibility of occasional meeting for both didactic and
socialisation purposes.
In addition to the definitions provided previously, many

terms have also been used in relation to distance education. The
following terms are defined in Table 1 (Du Mont, 2002):
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Table 1 Definitions of Terms (Du Mont, 2002)

Term Definition Source
Asynchronous “A type of learning in which learners Commonwealth of
learning and instructors use computers to Learning (2000) and
(sometimes exchange messages, engage in dialogue Schocken (2001).
referred to as and access resources” at any time and
Networked any place.
learning)
Distance “Planned learning that normally occurs Moore and Kearsley
education in a different place from teaching and as (1996)
a result requires special techniques of
course design, special instructional
techniques and special instructional
techniques, and special method of
communication by electronic and other
technology, as well as special
organisational and administrative
arrangements.”
Distance “Instructional and learning practice Majdalany and
learning utilising technology and involving Guiney (1999)
students and teachers who are separated
by time and space.”
Distributed “Learning environment [which] exists Oblinger and
learning among a dispersed student population, is Maruyama (1996)
structured according to learner needs,
and tends to integrate traditional
institutional functions (e.g. classroom
and library)….through both
synchronous and asynchronous
communication.”
e-Learning “Can be a subset of distributed learning. Lundy, Harris, Igou
Relies on digital content, experiences and Zastrocky
through a technology interface, and is (2002)
network-enabled. Collaboration is a
desirable feature of e-Learning…”
Open learning “An arrangement in which learners William, Paprock
work primarily from self-instruction, and Covington
completing courses structured around (1999)
specially prepared, printed teaching
materials, supplemented with face-to-
face tutorials and examinations.”
According to Du Mont (2002), definitions of DL exist which

emphasise the process of educational and structure. Sherry (1996)
noted that the terms “distance education” or “distance learning” have
been applied interchangeably by many different researchers to a
great variety of programmes, providers, audiences and media. Berge
(1998) however note that there is a difference between the term
6
‘distance education’ and ‘distance learning’. According to Berge

(1998), distance education is seen as the formal process of DL, with
information being broad in scope; e.g. college courses. DL however
is seen as the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated
information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and
other forms of learning at a distance. In addition, Gotschall (2000)
described DL as a broadcast of lectures to distant locations, usually
through video presentations.
DISTANCE LEARNING: INTERACTIVITY AND

FEEDBACK
Butler and Winne (1995) define feedback as information that a

learner receives about his or her learning processes and learning
outcomes. Interaction is best described by function of exchange,
highly related to pedagogy. Some of the examples of where
interaction can take place are through the following activities:
discussion, collaboration, peer-to-peer learning, group work, peer
review, feedback, teaming and mentoring. In addition, the frequent
feedbacks coming from the said activities might be useful to the
learners, and considered as an essential contribution towards
effective learning (Reiser and Dick, 1996). Interaction is routinely
cited as a requirement for quality and effectiveness in a DL setting
(Cooper, 2003; Gunawardena and Zittle, 1997; Meyer, 2003; Moore,
1989; Whatley and Bell, 2003).
According to Ley (1999), an instructor in a traditional
classroom can more easily interact with students by easily giving
simple knowledge of result feedback with more complex feedback
as students require or demand. In DL environments, most distance
instructors lack the logistical support or the technology to return
papers and answer questions during the same session. Proper
planning for adequate and useful feedback through web-based online
assessments can lessen the DL instructor’s feedback burden, hence,
improving co-learner interactions within the DL settings. Moreover,
Ley (1999) mentioned that without a ‘suitable’ feedback system in
place, distance students engage in learning under the handicap of
inadequate or no feedback at all. In traditional distance education
settings, learners are often left to go through the process of learning
in isolation with very little contact with tutors and peers, thus are
confined to basic, 'static' interaction with material delivered through
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Volume 7 Issue 1
one-way media in the form of printed text, audio cassettes and/or

video (Karaliotas, 1998). Furthermore, according to Karaliotas
(1998), with the advent of new media and technologies, the use of
affordable and well integrated two-way communication is now
possible in distance learning, which in turn enables dynamic
interactions.
Moore (1989) states that interactions take place in the
learning environment in three ways; e.g. (i) learner with contents,
(ii) learner with other co-learners and (iii) learner with instructors.
This particular research concentrates more on the interactivity
between learners with other co-learners in a DL setting. Karaliotas
(1998) mentioned that DL environments offer plenty of
opportunities for interaction with other learners, far more likely to be
productive and complete than in traditional HE learning
environments as they are independent of time and place due to their
asynchronous nature, and more in line with the learning to learn
process as they can be highly motivated and goal oriented.
Interaction with other co-learners takes place within collaborative
activities, in threads of sociable exchanges, or philosophical and
self-searching discussions.
Learners’ abilities to interact with the instructor, the peers,
and the content can affect their performance in DL. Acker and
McCain (1993) mentioned that "interaction is central to the social
expectations of education in the broadest sense and is in itself a
primary goal of the larger educational process and that feedback
between learner and teacher is necessary for education to develop
and improve" (p. 11). Online interactions take into consideration the
characteristics of the learners as well as the communication
technology. The interactive features of the current computer-
mediated communication (CMC) systems, such as two-way video
and instant feedback, have provided more options for learner
interactions. Moreover, Gunawardena et al (1998, pp. 141) have
interpreted interaction as “the process through which negotiation of
meaning and co-creation of knowledge occurs in a constructivist
learning environment”. Wagner (1998) however argues that
interaction can serve as a means to an end of enhancing learning and
performance. Learner interactions require planning and structure in
order to achieve the goal of active learning. According to Rohfeld
and Hiemstra (1995), tasks such as debates, guest
lecturers/discussants, polling, brainstorming, or student moderated
discussions via CMC networks can help to increase student
8
interactions for learning. The principles of student-centered

discussion accord the students the responsibilities of facilitating
online conversations. When the activities and tasks become an
integral part of the learning process, learner interactions can be
conducive to learning (Chou, 2000). This is where this research
emphasises that web-based online assessment would be able to help
enhance co-learners interactions within a DL setting.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment basically supports the learning approach a student

adopts. According to Marcus (2006), a varied combination of
assessment activities provides sufficient opportunity for the student
to demonstrate learning, while several assessment options allow
learners to respond to different evaluation strategies. The choice of
assessment methods is an important decision in instructional design
(Stephen et al, 2007). This is especially more important in a DL
programme, in which students often focus heavily on formal
assessment requirements. In addition, assessment choices should
support intended learning outcomes and also consistent with the
desired learning approaches (Stephen et al, 2007).
To most learners and teachers, the term ‘assessment’ is
traditionally associated with the concept of tests, grades, reports, and
standards (Bartley, 2006). The body of literature has revealed that
there is an assessment movement in education, which has been
evolving through cycles of reform and expansion (Herman et al.,
1991; Kulieke et al., 1990; Lazerson et al., 2000; National Research
Council, 2001). Assessment has also been defined broadly, to
include all activities that teachers and learners undertake to get
information that can be used diagnostically to alter teaching and
learning (Liang and Kim, 2004). The core to this definition is the
notion of systematic process of gathering and interpreting
information, in order to provide feedback (Bartley, 2006). Mac
Alpine (2002) noted that assessment can also be described as a form
of communication involving a number and variety of sources, such
as:
I. assessments may be directed to the learners, as a form of

feedback on their learning;
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Volume 7 Issue 1
II. assessments may be directed to teachers, as a form of

feedback on their teaching;
III. assessments may be directed to the curriculum designer as a
form of feedback towards the curriculum;
IV. assessments may be directed to the administrator as a form of
feedback on the use of resources; and,
V. assessments may be directed to the employers as a form of
feedback on the quality of applicants.
WEB-BASED ONLINE ASSESSMENTS IN THE ONLINE

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Mason (1998) discussed the phenomenon of the online learning

environment (in the context of this research is DL) for learning in
relation to the three main elements of asynchronous group and
individual messaging, access to course materials, and real time
(synchronous) interactive events. One of the important
considerations for effective online assessments is to ensure that the
tool incorporates these elements, fits the mode of delivery, and
legitimately measures the desired outcome. It has been identified
that one of the main advantages of using assessment software over
manually assessing performance is primarily the savings in cost and
time (Dowsing et al., 2000; Weisburgh, 2003). Online assessment is
a method of using the Internet to deliver, analyse, and report exam
content; and when appropriately used, it can enhance the efficiency
of online learning (Bergstrom and Lopes, 2003).
Assessments in general can be classified into three broad
categories, according to their general use (Bergstrom et al., 2006).
They can be used prior to, during, and following learning
(Swearingen, 2004), and classified as follows:
I. Diagnostic assessment
II. Formative assessment
III. Summative assessment
Diagnostic assessment identifies learners’ strengths and weaknesses,

and can be used to identify specific personality characteristics or
traits (e.g. motivation for success, personality type, etc.), or allow
individuals to self-assess their ability to complete a task or
demonstrate knowledge of a particular subject area.
10
Formative assessments take place during the learning process.

Formative assessments involve the delivery of multiple-choice or
short quizzes administered at the end of a textbook chapter, learning
module, or other learning benchmark in a course or training
programme. Feedback is usually provided during or following the
delivery of these assessments, and opportunities for self-remediation
may also be available.
Summative assessments frequently take place in the middle or end of

a learning or evaluation programme and can be used for grading,
certification, and high stakes evaluation. Summative certification,
licensure and some cognitive ability tests are administered with the
purpose of identifying the best candidates to be awarded some form
of credential.
The majority of assessments used in the online learning

environment are in the asynchronous environment, where the
assessment is completed in delayed time, and outside the present of
an instructor (Bourne et al., 1997; Mason, 1998; Morley, 2000). The
online asynchronous tools may involve alternating interactions
between instructors and individual learners or entire groups through
computer conferencing software and modem or network connections
(Brem, 2002; Morley, 2000). In this context, the assessments can
take many different forms, from traditional examinations of written
assignments, case studies, research projects, and multiple choice
examinations, to alternative measures such as portfolios, learner
diaries, or journals to assess higher order abilities (Bourne et al.,
1997; Morley, 2000; Muirhead, 2002).
Synchronous assessment models also play an important role
within the DL process because dishonesty is minimised and the
instructor has continual management of the testing environment
(Morley, 2000). Online synchronous assessments may be mediated
by two-way interactive conferencing systems with telephone
connections (Morley, 2000; Palloff and Pratt, 1999). An example of
a typical exam format involves asking learners one question at a
time, similar to oral examinations requiring learners to type in
answers within a limited time frame (Kouki and Wright, 2005).
According to Morley (2000), accreditation agencies prefer this
method of synchronous testing because the instructor has significant
interaction with the remote learners during examination.
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Volume 7 Issue 1
A great deal now has been written which confirms that

assessment is the key to learning in traditional settings (Ramsden,
1992). In all forms of DL contexts today, print-based, mediated via
video or teleconferencing or supplement by computer-based
communications; assessment tasks can be seen as the active
components of study (O’Reilly and Newton, 2008). Assignments
provide learners with opportunities to discover whether or not they
understand, if they are able to perform competently and demonstrate
what they have learnt in their studies. In a DL context, not only
assessments have been identified as a performance measure, it has
also been identified as means and ways to encourage co-learners
interactions within a DL environment (O’Reilly and Morgan, 1999).
Online learners should take the advantage of the opportunities to
interact, to form social networks that are contributing to a learning
network.
DISADVANTAGES AND ADVANTAGES OF WEB-BASED

ONLINE ASSESSMENT
Some drawbacks have been identified to offering assessments online

(Bergstrom et al., 2006). Many educators feel challenged by the
tasks and costs of producing high-end coursework delivered with
reliable technology to learners, and may be unequipped to meet the
level of standard required. In the face of market pressure to offer DL
and e-Learning courses, it can be very difficult to ensure that
learners receive the same kind of protections obtained in traditional
classrooms or training facilities with regard to certain types of
assessments, particularly high stakes assessments. In addition,
another drawback that has been identified in using Web-Based
online assessments is on the issue of support. Within this context, it
has been identified expensive and time consuming to provide round-
the-clock support to learners who are now learning and testing at all
hours. Many educators feel that the face-to-face, iterative interaction
with students is an important part of the learning process. Whilst it is
said that learners get immediate feedback on some of the web-based
online assessments available, educators do not always get the
feedback of what topics learners find confusing or not clear. This is
when the appropriateness and meaningfulness of the feedback
becomes an issue, as it is as important as the assessment itself.
12
Furthermore, another factor contributing to the disadvantages

of web-based online assessments is the loss of connectivity.
Learners utilising online courses and assessment should therefore be
provided with reliable Internet connectivity. Assessments must be
designed so that loss of connectivity does not result in loss of data,
so that tests can be restarted at the exact point of interruption. In
addition, learners who perceive themselves as being I.T. illiterate
may find online assessment as a disadvantage. Extensive preparation
and support may be required when introducing learners to these
forms of education and testing (Naglieri et al., 2004).
Despite the disadvantages that web-based online assessments
contribute; there are also advantages of using web-based online
assessments, especially for busy adult learners. With respect to busy
adult learners, online assessments can be considered to be useful and
suitable as it is made available 24 hours a day, seven days a week
from any computer with access to the Internet. Furthermore, in a
traditional paper-and-pencil testing and assessment programme,
examinees normally receive their scores and interpretive reports
after a certain period of time taking the assessment. With online
assessments, learners often receive feedback within a few seconds
after completion (this classic scenario is for a multiple choice
question (MCQ) type of assessment). Web-based online assessment
lends itself to a pedagogical approach to learning in which
assessment is integrated with learning processes. In the current
scenario, online assessments enable instructors to obtain feedback on
the performance of a student; as well as to evaluate the effectiveness
of the e-Learning environment. In many ways, web-based online
assessment, like online teaching, is still very much in its embryonic
state. Today, the most common online assessment strategies involve
the use of computer communications as simply a transfer medium to
submit and comment upon assigned work such as essays, submit and
compile portfolios, and deliver traditional paper-and-pencil tests in a
computer testing environment (i.e. MCQ). As mechanisms for
learning paradigms change, assessments delivery methods would
also change within time.
13
Volume 7 Issue 1
WEB-BASED ONLINE ASSESSMENT TOOLS AVAILABLE

FOR DL
Educators usually spend a lot of time in creating assessments to

measure students’ knowledge and comprehension. Listed below are
some of the identified web-based online assessment tools available,
and the advantages it offers in order to provide feed-back and
improve co-learner interactions (Ley, 1999):
 Discussion board participation

According to Savage (1999), students seem to perform better
when the discussion boards (or asynchronous communication)
are required, where participation is ‘rewarded’ by a grade. This
incentive of a grade brings a higher level of participation to the
discussion, where students engage in dialogue begun by the
instructor but often taking off on its own soon after (Greenlaw
and DeLoach, 2003). Moreover, students then become co-
constructors of the materials, examine alternative viewpoints and
reach a consensus on a topic together (Greenlaw and DeLoach,
2003). Hence, discussion board participations can be seen as a
mechanism in improving the interactions between co-learners
within the DL settings.
 Online quizzes
Online quizzes enables the instructor to regularly assess student
understanding of the materials presented (Martyn, 2003), thus
keeping the instructor on track of the students’ performance.
 Electronic paper and project submissions

Paper and project submissions can be performed using the
Digital Drop Box, or file sharing. By submitting the paper
electronically, students do not have to make physical contact
with a particular location in order to submit, and, there is less
chance of the instructor losing the paper (Ley, 1999). In addition,
an electronic receipt is automatically generated when the
instructor receives the submission, enabling accurate records to
be kept of who submitted the assignment and when (Thomas et
al, 2002).
14
 Reading outside of the assigned textbook (including hyperlinks

and electronic formatted documents)
By posting hyperlinks to sources of information, and labelling
them as required or recommended, the instructor can share these
sources of information with students very quickly and easily at
any point during the course (Horton, 2000; Palloff and Pratt,
2001). This therefore also encourages discussions and
interactions between co-learners on the topics and information
shared by the instructor.
The internet also offers helpful resources that can be used to

reduce the time it takes to create rubrics for projects,
experiments, portfolios, and other performance-based items.
There are also online resources to generate traditional, formative
and summative assessments such as True/False and multiple
choice questions.
CASE STUDIES FINDINGS
Based on the case studies conducted on seven DL Masters

programme and one undergraduate programme within the five
identified universities within the UK, the findings have been
summarised and shown in Table 2.
15
Table 2 Summary of Case Study Findings
Criteria Case Study 1 Case Study2 Case Study 3 Case Study 4 Case Study 5 Case Study 6 Case Study 7 Case Study 8
1. Method of  Lectures  Lectures  Face-to-case  Classroom  Face-to-face  Taught via  Taught via  Lectures
Delivery through delivered via teaching setting – teaching the Internet the Internet delivered
Horizonwi- the Internet session conducted session  Lecture face-to-face
mba  Summer through materials  Tutorial
school – summer presented sessions
attendance schools online
compulsory  Conduct
tutorials and
practical
works
2. Method of  Via email  Online  Email  Face-to-face  Tutor support  Tutor support  Tutor support  Face-to-face
Interaction  Using audio tutorials,  Chat rooms  Email through via online via online
and visual group  Discussion online tutorials tutorials,
modes discussions forums tutorials,  Learners are email
between tutor and email discussions introduced
and learners  Threaded and individual with e-
 Discussion group communicatio portfolio –
forums/board discussion n (via email) more learner-
s for learners board centred
to interact  Student
common
room
3. Method of  Written  Learning  Formative –  Mostly  Balance of  No use of  Summative  A balance of
Assessment coursework activities self assessed summative both specific web- assessment formative and
submitted via  Formative learning  Written summative based online submitted via summative
email feedback activities coursework and formative assessment email  Formative –
 dissertation  Electronic  Summative – submitted  Essay/ written tool  Dissertation working
 No use of paper and written through coursework  Formative group
web-based project coursework school office  Submitted via assessment activities,
16
Improving Co-Learner Interactions through Web-Based Online Assessments within Distance Learning Settings: Case Studies Findings from the Built Environment
online submission submitted to  Practical email was held to presentations
assessment  dissertation school office session  Formative encourage  Feedback
tool  No use of  Dissertation  Final assessment learners to from tutors to
specific web-  No use of examination conducted interact using learners – a
based online specific web-  Dissertation through ‘skype’ special
assessment based online  No use of learning  No use of session is
tool assessment specific web- activities specific web- conducted
tool based online within based online  Summative
assessment learners assessment assessment –
tool through group tool individual
discussions coursework
 No use of  Dissertation
specific web-  No use of
based online specific web-
assessment based online
tool assessment
tool – not
appropriate
for MSc level
4. Problems  Late feedback  None stated  Time  Lack of  Complexities  Not a DL  Communicati  Technology
faced by from constraint interactions of working setting on barriers shy
learners instructors  Geographical between co- alone based caused by the  Learners feel
within DL  Lack of constraint learners – on different nature of the isolated
setting interaction  Lack of learners rely times and learners
(complaints between co- participation more on co- location – taking the
made by learners of other workers causing stress programme –
learners) learners –  Lack of busy working
contributing technical learners
towards support –  Packed
learners leading to schedule
17
Volume 7 Issue 1
feeling frustration  Technology –
isolated can be a
disadvantage
and an
advantage –
generation of
learners –
some busy
learners are
‘matured’
students that
is lacking on
the
technology
part
5. Suggestions  To increase  Encourage  To have  Put more  To have  N/A  To increase  Learners
to improve group work discussions tutorial practice on online tutorial group work should meet
co-learners assessment in and sessions group works sessions – assessment to and interact
interactions order to interaction online rather than encourage encourage with other co-
within a DL encourage through  Support and individual peer-to-peer and improve learners
setting interactions student encourageme works – discussion co-learners  In support of
and common nt constraint:  Often give interactions face-to-face
discussions room  The necessity ‘free-riders’ encourageme  To provide lecture
between of a face-to- among team nts ‘appropriate’
learners and face members  To still technology
co-learners classroom to conduct face- support
 Support more encourage to-face
interactions interactions – lectures to
and although it is encourage
discussions a DL setting learners
18
Improving Co-Learner Interactions through Web-Based Online Assessments within Distance Learning Settings: Case Studies Findings from the Built Environment
through  Having interaction
discussion ‘group- (the
boards, clusters’ opportunity to
chatrooms – within area of meet-up)
perhaps as interests.  To have
part of the ‘group-
formative clusters’ so
assessment that learners
group
together
within their
own ‘circle of
friends’
19
DISCUSSION AND FINDINGS
Table 2 shows the summary of findings for all the case studies
conducted within this research. The summary of findings was
narrowed down into five main criteria, i.e.: (i) method of delivery,
(ii) method of interaction, (iii) method of assessment, (iv) problems
faced by learners within DL setting, and (v) suggestions to improve
co-learners’ interactions within a DL setting.
From Table 2, it can be seen that there was a mix of method
of delivery within the case studies conducted, i.e. some lectures were
delivered face-to-face (through summer school sessions), and some
were delivered and taught online with the support of the Internet.
The common method of interaction was through the use of emails
and online tutorial support, as well as discussion boards and chat
rooms. The case studies implemented both a mixture of summative
and formative assessments methods. The common summative
assessments identified were written coursework, project paper and
dissertation. The written coursework and project paper were usually
submitted via email or straight through the school office. The
formative assessment method practised by most of the case studies is
through learning activities with other co-learners. However, it can be
concluded that almost all of the case studies conducted did not
implement a specific web-based online assessment tools within the
assessment method to be used in the MSc and BSc programme. This
might be due to the problems that have been raised by some of the
course instructors within the case studies, whereby the course
instructors felt that an MSc programme should implement a much
more critical, complex, and detailed written coursework. The web-
based online assessment tool is said to be more suitable for
undergraduates’ level.
Some of the problems that were being faced by the learners
within a DL setting are identified as: the lack of interaction between
co-learners within the programme, as well as late feedback obtained
from the instructor on any enquiries or assessments taken. The
learners also found it difficult to work in isolation based upon the
geographical and time constraint being faced by the learners enrolled
in a DL setting. Almost all the case studies were in the perception
that in order to improve co-learners’ interaction within a DL setting,
a face-to-face lecture should also be conducted within the period of
study. This would give learners the opportunity to get-together and
interact with other learners within the programme. This conforms to
20
the findings from the literature review that many educators feel that
the face-to-face iterative interaction with learners is an important
part of the learning process (Bergstrom et al., 2006). More group
works assessments were recommended as an initiative to encourage
co-learners’ interactions, although extra care should be addressed to
minimise the threat of ‘free-riders’ among group members.
Programme instructors should also ensure that there is sufficient
technology support for learners, so that learners do not feel isolated
and stressed due to the nature of the DL setting. This further
conforms the finding from literature as highlighted by Naglieri et al.,
(2004) that learners have different technology abilities. Learners
who perceive themselves as being I.T. illiterate may find online
assessments within the DL setting as an advantage. In addition, one
of the recommendations made by the instructors within the case
studies were to develop ‘group-clusters’ within learners’ area of
interest, to encourage learners of the same ‘circle’ would interact
more within the discussion boards and chat rooms provided.
CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD
Findings from the case studies revealed that most of the DL

programmes deliver lecture materials in accessible format which
comprise text, diagrams and drawings (for which descriptor
alternatives are available) and video presentations (for which audio
and text captioning are available) through online environments such
as the “Horizonwimba” and ‘Elluminate Bridge’. The delivery
methods currently used within the programmes are both
synchronous and asynchronous. The result from this research
identifies that there is a lacking in the implementation of specific
web-based assessments tools within the DL settings, since none of
the case studies have actually implemented a specific web-based
online assessment tool as an assessment mechanism. However, the
aid of technology is used within the assessment method
implemented, i.e. most of the submission of coursework and project
papers was done via email. However, the use of web-based online
assessment tools is not denied as a way forward towards a paradigm
shift in DL community as a means to encourage co-learners’
interactions (O’Reilly and Morgan, 1999).
Based on the in-depth literature, web-based assessments
tools have been found to help improve co-learners’ interactions
21
Volume 7 Issue 1
within DL settings. Most DL programmes have just gone for the

traditional assessment method, which is the written coursework due
to lack of emphasis on co-learners’ interactions when deciding on
the method of assessment to be implemented. The findings from the
case studies highlighted the following recommendations in general
to improve co-learners’ interactions within a DL setting with the aid
of online assessments methods:
 More group works/ assessments are recommended to

encourage co-learners to interact more. However, being in a
Masters level, the assessments should be more complex,
detailed, and critical; hence, close attention should be given
to learners in avoiding ‘free-riders’ within team members.
 More support and encouragements should be given to
learners through discussion boards, emails, and chat rooms in
order to encourage learners’ interactions.
 I.T. support should also be taken into ‘proper’ consideration
to attract ‘matured’ learners, or learners who are not
comfortable with the use of technology as a medium of
interaction within co-learners.
 Having ‘group-clusters’ within areas of interest to encourage
learners within the same level of interest so that chat rooms
and discussion boards can be catered to address learners’
personalised interests.
The highlighted recommendations should be used as a way

forward for all DL setting programmes so that web-based online
assessment tools could really be used in order to improve co-learner
interactions.
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Volume 7 Issue 1
30
IMPACTS OF DESIGN CHANGES ON
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PERFORMANCE:
INSIGHTS FROM A LITERATURE REVIEW
Hamzah Abdul Rahman1, Wang Chen2 and Jeffrey Yap Boon Hui3*
ABSTRACT
Design changes and rework are inevitable in construction projects.

Even though papers published in major journals have acknowledged
design changes as a significant factor inhibiting construction project
performance, there seems to be a limited studies in this domain to
systematically synthesizing preceding studies. This paper reviewed
papers published in peer-reviewed journals and conference
proceedings in the construction management field. The objectives
are to analyze the relationship of design changes and the consequent
rework, to recognize their resulting impacts on project performance
and to provide insights for directing further studies in Malaysian
context. The findings indicate that design changes are identified as
important causing factors to project delay and cost overruns. Similar
results were found for studies done in both developed and
developing countries round the world because construction projects
commonly share key characteristics. On the contrary, preceding
studies done in Malaysia that were published in the top-tier
construction management journals failed to recognize design
changes as a major cause of project schedule and cost overruns.
Therefore, suggestions for future research are recognizing design
changes as a major cause of schedule and cost overruns in
construction project in Malaysia, identifying factors stimulating
design changes and the ability to predict the resulting impacts on
project performance. Thus, the analytical framework for future study
is presented.
Keywords: Design changes, rework, construction industry, project performance,

overruns, Malaysia
1
President, International University of Malaya-Wales
2
Associate Professor, Universiti Malaya
3
Lecturer, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman; PhD Candidate, International
University of Malaya-Wales
* Corresponding author. Email address: bhyap@utar.edu.my
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Volume 7 Issue 1
INTRODUCTION
Performance of construction project is much impacted by design

changes (Olawale & Sun, 2010), yet research in this field is limited,
especially in Malaysia’s context. The most prominent concern
related to design changes that happened in Malaysia is the
construction of Kuala Lumpur International Airport 2 or known as
KLIA2. The initial target date for opening is September 2011 but
was later moved several times and finally completed in May 2014.
The construction cost ballooned from the initial RM 1.7 billion to
RM 4 billion was due to the new design concept for KLIA2 (Ng,
2015; Ghazali, 2015). This is one example that shows time and cost
overruns caused by design changes are a serious issue in Malaysian
construction industry. To date, there appears to be a lacking of
attention paid to the need for summarizing what has already been
presented in the literature. Reasons for cost and schedule increases
arising from design changes are not formally studied (Chang, 2002).
Hence, amplify the need of a systematic review of existing literature
in this domain. This study can assist researchers in gaining an in-
depth understanding of previous research efforts on this topic and in
exploring directions for future research.
OVERVIEW OF DESIGN CHANGES IN CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
In this section, the author discusses on the definitions of design

changes and rework in construction projects in order to give a proper
understanding of the terms used. Several keywords from past studies
are highlighted and synthesized to provide the author’s deduction on
the summary of definitions available.
Definition of Design Changes
A design change is defined as any change in the design or

construction of a project after the contract is awarded and signed.
Such changes are related not only to matters in accordance with the
provision of the contract but also changes to the work conditions
(Burati et al., 1992). Similarly, Akinsola et al. (1997) noted that
these changes are any additions, omissions or adjustments made to
32
Impacts of Design Changes on Construction Project Performance: Insights from a Literature Review
Hamzah Abdul Rahman, Wang Chen and Jeffrey Yap Boon Hui
the original scope of work after a contract is awarded. It may cause

an adjustment to the contract price or contract time, and it occurs
regularly on construction projects (Ibbs, 2012). Likewise, Park
(2003) defined that construction changes refer to work state,
processes or methods that differ from the original construction plan
or specification and usually resulted from different in work quality
and conditions, scope changes or uncertainties that make
construction dynamic and unstable. Table 1 exhibits the keywords
used in the definition of design changes by past studies.
Table 1 Keywords for design changes

Keywords Burati Akinsola Ibbs Park
et al. et al. (2012) (2003)
(1992) (1997)
Changes in design / construction √ √ √
(addition / omission)
After award of contract and signed √ √
Affects contract provision (affect on √ √ √ √
scope)
Affects work conditions √ √
Adjustment to contract price / √
contract time
Occurs regularly √
Make construction dynamic and √
unstable
The author synthesize the definition of design changes as

regular additions, omissions and adjustments to both design and
construction of work in a construction project that occurs after the
award of contract which affects the contract provisions and work
conditions that make construction dynamic and unstable.
Definition of Rework
Rework was defined as the unnecessary effort of re-doing a process

or activity that was incorrectly implemented at the first time (Love,
Smith, & Li, 1999; Love, 2002). Another study by Hwang et al.
(2009) revealed that terms such as non-conformances, quality
deviation, quality failures and defects have been seen as
synonymous with rework. Rework has become one of the most
collective concerns in construction projects. Rework can be
described as unneeded effort of redoing an activity or operation that
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Volume 7 Issue 1
was enforced in a wrong way from the beginning (Love & Li, 2000).
According to Palaneeswaran (2006), most of rework cases arises
from changes, damages, defects, errors, omissions and other non-
conformances. Table 2 exhibits the keywords used in the definition
of rework by past studies.
Table 2 Keywords for rework

Keywords Love, Love & Li Palaneeswaran
Smith, & (2000) (2006)
Li (1999);
Love
(2002)
Unnecessary effort of redoing a √
process of work
Unneeded effort of redoing an √
activity
Incorrectly implemented at the first √
time
Wrong way from the beginning √
Arising from changes √
As this study focuses on the rework arising from design

changes, the author will exclude rework due to non-conformances to
quality or specification. Thus, rework due to design changes can be
summarised as unnecessary efforts of redoing a process of work or
activity due to incorrect implementation at the beginning that arise
from design changes.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Fink (1998, p.3) defined literature review as “a systematic, explicit

and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and interpreting
the existing body of recorded work”. For that reason, Cooper (2010)
highlighted literature review as the development of connections
between related research works which aims to recognize the recent
achievement in a specific field and emphasize significant concerns
to be answered. Due to the large number of information available,
delimitation to establish the boundary of study is essential (Chen et
al., 2015). In this study, the criteria considered to delimit the
literature are:
34
1. Only papers in peer-reviewed English academic journals are

selected for review
2. Only papers in peer-reviewed English conference
proceedings are selected for review
3. Non-published Master and PhD thesis are eliminated
Three major academic databases: EBSCO, Proquest and

Scopus were searched for relevant publications. The keywords
identified to be used in the literature search are: design changes,
rework, change management, construction industry, delay, cost
overrun, project performance. Notwithstanding using keywords,
some retrieved papers appear to be less relevant. As a result, the
author applied the two stages filtering process adopted by Mok et al.
(2015) in their literature review published in one of the top project
management journal. Firstly, papers which do not contain the
aforementioned keywords in their titles and abstracts were
immediately screened out. Secondly, the contents of each paper
found were quickly screened through to distinguish the relevancy
where extraneous papers were excluded. Finally, the literature was
organised through a literature map (Creswell, 2014). Figure 1
portrays the research framework for this study.
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Criteria Stage
Select academic
journals in 3
academic databases
Initial search
Search with
keywords Stage 1
Containing keywords
Filtering
in title and abstract? Stage 2
Relevant in paper Visual examination

content? Stage 3
Content analysis Stage 4
Figure 1 Research framework of this study

(Source: Adapted from Mok et al, 2015, p. 449)
RESULTS OF LITERATURE REVIEW
The following section discusses the findings from literature review

on design changes, consequent rework due to design changes and the
impacts to project’s time and cost performance. This section
concludes by identifying the knowledge gap in Malaysian context
and the dire need to manage design change dynamics. The analytical
research framework is then formulated as the starting point for
further analysis.
36
Synthesis of Design Changes Studies
Change is a necessary fact of a project. A design change is a form of

change that will deviate the way the work was planned, budgeted or
scheduled. Almost all building projects undergo various degrees of
design changes through the project lifecycle. Changes in
construction projects are inevitable in most construction projects to
correct or modify original design or scope of work (Alnuaimi et al.,
2010). Design changes in building projects are common (Mohamad
et al., 2012) where in many circumstances, these changes lead to
excessive claims and disputes (Howick et al., 2009). Therefore,
complex and dynamic nature of construction project poses
uncertainties and risks (Zhao et al., 2010). Changes usually occur at
any stage of a project due various causes from different sources and
have considerable impacts (Motawa, Anumba, Lee, & Peña-Mora,
2007). Naoum (1994) emphasized that lack of timely and effective
communication, lack of integration, uncertainty, a changing
environment and increasing project complexity are the drivers of
project change. Additionally, these changes in project can cause
substantial adjustment to the contract duration, time, total direct and
indirect cost or both (Ibbs, Lee, & Li, 1998). The sooner the changes
are identified and resolved, the lesser impact it will have on the
project. According to Hwang and Low (2012), conflict over project
changes can be minimized when the problem is found at the earlier
phase of the project. Therefore, one of project management best
practices is to implement design change management to construction
projects.
Almost all building projects undergo various degrees of
design changes through the project lifecycle. According to a study
by Ogunlana, Promkuntong and Jearkjirm (1996), construction
owners are the major cause of change order due to changing plans in
line with the changing economic climate, to meet customer demands
or for making marketing reasons. According to Orangi et al. (2011),
design changes is identified as the major root cause of the Victoria-
based Australian pipeline projects. Williams, Eden, Ackermann, &
Tait (1995) also reported that design changes and delays in design
approval would have caused delay to the project. Olawale and Sun
(2015) suggest having an agreed price with the client that will be
used for variations and ensuring the programme and cost estimate
are updated as the design evolves as good practices for project
control. Several other studies have also shown that design changes
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Volume 7 Issue 1
are mostly caused by clients (Hamzah et al., 2012; Love, Frani, &
Edwards, 2004; Memon, Rahman, Faris, & Hasan, 2014; Yu, 1996).
Design change often results from these terms: quality
deviation, non-conformance, quality failure, defects or mistakes
(Burati et al., 1992). Design changes need to be constantly
monitored to avoid escalation (Olawale & Sun, 2015). Even though
design changes are widely accepted by the practitioners in the
construction industry, however, its effect on project performance is
undesirable. Overruns in project schedule and project cost are key
principles for a successful project that adversely impacted by design
changes (Chan & Kumaraswamy, 1996; Frimpong et al., 2003).
Given the large volume of published work, there was a need
to set a limit to the scope of the review. This study was chosen to
focus on causing factors of design changes, because a good
understanding of causes is a prerequisite for modelling the dynamics
of design changes. It is also important to identify the different
causing factors of design changes in construction project before
looking into the impact of design changes to project lifecycle
performance. Design changes can be originated from several factors
that are related to the construction project. Various causing factors
have been identified by many researchers in different regions which
will be discussed. Memon et al. (2014) divided the causes of delay
into two broad categories: excusable delays and non-excusable
delays. Excusable delays were more orientated to the client or
consultant causes, while the non-excusable delays were related to
the contractor. Design change in particular was described as a cause
in excusable delays.
Love et al. (2002) stated that project changes can occur due
to the influences of both internal and external elements. The internal
elements include project, organizational and stakeholder related
issues where the external elements consist of natural unforeseeable
circumstances, government intervention, economy or legal issues.
Love et al. (2002) describe how changes and their actions or effects
which are known as dynamics can impact the project management
systems. Wu, Hsieh, and Cheng (2005) divided the causes of design
changes into external such as political or economic, natural
environment and third party factors, and internal factors such as
owner or design consultant factors. Andi and Minato (2003) stated
that defective design originates from the owner, design company and
workplace.
38
Sun and Meng (2009) conducted a comprehensive and

systematic overview to fill the knowledge gap by reviewing and
synthesising existing literature on project change causes and effects
in order to develop two taxonomies for change causes and change
effects in construction projects. Alaghbari, Kadir, Salim, and
Ernawati (2007) reported that there are two kinds of cause for delay
in construction projects which are external causes and internal
causes. In this study, the causing factors are divided into internal
factors and external factors. The internal factors comprise of (1)
Client-related; (2) Design-related; (3) Project-related and (4)
Contractor-related while external factor is (5) Government policy-
related.
Critical Appraisal of Preceding Rework Studies
According to Love, Mandal, and Li (1999), rework is waste due to

its non-value adding activities that takes time, resources or require
storage and do not add value to the final output. Therefore, rework is
known as non-value adding symptoms that affect the productivity
and performance in construction projects. Ledbetter (1994)
categorized rework into four reasons which are owner change,
designer change or error, contractor change or error and supplier
change or error and the reasons can appear in design, construction or
even start-up stages. A major contributor of rework is design
changes (Han et al. 2013). Love (2002) revealed that design change
orders resulting in rework can account for as much as 50% of project
cost overrun. Similarly, a study by Burati et al. (1992) found that
79% of rework costs arising in industrial engineering projects were
the result of design changes, errors and omissions. In essence,
rework results in higher costs due to additional cost of re-doing or
re-designing an activity or process within the contruction project
(Love et al., 1999).
Rework is one of the prevalent cause of loss of project
productivity (Cooper & Reichelt, 2010) and has a considerable
impact on project performance (Park & Peña-Mora, 2003). A study
by Love et al. (2002) has identified rework as a significant factor
that contributes to cost increases and schedule delays in construction
projects. When rework increases, the project costs and time is likely
to increase which eventually lead to claims and disputes (Love,
Wang, Sing, & Tiong, 2012). The case study projects by Love &
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Sohal (2003) in Australia found out that rework costs ranges from
2.4% to 3.15% of their contract value where changes initiated by
client was identified as one of the primary causes of rework.
Similarly, Senaratne and Sexton (2009) noted that rework due to
unplanned changes can cost 10% to 15% of contract value. Rework
has become an endemic feature of the procurement process in
construction that invariably leads to time and cost overruns in
projects (Josephson et al., 2002). Past studies have also indicated
that significant rework in construction is due to design changes
(Love et al., 1999; Love, Mandal, Smith, & Georgiou, 2000; Love,
Edwards, & Irani, 2008; Sommerville, 2007). According to Li and
Taylor (2014), rework in construction development project can
significantly degrade project cost and schedule performance. These
frequent design-related rework generate costly ripple effects that
create delay and disruption to the project life cycle performance
which eventually lead to cost overruns and schedule delays.
Much research studies have attempted to identify the root
causes of rework and its negative impact on project performance
(Hwang et al., 2009; Love et al., 1999; Love et al., 2004;
Palaneeswaran, 2006; Thyssen, Emmitt, Bonke, & Kirk-
Christoffersen, 2010; Palaneeswaran et al., 2014). Recent study by
Hwang and Yang (2014) identified a gap in knowledge on
identification of the impacts due to rework on schedule performance
and highlighted the need to establish the relationship between
rework and schedule performance.
Impact of Design Changes on Project Performance
Nearly all projects go through assorted changes from the design

stage right through to construction. These various changes have
considerable impacts during the lifecycle of a project, which may be
minor or major according to the result of the change. However, the
impacts are always being underestimated by construction
practitioners (Olawale & Sun, 2010). Design changes in construction
projects will inevitably lead to cost overrun or schedule delay (El-
Razek, Bassioni, & Mobarak, 1995; Kaming, Olomolaiye, Holt, &
Harris, 1997; Le-Hoai, Lee, & Lee, 2008; Owalabi et al., 2014).
Overruns in project schedule and project cost are key principles for a
successful project that adversely impacted by design changes (Chan
& Kumaraswamy, 1996; Frimpong et al., 2003).
40
A study by Cox, Morris, Rogerson and Jared (1999) revealed

that design changes often have a major impact on the client
objectives in construction projects where the cost associated with
post contract award design changes typically amount about 5% to
8% of the contract value. Another study by Chang (2002) reported
that cost increased on average of 24.8% and schedule increased on
an average of 69% based on four sampled projects in California as a
result of design changes. Chang, Shih, and Choo (2011) reported
that design changes has resulted in an increased in redesign cost of
2.1% to 21.5% and on average 8.5% of the construction change cost.
Similarly, a study by Burati et al. (1992) found that 79% of rework
costs arising in industrial engineering projects were the result of
design changes, errors and omissions. Williams, Eden, Ackermann
and Tait (1995) also reported that design changes and delays in
design approval would have caused delay to the project.
Undoubtedly, design changes are on-going problems that continue to
raise concerns in the construction industry.
Project changes have obvious impacts on the construction
process, not only on the project’s schedule and cost but also on the
project’s performance, e.g. labour efficiency (Hanna et al., 1999).
Several studies on causes of delays and cost overruns in construction
projects have highlighted design changes as major contributing
factor. Kaming et al. (1997) studied influencing factors on thirty one
high-rise project in Indonesia and found that design changes is one
of the most important factors causing time overrun. This claim is
further supported by studies of Apolot, Alinaitwe, & Tindiwensi
(2013) in Uganda, Rosenfeld (2013) in Israel, Yang, Chu, & Huang
(2013) in Taiwan, Ijaola & Iyagba (2012) in Nigeria, Alnuaimi et al.
(2010) in Oman, Le-Hoai et al. (2008) in Vietnam, Assaf & Al-Hejji
(2006) in Saudi Arabia, Sweis, Sweis, Hammad, & Shboul (2008) in
Jordan, Kartam, Al-Daihani, & Al-Bahar (2000) in Kuwait, and
Ogunlana et al. (1996) in Thailand. The findings from previous
studies in several parts of the world are consistent that design
changes impose significant detrimental effects to time and cost
performance of construction project. However, the author failed to
recognize any published research from Malaysia that supports this
proposition.
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Lack of Studies Done In Malaysian Context
In order to weigh up the studies done in Malaysia, six top-tier

construction management journals were selected: Construction
Management and Economics (CME), Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management (JCEM), Engineering Construction
and Architectural Management (ECAM), Journal of Management in
Engineering (JME), International Journal of Project Management
(IJPM) and Building Research and Information (BRI). These target
journals were identified by Chau (1997) as the leading construction
journals. For this reason, the selected papers for this study are of
high merit and reliable (Tang et al., 2010). Nonetheless, limited
research was available on causes and effects of delay in building
construction in Malaysia (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2008) with only two
(2) noteworthy papers discovered: Sambasivan & Yau (2007) and
Alaghbari et al. (2007). The major factors of delay in Malaysian
construction projects are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 Top-ten causes of delay in Malaysian construction projects

(Source: Adapted from Sambasivan & Yau , 2007; Alaghbari et al., 2007)
Factors Sambasivan & Yau (2007) Alaghbari et al. (2007)
1 Improper planning Financial difficulties and
economic problems
2 Site management Financial problems
3 Inadequate contractor experience Supervision too late and slowness
in making decisions
4 Finance and payments of Slow to give instructions
completed work
5 Subcontractors Lack of materials on market
6 Shortage of material Poor site management
7 Labour supply Materials shortages on site
8 Equipment availability and failure Construction mistakes and
defective works
9 Lack of communication between Delay in delivery of materials to
parties site
10 Mistakes during construction stage Slowness in making decisions
Gap in Knowledge
Apparently, these literatures fail to recognize design changes as one

of the contributing factors and therefore, not included in the
questionnaire surveys conducted. As a result, the findings were not
aligned with other studies around the world where design changes
42
were listed as an imperative cause of schedule and cost overruns

(Mansfield et al., 1994; Kaming et al., 1997; Assaf & Al-Hejji,
2006; Chang, 2002; Lee et al., 2005; Ogunlana et al., 1996; Al-
Momani, 2000; Kartam et al., 2000). In addition, construction
projects worldwide commonly share some key characteristics
(Olawale & Sun 2010). Construction practitioners in Malaysia
deliberately put forward design changes as a major concern (Abdul-
Rahman et al., 2006). A recent study by Shehu et al. (2014)
conducted 359 samples of a questionnaire survey of Malaysian
quantity-surveying consultants and reported that an alarming 55% of
projects in Malaysia suffer from cost overruns. Therefore, the ability
to predict the probabilities of occurrence (Abdul-Rahman et al.
2006) is essential to mitigate overruns and possible disputes due to
design changes and rework. This observation provide the underlying
motivation for future studies to fill the gap in knowledge on the
major causes of schedule and cost overruns in Malaysian
construction projects and validate design changes as one of the
major contributing factors. Moreover, the above studies are over 7
years old and there is a need for more up-to-date investigation to
reflect the current concern. Therefore, studies on the causing factors
of design changes are essential in order to understand the reasons of
the changes and potentially reduce the imposing impacts on project
performance in terms of schedule and cost management. It is
essential to minimise the disruptive effects of change (Bower, 2000).
Many papers have been written about design changes, but few
documents focus on the impacts of design changes on the project
lifecycle performance. Hence, future studies are requisite to capture
the dynamics of design changes and systematically assess their
impacts to facilitate effective construction project management.
The Need to Manage Design Change Dynamics
Good understanding of causes and effects is always a requirement

for successful construction project management (Sun & Meng,
2009). Design changes may well contribute to rework (Han et al.,
2013) which directly degrade project progress and cause disruptions
(Park & Peña-Mora, 2003; Cooper & Reichelt, 2010). As a result,
whenever design changes occur, immediate attention is imperative
so as to plan for apposite actions and responses (Love et al., 2002).
Thus, if the problem is recognized at the earlier phase of the project,
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Volume 7 Issue 1
the impact it will have on project performance (time and cost) can be
effectively inhibited (Hwang & Low, 2012). In view of that,
construction project delay and cost overruns can ultimately be well
mitigated.
ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR FUTURE STUDY
Figure 2 depicts the analytical framework of the future research

work.
44
Formation of research direction
Input: Literature Review
Identified problem and Past research of schedule and Impacts of design changes on
investigated issue cost overruns literatures project performance
Relationship between design Gap of knowledge and scarcity of Critical to identify the dynamics
changes and rework literature recognizing design that influence design changes and
Relationship and consequences of changes as a major factor ability to predict the impacts at
design changes to project degrading project performance in the early phase of project
performance (time and cost) Malaysian context
Research modeling
Research aim
To determine design changes as a major cause of project schedule and cost overruns
To identify the dynamics of design changes in Malaysian building construction projects
To investigate the impacts of design changes on project performance (time and cost)
Research objectives
To develop a conceptual causal loop model of design changes for use in building construction projects
Qualitative data collection (stage 1): Semi-structured interviews

To identify the causes of design changes and establish their dynamic relationships
To identify the impacts of design changes to project performance
Quantitative data collection (stage 2): Questionnaire survey

To validate the dynamic relationships between the model variables with construction practitioners
To quantify the major variables
A conceptual causal loop model of design changes
Figure 2 Analytical framework for future study

(Source: Adapted from Abdul-Rahman, et al., 2008, p. 18)
The analytical framework of the future study will instigate

with the identification of knowledge deficiencies within existing
studies of building construction projects in Malaysia and the current
issues focused on in this literature review. The primary research aim
is to recognize design changes as a key factor of project schedule
and cost overruns. The future study ensues to establish the dynamics
of design changes that influences project progress and causes
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Volume 7 Issue 1
disruptions. With an exploratory sequential mixed methodology

research approach (Creswell, 2014), qualitative data will be
collected through semi-structured interviews and subsequently with
quantitative data collection via questionnaire survey will be used to
identify causes, relationship and consequences of design changes to
project performance (time and cost). A conceptual causal loop
model of design changes will then be developed for the use in
building construction projects.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The review undertaken in this paper appraises the impacts of design

changes to project performance in terms of schedule and cost
overruns. The relationship of design changes and the consequent
rework is identified. Previous research has been carrying out on
identifying the significant factors causing project schedule and cost
overruns, mitigation of project delay and control of project
variations. Design changes caused rework in construction projects
while rework is the prevalence cause of loss in productivity. These
frequent design-related rework generate costly ripple effects that
create delay and disruption to the project life cycle performance
which eventually lead to cost overruns and schedule delays.
However, this literature review found out that there is scarcity of
studies that focus on linking design changes and rework in
construction projects which justify the need for systematically
synthesizing preceding studies in this domain. In order to mitigate
the detrimental impacts of design changes, the dynamics that
influences design changes need to be identified and attended to
appropriately. Despite construction projects differ in size, duration
and complexity, several common features can be established.
Nevertheless preceding studies done in Malaysian context on
construction delays and cost overruns that were published in the top-
tier construction management journals fell short to recognize design
changes as a major cause of delays and cost overruns in construction
projects. This finding is not aligned to other studies done worldwide
although construction projects unanimously do demonstrate
considerable similarities. For this reason, insights have been
provided to offer further research directions to address the gap in
literature primarily in Malaysian context. In view that schedule and
cost overruns remain as a primary concern for Malaysian public and
46
private construction projects; there is a critical need to recognize the

prevalent factors that tend to distress project performance and
recommend ways to mitigate this pervasive issue. Therefore,
managing the root causes with clear understanding of the types of
design changes and factors influencing the occurrence of these
changes at various times in the project with the resulting impacts are
fundamental to achieving success in the delivery of construction
project management. Hence, the problems need to be addressed as
early as possible or immediately upon detection. The relationship
and consequences of design changes must to be established.
Moreover, the ability to predict the impacts of design changes on
project performance at the early phase of the project is essential in
order to deal with future claims and disputes arising from these
unanticipated delay and disruptions to the project performance.
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54
MALAYSIAN HOUSING CO-OPERATIVES:
PERFORMANCE, PROBLEMS AND FUTURE
PATH
Nadiya Adnan1, Hasniyati Hamzah2, Mohd Nasir Daud3 and Yasmin
Mohd Adnan4
ABSTRACT
Housing co-operatives used to be one of main housing providers in

Malaysia. Nonetheless, their eminence as a housing provider has
rapidly diminished since the late 1980s, as evidenced by number of
houses developed by them. Seeing that housing co-operatives in
other countries have grown in stature and have succeeded in
providing significant amount of housing for the people, it is
worthwhile to examine why Malaysia housing co-operatives have
been lagging behind. This paper aims to reveal current issues and
challenges faced by Malaysian housing co-operatives in undertaking
housing development. A qualitative approach driven by semi-
structured interviews was adopted in obtaining information related
to the barriers faced by Malaysian housing co-operatives. Findings
revealed that there exist prevalent management, operational and
funding issues among Malaysian housing co-operatives. Being part
of a research into alternative housing tenure for Malaysia, this paper
points out the inherent weaknesses within the current housing co-
operative structure and proposes the “re-invention” of housing co-
operatives in providing proper and adequate housing for their
members. A new form of housing co-operatives for Malaysia is
proposed, but the highlighted weaknesses need to be addressed
before the potentials can be harnessed.
Keywords: Housing co-operatives, performance, intermediate tenure, innovation
1
Master Student, Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Built
Environment, University of Malaya
2
Lecturer, Department of Estate Management, Faculty of Built Environment,
University of Malaya
3
4
55
Volume 7 Issue 1
INTRODUCTION
Housing is a basic human need that has been high on the agenda of
policymakers, the focus being adequate affordable housing for the
population. Other than the public and private sector, the co-operative
movement was once a main housing provider in Malaysia. In
general, co-operatives are involved in housing besides banking and
finance, consumer, industrial and construction. Originally, the
housing co-operative was conceived based on socialist principles,
i.e. to improve the living conditions of people by offering access to
affordable housing, which is an alternative to the market housing. As
time progresses, housing co-operatives throughout the world have
evolved in terms of function and operation to reflect changes in the
socio-economy, although the basic social bias remains. To date, co-
operative housing is a significant type of housing tenure in Western
countries such as Sweden, Norway, the United Kingdom and the
United States, whilst housing co-operatives become an important
third provider of housing besides public and private developers.
According to the Malaysia Co-operative Societies
Commision (2014), housing co-operatives in Malaysia play the dual
role of developing and constructing housing projects for their
members. Most of the projects are focused on low and medium cost
housing, with prices about 20%-30% cheaper than the market price.
Cheah (1986) stated that Malaysian housing co-operatives were once
popular as an alternative to conventional or market housing that
involved high housing loan charges. These reasons led to the firm
support for housing co-operatives during their early years, as seen in
their 13.7% contribution to the total housing units constructed in the
First Malaysia Plan (Rahim, Bakar, & Abdullah, 1991). This
performance was not sustained in the following years. Subsequent
Malaysia Plans reported small contributions from housing co-
operatives, ranging from 0.84% to 2.67%. After the Eighth Malaysia
Plan, the housing contribution of housing co-operatives was not
reported, a reflection of the marked decline of Malaysian housing
co-operatives as a housing provider.
On the other hand, seeing that housing co-operative in other
countries play an important role in housing provision, it is
worthwhile to examine the recent decline of Malaysia housing co-
operatives. A review of Malaysian housing literature indicated that
there has been no recent study on housing co-operatives except the
study that was carried out by Salleh & Bujang in 2008. This paper
56
Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives: Performance, Problems and Future Path
Nadiya Adnan, Hasniyati Hamzah, Mohd Nasir Daud and Yasmin Mohd Adnan
forms part of a larger research into the feasibility of introducing an

alternative housing tenure besides home ownership and renting
among the Gen Y in Malaysia, by piggybacking on the current
housing co-operative structure. This paper aims to reveal issues and
challenges faced by Malaysian housing co-operatives in undertaking
housing development. A qualitative approach frames the study, with
key informant interviews being the main method of data collection.
The findings point out the inherent weaknesses within the current
housing co-operative structure. We conclude by proposing the “re-
invention” of Malaysian housing co-operatives based on the
established model of housing co-operatives in other countries.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Co-Operative Movement in General
Currently, the co-operatives system can be found in various

economic activities including transportation, businesses, housing,
consumerism and so forth. The layman definition of a co-operative
is any activity that involves a group of people who operate with a
similar objective. The co-operative movement has been around for
over 200 years and has been instrumental in providing significant
services which would otherwise be unattainable (Das, Palai, & Das,
2006). According to the International Co-operative Alliance (2015),
the earliest modern co-operative movement was established in 1844
when the Rochdale Pioneers founded the Co-operative Movement in
Lancashire, England. The main purpose of that particular co-
operative was to provide an affordable alternative to poor-quality
and adulterated food and sundry provisions, using any surplus to
benefit the community. Since then, the co-operative movement has
developed rapidly, spreading throughout the world in a myriad of
economic sectors.
Nevertheless, the co-operative movement has their own
issues and problems. For example co-operatives have existed in
India for 100 years but despite the rapid growth in the co-operative
movement, Das et al. (2006) cited problems of government
interference, mismanagement and manipulation, lack of awareness
among the people, restricted coverage due to inadequate size of co-
operative and limited function in terms of single purpose co-
57
Volume 7 Issue 1
operatives. These issues have also plagued co-operatives in most

countries, including Malaysia.
Housing Co-Operatives throughout the World
The economic liberalization policies of early 1990s across the globe

had reduced the scope of public housing and enhanced the role of
private housing market (Ganapati, 2010). However, the withdrawal
of public housing developers and the inability of private housing
developers in fulfilling all housing demands has led to the
involvement of third sector organisations such as housing co-
operatives. This new development has become the focus of attention
among the policymakers, scholars and community activist both in
developed and developing countries. The housing co-operative is
seen as a good mechanism in the provision of affordable housing
since it is believed to be able to minimise speculation (Saegert &
Benitez, 2005).
Co-operatives housing members do not receive a deed to
their housing unit, and thus do not own the property (Mallin, 1990).
The members only own a share towards the house, becoming part of
the shareholders in the corporation, with the corporation owning the
title to the property. However, members can enjoy all occupational
benefits as long as they obey the corporation rules. The members
have a right to a long-term lease which is up to 99 years called
“occupancy agreement” or “propriety lease” to the unit (Mallin,
1990).
Table 1 shows the types of housing co-operatives available in
other countries. It can be seen that there are a few models available
to be implemented by housing co- operatives, depending on the local
institutional needs and conditions. According to the (Northcountry
Cooperative Development Fund, 2012), housing co-operatives may
be divided into market rate co-operative, limited equity housing co-
operative, leasing co-operative, mutual housing co-operation and
senior-housing co-operative.
Table 1 Types of Housing Co-operative

Types of Housing Co- Description
operative
Market rate co- The co-operative sells shares at full market value in
operative original sale and allow future units sales at the market
price. The market price is alike conventional real estate
58
Types of Housing Co- Description

operative
whereas the unit’s sale price is determined by the
market, allowing for potential accumulation (or loss) of
equity by the members
Limited equity housing The co-operative in which residents buy a low-cost
co-operative share of the ownership of a building but are limited on
the return from resale value of the housing (Graves,
2011).
Leasing co-operative The property is leased by the investor on a long term
basis, sometimes with an option to buy. The property is
operated by the residents as a co-operative.
Mutual housing Non-profit corporation set up to develop, own and
association operate housing. The residents of the housing own and
control the association.
Senior housing co- A co-operative that has designed and service features
operative appropriate to senior residents.
(Source: Northcountry Cooperative Development Fund (2012))
As shown in Table 2, the presence of housing co-operatives

can be observed in various countries with different levels of
involvement in the national housing provision. The country where
housing co-operatives has been a substantial provider of housing is
Sweden, whereby about one fifths of the total housing supply came
from co-operatives. It should be noted that housing co-operatives
were only introduced in Sweden about 40 years ago. Additionally, if
the absolute number of co-operative housing was considered rather
than proportion against the total housing stock, Germany have
produced well over 2 million co-operatives housing, which is almost
half of the total housing stock of Malaysia.
Table 2 Housing Co-Operatives in Selected Countries

Date of No of Total Percentage
Country establishment housing co- housing of housing
operative stock co-operative
units units against
total housing
stock
Austria 1895 368,000 4,200,000 8.76%
Egypt 1908 500,000 12,200,000 4.10%
France 20th century 300,000 31,264,000 1.00%
Germany 19th century 2,180,000 40,136,000 5.43%
Italy Mid 19th century 672,000 30,038,200 2.24%
Portugal After WW2 180,000 5,880,000 3.06%
Sweden 1970s 997,969 4,508,000 22.13%
(Source: Own analysis)
59
Volume 7 Issue 1
The History of Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives
In post-independence Malaysia, there was scarcity of

accommodation in urban area due to the changes in socio-economic
activities and urban pattern as a result of rural- urban migration
(Newcombe, 1956). The widespread demand for tea money (bribe)
to obtain a house, escalation of house prices and the high cost of
borrowing with short repayment term triggered the growth of
Malaysian housing co-operatives (Cheah, 1986). In 1949, two
housing co-operatives were registered i.e. Teluk Anson English
School Teachers’ Housing Co-operative and the Kuala Lumpur
Housing Co-operative. The number of housing co-operatives
increased from two pioneer co- operatives in 1949, to 30 in 1957 and
66 in 1967 (Rahim et al., 1991).
The expansion of Malaysian housing co-operatives in the
1950s may be attributed to good institutional support. Firstly, the
Federation of Co-operative Housing Societies and the Housing Trust
were formed to control and co-ordinate the housing co-operatives in
terms of technical assistance, advice and also finance to the co-
operatives (Rahim et al., 1991). Moreover, most of the members of
housing co-operatives were also members of the Thrift and Loan
Societies that provide credit and finance for their co-operative
purchases (Rahim et al., 1991). In 1958, the Co-operative Central
Bank (CCB) was established, which further availed resources from
the Thrift and Loan Societies to the housing co-operatives and
effectively provided more housing loans to members (Rahim et al.,
1991). Subsequently, CCB became an essential element for housing
co-operatives as a source of funding. The government also played an
important role in fostering the growth of housing co-operatives in
terms of development fund assistance and providing supply of
development land.
From the 1970s to mid-1980s, housing co-operative began to
decline in number, but still attracted new members due to their
improved organisational structure based on government support,
such as the government’s assistance in building 12,500 houses at an
estimated cost of RM933 million (Rahim et al., 1991). However, in
the mid-1980s, the government limited the new membership of
housing co-operative due to prevalent issues such as housing co-
operative’s inability to complete housing projects. Additionally, this
period saw CCB having serious financial difficulty which impeded
credit facilities to its customers.
60
Current Situation of Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives
At present, Malaysian co-operatives are involved in many economic

functions such as banking and finance, housing, consumerism,
industrial, construction and others. Although once co-operative
developers were one of the main housing providers in Malaysia,
their importance has declined since the mid-1980s. According to
Hassan as cited in Rahim et al. (1991), initially the co-operatives
built houses only for the members of co-operative but eventually
offered their houses to the public. Generally, however, current
housing co-operatives undertake development of housing schemes
for their members (Malaysia Co-operative Societies Commision,
2014). According to Salleh & Bujang (2008), all Malaysian citizens
are eligible to register as member of co-operatives. In order to
become a member, the person must be 18 years old or 12 years old
for certain matters in a co-operative and is a resident, has
employment or owns land within the co-operative area.
As mentioned above, Malaysian housing co-operatives failed
to contribute significantly to the total housing supply under each
Malaysia Plan. Table 3 shows the percentage of completed housing
units by co-operatives to waver between slightly under 1% to about
3% from 1971 to 2009 against total completion.
Table 3 Performance of Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives from 1971-2009

Malaysia Target units Completed Achievement of Actual
Plan (MP) for units of housing cooperatives Contribution
housing co- housing (Completed/Target) to Total
operatives co-operatives Overall
Completion
2MP N/A 3,585 N/A 0.97%
(1971-1975)
3MP 12,000 4,120 34.3% 0.64%
(1976-1980)
4MP 25,260 4,570 18.1% 0.90%
(1981-1985)
5MP 12,500 7,483 59.9% 2.43%
(1986-1990)
6MP 12,600 11,305 89.7% 1.72%
(1991-1995)
7MP 15,000 13,703 91.4% 1.57%
(1996-2000)
8MP 14,000 23,151 165.4% 2.67%
(2001-2005)
61
Volume 7 Issue 1
Malaysia Target units Completed Achievement of Actual

Plan (MP) for units of housing cooperatives Contribution
housing co- housing (Completed/Target) to Total
operatives co-operatives Overall
Completion
9MP 19,000 N/A N/A N/A
(2006-2009)
TOTAL 110,360 67,917 61.5% 1.6%*
Note: Total completed for housing co-operative units is as per reported under the
Eighth Malaysia Plan, whereas the total overall completion is as per reported
under the Ninth Malaysia Plan.
(Source: Compiled and analysed from various Malaysia Plans)
Based on the Interim Statistic Report (2014) as shown in

Table 4 below, the current number of co-operative societies involved
in housing development stands at 202 compared to 180 in 2013.
However, the increase in the number of housing co-operatives did
not lead to more houses being built by co-operative developers.
Notably, the number of housing co-operative members is fairly
substantial i.e. 154,253 (2% of total co-operative members) with a
total asset of RM1,044,890 (3.1%). This shows that housing co-
operatives are still active in Malaysia, albeit lesser in degree from
the 1960s and 1970s.
Table 4 Types and Details of Malaysian Co-Operatives

Functions No. of co- Members Shares/Fees Asset Earning
operatives (RM (RM (RM/Million)
Million) Million)
Banking 2 1,000,750 3,320.99 87,848.95 2,893.45
Credit 596 1,357,897 5,580.55 11,269.76 905.44
Agricultural- 2,439 738,810 602.54 2,383.82 511.67
Adult
Agricultural- 6 446 0.02 0.06 0.03
School
Housing 202 154,253 211.56 1,044.89 546.85
Industrial 235 16,605 10.66 75.87 23.18
Consumerism- 2,514 600,112 301.32 1,344.54 524.82
Adult
Consumerism- 2,295 2,127,397 22.96 257.88 227.25
School
Construction 185 132,576 52.13 419.35 42.09
Transportation 450 147,377 66.30 300.62 483.65
Services 2,526 920,807 3,171.40 7,632.41 11,242.03
Total 11,450 7,197,030 13,340 112,578 17,400
(Source: Interim Statistic Report (2014))
62
Table 5 shows a few examples of active housing co-

operatives that are still active in Malaysia. The active co-operatives
located in the Greater KL area became the subject of this paper.
Table 5 Selected Active Housing Co-Operatives in Peninsular Malaysia

No. Name of Housing Co-operative State Date
Established
1. Koperasi Tunas Muda Sungai Ara Berhad Penang 1966
2. Koperasi Perumahan Malaysia Berhad Selangor 1989
3. Koperasi Perumahan Sentul Pasar Berhad Kuala Lumpur 1965
4. Koperasi Perumahan Angkatan Tentera Kuala Lumpur 1965
Berhad
5. Koperasi Serbaguna Anak-anak Selangor Selangor 1973
6. Koperasi Guru Melayu Kelantan Berhad Kelantan 1940
7. Koperasi Perumahan Melayu Perak Berhad Perak 1953
In Malaysia, the housing co-operatives had contributed

13.7% from the total housing units constructed in the First Malaysia
Plan (Rahim et al., 1991). Most of the housing projects by co-
operative developers focus on the low and medium cost housing.
However, the contribution of housing co-operatives has
continuously declined since then, with 0.97% in the Second
Malaysian Plan period and 0.64% in the Third Malaysian Plan
period. In the next Malaysia Plans, the trends of housing co-
operatives distributions showed fluctuation i.e. Fourth Malaysian
Plan (0.90%), Fifth Malaysian Plan (2.43%), Sixth Malaysian Plan
(1.72%), Seventh Malaysia Plan (1.57%) and Eighth Malaysia Plan
(2.67%) Although there was a slight improvement in the Eighth
Malaysia Plan, the improvement did not have a significant overall
impact on the Malaysian housing market and the performance of
housing co-operatives ceased to be reported altogether from the
Ninth Malaysia Plan.
Figure 1 below is the typical model for existing Malaysian
housing co-operatives as summed from the literature review. This
model indicates the develop- for-outright-sale operation of
Malaysian developers, a characteristic of market-rate co-operatives.
Although the houses developed by co-operatives is sold around
20%- 30% cheaper than the market price for its members (Salleh &
Bujang, 2008), there are no restrictions to the re-sale price. Members
are also free to sell their units at market price in the future. There are
a few ways to obtain land for housing co-operatives, including
through land alienation by the state authority and through purchase
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Volume 7 Issue 1
of private land (Salleh & Bujang, 2008). As such, the Malaysian

housing co-operatives are not much different from market
developers in terms of operations.
Figure 1 Existing Housing Co-Operative Model in Malaysia

The provision of housing by housing co-operatives has

become less substantial due to several factors. According to Rahim
et al. (1991), housing co-operatives have suffered poor track record
due to several factors, including difficulty in obtaining cheap land,
difficulties in getting suitably located land, difficulty in getting
finance, management problems as the co-operatives administration
is based on part time basis, lack of expertise in building as well as
high cost of infrastructure in housing project. Similarly, Salleh and
Bujang (2008) found similar problems in the Johor State Land
Development Co-operative Limited Kluang (KOPKETA) housing
development projects, comprising financing problems,
administrative problems and insufficient experienced staff to decide
on and implement housing development activities.
METHODOLOGY
A review of Malaysian housing literature indicated that there has

been no recent study on housing co-operatives, the latest being
Salleh & Bujang (2008). Based on the premise that Malaysian
housing co-operatives could attain similar achievements as their
64
counterparts in other countries, this paper endeavours to reveal

issues and challenges faced by Malaysia housing co-operatives in
undertaking housing development before proceeding to “re-imagine”
the role of Malaysian housing co-operatives based on the established
model of housing co-operatives in the abovementioned countries.
A qualitative approach frames the study, with key informant
interviews undertaken to examine the issues and challenges in
housing development by housing co-operatives. Using purposive
sampling, three personnel from different housing co-operatives
around Kuala Lumpur were selected as interviewees. The selected
housing co-operatives that have been chosen for this research were
Koperasi Perumahan Angkatan Tentera Malaysia Berhad
(KPATMB), Koperasi Perumahan Sentul Pasar Berhad (KPSPB)
and also Koperasi Perumahan Malaysia Berhad (KPMB). All of
these housing co-operatives are located in Klang Valley area. The
main aim of the interviews was to reveal current issues and problems
experienced by these selected housing co-operatives.
Details of the interviewees are provided in Table 6.
Table 6 Details of the Interviewees

Interviewee Position No. of Organization No. of Location
years level housing
of development
working completed
experience by
organisation
Chief Wangsa
A Executive 19 years National 3 Maju,
Officer Kuala
Lumpur
B Executive 5 years Local 3 Sentul
Officer Pasar,
Kuala
Lumpur
C General 21 years National 2 Puchong,
Manager Selangor
Although the number of interviewees seemed small, the

interviewees fulfilled the five requirement of an ‘ideal’ key
informant as stated by Tremblay (1989, cited in Marshall, 1996).
The five characteristics are role in community, knowledge,
willingness, communicability and impartiality. Thus, the small
number of interviewees were not seen as compromising the quality
of interview data obtained. The findings by both Salleh and Bujang
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Volume 7 Issue 1
(2008) and Rahim et al. (1991) were used as the basic premise to
guide the key informant interviews. Trigger questions were asked on
Site, Finance, Management and Expertise; these pre-determined
major themes were extracted from the two main references. After the
initial trigger questions, probing and follow-up questions were asked
to further explore in detail any issues that were revealed.
Interviews were then transcribed. The qualitative data was
manually coded using open, axial and selective coding. The
implementation of open coding was guided by an inductive approach
in examining the current issues and challenges faced by housing co-
operatives, whereby themes and sub-themes were generated from the
open coding. Axial coding then eliminated overlapping sub-themes
by linking and collapsing similar sub-themes. Finally, the selective
coding process identified the significant sub-themes to be reported in
this paper.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The main and sub themes are summarised in a fishbone diagram

(Figure 2). The themes, sub-themes and sample quotations are
provided in the Appendix.
Figure 2 Summary of Issues Faced by Housing Co-Operatives
66
The findings revealed the inherent weakness in the structure

of housing co-operatives, which led to their lukewarm performance
since 1980s. The scarcity of land and high demand for housing in
Malaysia, especially in major cities have caused the price of
residential land to keep increasing over the years. This has caused
the attainment of affordable and suitable sites beyond the reach of
the housing co-operatives, as previously mentioned in Rahim et al.
(1991). The difficulties in obtaining affordable and suitable sites
could cause housing co-operatives to develop in less expensive
locations, which unfortunately suffer from poor locations in terms of
lack of social amenities and infrastructure. Additionally, poor
locations could affect in the saleability of the new units. Thus, the
overall profitability of the project and housing co-operative business
performance may also be affected.
In any housing development, the funding aspect can
determine the final outcome of the project. The problem of
insufficient capital has been described as a very serious issue among
Malaysian housing co-operatives (Rahim et al., 1991), and was
found to still be a significant impediment among interviewees’
organisations. The existing structure of Malaysian housing co-
operatives entails the reliance on shares and subscriptions paid by
their members, funding by the Malaysia Co-operative Societies
Commission (MCSC) or funding from third parties, including
financial institutions for project funding. The housing co-operative
membership has suffered in the 1990s due to the government’s
concern about the poor track records of housing co-operatives in
delivering housing units on time on quality. The government’s
tighter control over co-operative activities and less liberal funding
support to housing co-operatives have suppressed membership and
led to low subscriptions. In turn, housing co-operatives have had to
resort to finance facilities from commercial banks and financial
institutions. In getting funding from financial institutions, housing
co-operatives have to compete with private developers. Inevitably,
the less experienced and less market-oriented housing co-operatives
would be looked upon less favourably compared to the more
experienced and more market-savvy private developers.
Although site and finance pose a substantial challenge to
housing development ventures by co-operative developers, more
serious issues can be attributed to the inherent flaw in the structure
of co-operative housing provision. As stated by Salleh and Bujang
(2008), co-operatives can be defined as “an organisation which is
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Volume 7 Issue 1
owned, financed and managed by its members with the aim to

enhance social economic situation and fulfil the requirements of the
members”. From this definition, it can be seen that the
administration matters are controlled by the members of the co-
operatives themselves. The lead in a housing co-operative lies with
its Board of Directors. However, the interviews revealed that the
Board of Directors of a housing co-operative may comprise people
from different backgrounds with different motivations and values.
Interviewees indicated how the diversity in socio-economic
backgrounds can complicate the management of housing co-
operatives, resulting in lengthy negotiations among board members
during the decision-making process that can result in delays in the
housing project. Additionally, the Board members of co-operative
undertake administration on a part-time basis, whereas any housing
project requires a full commitment and effort to ensure its smooth
running. Such part-time administration could negatively impact
development activities, which in practice have been known to
deviate from the original plan due to various internal and external
factors. The election of a member into the Board of Directors of a
housing co-operative indicates a certain level of trust and belief in
the skillset possessed by the member. Although that is the
assumption made by other members, oftentimes members of the
Board of Directors display deficiency in the required skill,
knowledge and experience. Among others, the ability in decision-
making, planning, loan arrangement, implementation and monitoring
could be missing from Board members. Additionally, the Board of
Directors may change during the annual general meeting, further
affecting the project flow.
The administration and management of housing development
activities require a particular set of technical, legal, procedural and
financial knowledge in housing development to successfully
complete the project. Due to the lack of expertise, oftentimes the
housing co-operatives have to enter into joint venture with another
developer to undertake the housing project. The interviews indicated
how the lack of expertise among Malaysian housing co-operative’s
top personnels had affected the development activities. Due to this
insufficiency, the housing co-operatives have to appoint other
developers to execute the housing project. In some cases, the partner
developers caused further problems to the housing co-operatives by
abandoning the project before completion. According to the
interviews, such unsuccessful partnerships could ultimately lead to
68
the failure to deliver houses on time to housing co-operative

members and loss of reputation of the housing co-operatives.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In this paper, the poor performance of housing co-operatives have

been shown to be attributed to their organisational structure.
Ironically, the main cause of the problem could be attributed to the
basic principles of the co-operative movement – among others -
voluntary and open membership and democratic member control,
which result in insufficient skill, experience and knowledge required
in housing development. Housing development is a major economic
activity that requires a specific skillset that may not be available
among the elected Board of Directors on the co-operative. Such
deficiency may result in outsourcing the expertise and entering into
unsuitable joint venture partners.
All the three housing co-operatives in the study were facing
the same problems, including obtaining affordable and suitable sites
and acquiring project funding. Strong leadership from the Board of
Directors seemed to be lacking due to insufficient knowledge and
background in property development and the election system of
Board members. From the statistical data provided, housing co-
operatives have not managed to bounce back to their glory days
which saw the co-operatives contributing double digits to the
housing supply in the country.
To stay relevant in the future, there needs to be a paradigm
shift in the function and operation of housing co-operatives. Looking
at the current performance of Malaysian housing co-operatives, the
time has come for a ‘re-invention’ of the housing co-operatives. A
brave leap is needed in the mindset of current co-operative leaders in
order to survive in the current housing market condition. In
providing guidance to the future direction of housing co-operatives,
consideration must be given to the original spirit of co-operatives.
Co-operatives were established to provide an alternative to the
conventional market system, whereby the members would strive to
ethically and honestly improve the collective well-being of other
members. The current structure of co-operative housing provision in
Malaysia seems to have lost the original direction, whereby the
housing co-operative is no longer distinguishable from the private
developer. Malaysian housing co-operative may want to re-look the
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Volume 7 Issue 1
current develop-for-outright-sale model which has proven to be

problematic and venture into other co-operative housing models,
such as the Limited Equity Housing Co-operative (LEHC).
If implemented, LEHC will present a new dimension to
Malaysian housing co-operatives. Taking into account the existing
institutional arrangements in Malaysia, Figure 3 represents the
proposed LEHC for Malaysia that incorporates the pre- existing
institutional framework. In contrast to a typical LEHC, Malaysian
LEHCs will be controlled by the MCSC to reflect the current
housing co-operative structure in Malaysia. In most countries, the
members of a typical LEHC are the sole controllers of LEHC as they
own shares in the LEHC that carry voting right. In contrast, the
proposed Malaysian LEHC is not only controlled by its members but
also is supervised by the MCSC. The supervision by MCSC may
ensure a proper governance by Board members, who may be
hampered by their lack of skill, experience and knowledge in
housing provision. As such, the current organizational shortcomings
that have hampered the performance of housing co-operatives can be
rectified in the new proposed LEHC. Further study into the finance
and legal aspects of the proposed LEHC is necessary to provide a
more complete outlook of the new structure of co-operative housing
provision. Nonetheless, there is a good prospect for the proposed
LEHC to transform the present under-performing Malaysian housing
co-operatives into a formidable provider of alternative housing.
70
Figure 3 Proposed LEHC for Malaysia
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the financial

support under research grant ERGS/UM.TNC2/IPPP/UPGP/628
from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for this research.
REFERENCES
Cheah, E. (1986). ‘Cooperatives in Housing: Is Bigger the

Answer?’, Housing and Property (May/Jun), 4-7.
Das, B., Palai, N. K., & Das, K. (2006). ‘Problems and Prospects of
the Cooperative Movement in India unedr the Globalization
Regime’, XIV International Economic History Congress.
Ganapati, S. (2010). ‘Enabling housing cooperatives: Policy
lessons from Sweden, India and the United States’,
International journal of urban and regional research, 34(2),
365-380.
Graves, E. (2011). ‘Variations on an America Dream: Alternative
Homeownership Models’, New England Community
Developments, 8-14.
Interim Statistic Report. (2014). ‘Laporan Perangkaan Koperasi’,
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<http://www.skm.gov.my/Gerakan-Koperasi/Statistik-
Gerakan- Koperasi/Statistik-Interim.aspx> [Accessed 21
December 2014]
International Co-operative Alliance (2015). ‘History of the Co-
operative Movement’’, <http://ica.coop/en/whats-co-
op/history-co- operative-movement> [Accessed 13 January
2015]
Malaysia Co-operative Societies Commision. (2014). ‘Interim
Statistic Report’, <http://www.skm.gov.my/Gerakan-
Koperasi/Statistik-Gerakan- Koperasi/Statistik-Interim.aspx>
Mallin, B. (1990). Limited Equity Cooperatives: A Legal
Handbook. New York State, Division of Housing and
Community Renewal: The Division.
Marshall, M. N. (1996). ‘The key informant technique’, Family
practice, 13(1), 92-97.
Newcombe, V. Z. (1956). ‘Housing in the Federation of Malaya’,
Town and Country Planning, Review 27, 5-20.
Northcountry Cooperative Development Fund. (2012). ‘Housing
Cooperatives: An accessible and Lasting Tool for Home
Ownership’, <http://www.uwcc.wisc.edu/> [Accessed 25
August 2014]
Rahim, A., Bakar, A. H. A., & Abdullah, A. M. (1991). ‘The Role
of Cooperatives in the Provision of Housing in Malaysia’,
Proceedings, School of Housing, Building and Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
Saegert, S., & Benitez, L. (2005). ‘Limited equity housing
cooperatives: Defining a niche in the low-income housing
market’, Journal of Planning Literature, 19(4), 427-439. doi:
10.1177/0885412204274169
Salleh, S. R., & Bujang, A. A. (2008). ‘Involvement of Co-
operative in Solving Housing Problems for Low and Medium
Income Groups Sustaining Housing Market’, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia.
72
APPENDIX: THEMES, SUB-THEMES AND SAMPLE

QUOTATIONS
Theme Sub-theme Sample quotations

Site  Land scarcity “There are a lot of problems faced by us in
 High land obtaining affordable and suitable land.
prices Eventually, in order to get the affordable
Unstrategic land, we have to choose land that is far
location from the town. In fact, at the beginning the
land chosen was not suitable for housing
development” (Interviewee A)
“…before this has a lot of problems in

getting suitable lands. For example, the
land located in the middle of town is more
expensive compared to outskirt areas.
Therefore, we have a lot of problems to get
the money to pay.”(Interviewee B)
“It is very hard to get affordable land... If

the co-operatives are supported by
government then it should be okay. But, if
co-operatives have to stand by themselves,
for example, seeking viable land, it is next
to impossible” (Interviewee C)
Finance  Difficult “……..we can make a loan from the bank
MCSC but it depends on the reputation of the
funding housing co-operative. Other than that, the
 Limited capital is supplied by Malaysia Co-
members operative Societies Commission (MCSC)
 Limited through the “Kumpulan Wang Amanah
commercial Pembangunan Koperasi”. However, it is
institutions for limited amounts. Maybe for a small
funding scale project it could be considered”
 Limited (Interviewee A)
membership
fee “It is very difficult to get the funding from
the MCSC. When we apply, it takes almost
a year to deal with them. The forms of
government funding assistance is not the
problem. However, there is a problem in
the aspect of implementation. The way they
handle should be improved. For example,
the government already gave about RM200
million to MCSC. But when we applied for
RM10 million, it was very difficult to get it.
There were no strong reasons given why
they rejected our application and when we
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Theme Sub-theme Sample quotations

appealed, it also was rejected.”
(Interviewee C)
Management  Complicated “In management aspect, we have a
decision- problem in decision-making. In this co-
making operative, we used to have about 16-20
process board of directors. So, when there are a lot
 Admin of people that have to sit down to come out
problems with one final decision, it is really difficult
 Senior and it is next to impossible. But now there
members’ are only 6 left after we made a change on
resistance the by-laws and we got no problem when
 Member’s have to come out with a decision. When we
apathy execute a housing project, we need a long
time to manage everything, more than 2
years and at least 3 to 5 years to complete
it. When board of directors have to change,
it may cause difficulty to the project. For
example, when the chairman changes, he
may not agree with the certain things and
this situation can affect the flow of the
project”. (Interviewee C)
Expertise  Need for joint “We have to look for the developer as we
venture have no expertise among the members. This
 Outsourcing is also a main problem of housing co-
costs operatives in Malaysia…the abandoned
 Partner project faced by our co-operative is not
abandonment about the inadequate fund supply. But, it is
 Late delivery because of the developer ran away, gone
 Loss of bankrupt and left the project incomplete.”
reputation (Interviewee B)
“The ones who manage the co-operative

are board members themselves. A lot of
problems such as they have different
opinions and it is very hard to come out
with final decisions. Other than that, the
main problem faced by the co-operative is
about misconduct in term of money among
the board members. When it involves a
middle-man to look up for the developer,
the board members will pay a lot to middle-
man causing misuse of money and thus
giving a lot of problems to the co-
operative”.(Interviewee B)
74
TECHNICAL STUDY ON CONSERVATION
AND RESTORATION OF NIAVARAN
PALACE’S EMBROIDERED PATEH
Mina Janpourtaher1 and Mandana Barkeshli2
ABSTRACT
A historical and scientific analysis was carried out on a historical

textile from Sahebgharanieh Niavaran Palace’s collection. The
examination shows that the sample under study is embroidered in
Pateh technique. It belongs to Iran, dated around late 18th Century,
from Qajar dynasty period. To conserve and restore the textile
sample under study, the material technology on its fiber, weave and
motif were identified. The scientific analysis shows that the fiber is
made of wool, with Twill weave technique, decorated with
embroidered fiber made of silk. With the help of SEM-EDX method
of analysis it is detected that the fabric contains a great value of
silver and gilt scythes using metallic thread with delicate silk yarns.
Motifs used in the fabric are of paisley leaf with decorative motifs of
plant and animal embroidered beautifully. The Fabric was
graphically documented by microscopic and macroscopic methods
and its degree of damage was assessed. This leads to the
implementation of conservation, restoration and display techniques,
which was carried out in the textile division of Sahebgharanieh
Niavaran Palace Museum. It will be discussed in detail later in the
paper. The paper employs scientific analysis and SEM-EDX method
to analyze the historical textile. The major aim and objective of the
study is to know the materials and contents from which the textile is
made in order to know the best restoration and preservation method
that may be applied in preserving and conserving the historical
textile and the likes of it.
1
PhD Candidate, No. G1125884, Applied Art and Design, Faculty of Architecture
and Built Environment, International Islamic University Malaysia. Email:
mina.janpour@yahoo.com
2
Lecture, Conservation Scientist, Applied Art and Design, Faculty of Architecture
and Built Environment, International Islamic University Malaysia. Email:
mandana.barkeshli@gmail.com
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Keywords: embroidery, Pateh, Qajar Dynasty, Metal Thread, SEM-EDX.
INTRODUCTION
Textile art and industry is one of the oldest human arts that Iran has
in the history of art (Yavari, 2009). Many textiles product of various
materials, such as cotton, wool and silk woven into the fabric, have
their history and samples in the ancient Iran. One such example is
embroidered and needlework art.
In Qajar period, most of the Iranian needlework art, which
was the relic of the past, came to life. Most of them remaining in
most parts of Iran art works depict the Renaissance period in Qajar
dynasty (Esfandyari, 1992). This drew more attention to the
decorative arts, as embroidery and chain embroidery on colourful
fabric were commonly used with braid yarn, the stitching features of
which did not exist in any other period.
The certain elegance and beauty of the embroidery comes
from Iranian tradition designs, such as paisley and the tree of life
motifs. This pattern is one of the most common of Iranian motifs
(Hakimian, 2005); the most common in all kinds of hand-woven and
sewn materials in the olden days.
Historic and artistic survey
The embroidered, or chain embroidered, in a sort of Iranian

embroidery, covers the greater part of the whole field, which is
coloured woolen, silk yarns or rarely Scythes thread (Sedigh, 1992).
The studied sample is a woven panel (Pateh chain
embroidered with Scythes thread and Metal thread) of the 19th
century’s Decorative Arts Museum of Kerman. It was transferred to
Niavaran Palace and maintained in Sahebgharanieh warehouse with
inventory number 186.
The fabric on the four sides is enclosed with black tape and
connected to the frame with nail and glue. It is framed without
support at the rear side. The background was not seamless, and the
fabric pieces were put together, just like a puzzle, to come on board.
Surveys, as well as interviews, conducted reveal that this
fabric had another usage in the past. The pieces were put together,
characterized and fixed with the symmetric pattern. The fabric was
76
Technical Study on Conservation and Restoration of Niavaran Palace’s Embroidered Pateh
Mina Janpourtaher and Mandana Barkeshli
decorated with the sterilization pattern of animals, plants and

arabesques (Eslimi) motifs together and created a beautiful
combination.
The fabric contains three main parts, namely: 1) original
layer fabric: red worsted (red wool fabric); 2) margin fabric: black
worsted; and 3) embroidered part that includes needlework with
natural fibres and brocade Scythes thread.
The margin fabric is connected to the frame using adhesive
tapes. Nails are also used in all parts of the frame to make it firmer.
The sewing technique used on the fabric includes, but not limited to,
a) connecting natural fibres with the original fabric layer using
embroidery; and b) creating braid yarn (metallic yarn) around the
silk fibres, and connecting it to the support layer of the fabric using
silk thread. Detail of this can be found in the diagram below.
Diagram 1 Different parts of the woven textile under investigation
Methods:
There are various ways and methods used in restoring and

conserving this kind of material. Before the restoration and
conservation, there are also few steps needed in successfully
preserving such a material. In this particular case, the following
steps were taken to identify and technically study the material:
1- Pictures of the different parts of the fabric were produced

into macro and micro in the loop;
2- The sampling from each of the macro and micro parts were
taken;
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Volume 7 Issue 1
3- Fibres were identified using optical microscopy;

4- The metal fibres were identified SEM-EDX;
5- The woof and warp were similarly identified;
6- The fabric texture design was reviewed; and
7- The motifs used on the fabric were accurately reviewed.
Identification of the fibers used in the fabric
Due to lack of fiber samples, fiber identification was done using

microscopy (Houck, 2009). Some samples were also carried out by
burning. Thus, it is revealed that wool fibres were used to support
the margin fabric and the silk fibres of the brocade. The wool fibres
were coloured with natural dyes.
Metallic yarn used in the fabric is braided and placed on the
fabric surface as outstanding form. In some parts of the fabric
surface, metal corrosion and blur, caused by corrosion of metal, are
visible.
To exactly identify the metal thread, SEM-EDX was used. It
is revealed that the silver is coated by gold, which is approximately
80 percent, and the thickness of metal layer is 20 microns. Silk yarn
is used on the metal thread, with a yellow silk thread, to artistically
reduce or control the damage.
Chart 1 SEM analysis
78
Figure 1 Microscopic images of metal thread
Study of the texture and yarn twist
The margin, the support layer fabrics weave design and the twist of
fibres used was determined using microscopic survey. Twill weave
was found, and the twist of margin fibre is Z while the twist of
support fabric and brocade is S.
Figure 2 Background fabric’s texture design
Figure 3 Margin fabric’s texture design
Pathology of the fabric
A scrutiny of the fabric material shows that some damages have

been effected on the fabric. Some of the damages include, but not
limited to, the:
- Traces (effects) of dust, grime and pussy;

- Acidification of the fabric, especially the marginal part;
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Volume 7 Issue 1
- Physical, chemical and biological rupture;

- Disruption of natural fibres;
- Stretching and opening of the metal fibres;
- Blurring of the metal fibres used on fabric;
- Separation of the natural fibres;
- Biological damage;
- Previous improper restoration; and
- Inappropriate display style, i.e. displaying textile using
improper wood and organic adhesive.
Damage Drawing
Linear design of margin and support layer fabrics:
The past improper restoration Tear the background fabric

Mechanical rupture Biological rupture Chemical tear
Fibre stretching (Opening warp and weft)
Acidification and shedding Margin Fabric
80
Darkness and tearing scythes thread

Shortage parts of scythes yarn
Pollution damage caused by purulent, dust, penetration of

corrosion and biological contamination on the fabric:
Figure 4 Pollution damages of the textile
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Volume 7 Issue 1
Tear damage of the fibres stretch due to harmful physical,

chemical and biological causes, improper restoration and sewing
compactness. There are many sewing, which have effected
mechanical stress to the support layer fabric. The sewing made holes
and tears on the fabric, where the wool fibres are loosened.
The major damage to the margin fabric is laxity and tears due
to chemical and physical agents. The use of glue to affirm the fabric
to the frame also causes acidic precipitation in the presence of the
nails used.
82
Figure 5 Tear damages of the textile
Metal thread damage
Damages done onto the scythes thread of this fabric are of two types,
namely, physical-mechanical and physical-chemical, which includes
oxidation layer. Previous improper maintenance and poor storage
caused displacement and metal threads breakage. As a result, the
fibres inside the metal thread were torn and disintegrated. Due to
mechanical factors, such as tension and torsion, the metal tape
contains spaces and the yarn in central thread is shown, and thus the
middle thread is bowed out.
Figure 6 Metal thread damage
83
Volume 7 Issue 1
Steps of preservation and restoration
In order to clean up and restore the fabric, the following steps are
taken:
1) The solvent test (using toluene, acetone and water) was

employed in separating the fibre from frame;
2) The fabric surface was cleaned using vacuum cleaner;
3) pH was measured. The fabric pH in the support layer was
five and the margin was four. It was quite acidic;
4) The seams of fabric’s support layer were strengthened using
mesh fabric;
5) The front and back of the fabric were washed using water,
ethanol and detergent;
6) The front and back of the fabric were dried using cold winds
of dryer;
7) The support layer was separated;
8) The margin fabrics were strengthened using tissue paper, HV
adhesive and iron heating. In this method end of trusteeship
was done and marginal fabric was carefully preserved;
9) The metal was cleaned using ethanol and whisk brush;
10) The ruptured area was restored and the lack area was filled
with appropriate coloured thread. (This innovative method
was chosen after considering the strength of the fabric);
11) The metallic yarn was restored and connected to the
background through the sew method; and
12) The fabric was inserted on canvas covered with a non-acidic
paper to store and display.
The figures below show the systematic process.
84
Figure 7 Separating the fabric from the frame with solvent and mechanical
method.
Figure 8 Steps of washing and drying the fabric.
85
Volume 7 Issue 1
Figure 9 Strengthening and restoration of the margin fabric.
86
The restoration of support layer and embroidered decoration
In order to strengthen the destroyed area, the support layer was

dipped in a prepared adhesive. It was then placed on the affected
site, and fixed with iron heat.
In this study, a new method was used in restoring, and filling
the lack area of, the fabric. Dyed thread proportional with the color
of fabric’s warp and weft was used. It was done using HV adhesive
and sewing method in view of the strength of fabric in rupture area.
Figure 10 Lack of background fabric and embroidered decoration
Figure 11 Preparing the support silk Figure 12 Covering silk fabric with
fabric. HV adhesive
Figure 13 Putting silk fabric on rupture Figure 14 Connecting Silk fabric with
area iron heat
87
Volume 7 Issue 1
Figure 15 Support the background with silk fabric
To restore the background layer accordance, the fabric was

safely placed and the metallic thread was placed in the appropriate
area. The yarn was then put in the warp and weft of the shortage was
resolved.
Figure 16 Connecting metal thread to background
Figure 17 Metal thread in the lack area
88
Figure 18 Fill up the background with Figure 19 Reconstruction and

thread. restoration of the background
Figure 20 Restoration of embroidered pattern with sewing method
Sewing method was used for restoration of embroidered

decoration with considering strengthens of the fabric.
Figure 21 After restoration
89
Volume 7 Issue 1
For restoration of decorative brocade first, the metal strip

was prepared in coordination with the form of metal used in the
fabric.
Figure 22 Covering background fabrik Figure 23 Putting metal thread in the

with HV adhesive lack area
Figure 24 Connecting metal thread with sewing method
Figure 25 Before restoration Figure 26 After restoration
90
CONCLUSION
Studies conducted on the Niavaran Palace’s embroidered Pateh

show that the fabric, because it has natural silk fibre and it is
adjacent to the metallic silver gilt, is unique, hence requires careful
conservation and restoration. This study shows that using inadequate
and inaccurate methods of restoration and conservation can cause
more damage than good to a material heritage, just as it has done on
the Niavaran palace’s embroidered pateh. It is also evident that
exposing artifacts to dirty and untidy exposure can cause a lot of
harm to both the physical, chemical and mechanical parts of the
artifacts. Thus, the restoration and preservation of such a kind of
heritage should be carefully and professionally carried out.
Therefore, after accurate survey, examination and identification of
the fabric in question, the most reliable method of conservation and
restoration, using scientific analysis and SEM-EDX, was applied.
Figure 27 The woven after restoration
91
Volume 7 Issue 1
REFERENCES
Esfandyari, S. (1992). ‘Perspective on Traditional Needlework (from

800BC to the present)’, Iran.
Hakimian, B. (2005). ‘The Protection Principles for metallic
embroidery on Safavid period fabrics’, MA thesis, Art
University of Isfahan, Iran.
Houck, Max. M. (2009). Identification of Textile Fibers. Woodhead
Publishing.
Sedigh, I. (1992). ‘A brief review of the traditional art of
embroidery’, Journal of Cultural Heritage of Iran, No. 6 & 7,
the third year, September 1992, p 44.
Yavari, H. (2009). Iran’s Traditional Textile Industry, Tehran, Iran.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ackerman, Ph. (1983). Iran’s Loom, Islamic period weavings,

Translation: Saber, ZD, Handicrafts Organization, Iran.
Bahadori, R. (2002). ‘Standard Methods of Woven Protection,
Conservation and Restoration of Antiquities Research Center’,
Tehran, Iran.
Bahadori, R. (2003). ‘Historical Review of the Use of Metals in
Textiles’, Proceedings of the sixth conference on conservation
and restoration, Tehran, Iran.
Baker, PL. (1995). ‘Islamic Textiles, Deputy Curator Textiles &
Dress Collection’, V&A.
Gordon cook, J. (2001). Handbook of Textile Fibres. Woodhead
Publishing.
Hacke, A. M. Brown, A. Carr, C. M. (4-8 October 2004).
‘Characterisation of metal threads in Renaissance tapestries’,
National Museum of Australia Canberra ACT. p. 415-426.
Hajisharifi, S and Sasannejad, J. (2004). ‘Properties of Textile
fibres’, Iran.
Hofenk-De Graaff, Judith H. (1974). ‘A Simple Method for the
Identification of Indigo’, Studies in conservation. Volume 19.
Number 1, p.54-55
Marincas, Octaviana. Erlach, Rudolf. (2012). ‘Study on the
Conservation-restoration of Textile Materials from Romanian
Medieval Art Collections’, Revista de Chimie . P.390-395.
92
Motaghed, S. (1990). ‘Conservation and Restoration of Arjan’s

Historic Textiles’, MA thesis, Art University of Isfahan, Iran.
Rouhfar, Z. (2001). A look at the Islamic textiles, Iran.
Salehi, M. (1995). ‘Identifying and assessing the damage to Metal
Decorating used in woven’, MA thesis, Art University of
Isfahan, Iran.
Sohizadeh, M. and Davoodi, A. (2005). ‘Finishing and Dyeing
Loom products’, Yazd, Iran.
Stuar, H. Barbara. (2007). Analytical Techniques in Materials
Conservation. John Wiley & Sons.
Tahami, M. (2007). History of Embroidered Pate’, Iran.
Timar-Balazsy, Agnes. (1998). Conserving Textile. ICCROM
Conservation Studies.
Vazir D, Sh. (1999). ‘Weaving Fabric Design’, Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
Yazdankhah k, F. (2008). ‘The microscopic survey on Iran’s
Textiles’, Restoration and Research Journal, Vol. II, No. IV,
Tehran, Iran.
Yazdankhah k, F. (2008). ‘Conservation and Restoration of fabrics
discovered in a salt mine in Chhrabad Zanjan’, MS Thesis, Art
University of Tehran, Iran.
Yurdun, Turkan. Karsli-Ceppioglu, Seher. Gurcan Oraltay, R.
(2012). ‘Investigation of Metal Wired Coloured Historical
Textile Using Scanning Electron Microscopy and HPLC-
DAD’, Journal of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. p.
591-598.
Zakariai k. F. (2009). ‘Kerman Cashmere Shaal (past, present,
future)’, Iran.
93
NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
GENERAL
The Journal Quantity Surveying and Construction Business is

original, peer-reviewed and international construction sector related
journal that aims to report current research work and latest
development in the fields of quantity surveying, construction costing
and economics, construction procurement and contract
administration; and management of construction businesses and
construction marketing.
1.1 TYPES OF SUBMISSION
1.1.1 Longer research-based and theoretical papers
These should be a minimum of 5000 to a maximum of 7000

words. Papers that detail the results of research, or that are
based on robust theoretical/literature review are welcomed.
1.1.2 Shorter practitioner papers and reports
These should be a maximum of 3500 words and address key

issues facing the practice and profession of or reports new
methods or techniques related to Quantity Surveying and
significant aspects of the management of construction
businesses, construction marketing and other but key aspects
related to the development of construction industries as a
whole. Recommendations should be aimed primarily at
improving practice and/or identifying new and significant
areas for research and development.
1.1.3 Abstract of PhD theses
These should be a maximum of 300 words. The Journal

welcomes submissions of abstracts of recently completed
PhD and doctoral theses. The theses must relate to Quantity
Surveying, construction businesses, construction marketing
and other but key aspects related to the development of
construction industries as a whole. The abstract should
94
Notes for Contributors
indicate the research problem, aim and objectives of the

research, the methodology used in carrying out the research,
the key results and conclusions.
1.1.4 Book reviews
The Journal will appoint regular book reviewers and

welcome submissions of reviews of new or recently
published work. Books will be analyzed based on content,
style, and merit. Reviews should make comparisons, where
relevant, to other texts in the subject area. Only a fair and
balanced critique of books from an academic, researcher and
practitioner perspective, will be published.
1.2 REVIEWING PROCEDURES
All papers submitted will be blind-reviewed by at least two referees

appointed by the Editors. Reviewers will be selected who have an
established reputation in quantity surveying, construction business
research, teaching or practice.
Wherever possible, reviewers will be selected based on their
experience and research fields, related to the topics of the papers
submitted.
1.3 SUBMISSION PROCEDURES
All papers should be submitted electronically to

thejqscb@gmail.com
All submitted manuscripts must be original work that is not
under submission at another journal or under consideration for
publication in another form, such as a monograph or chapter of a
book.
Authors of submitted papers are obligated not to submit their
paper for publication elsewhere until an editorial decision is
rendered on their submission.
Further, authors of accepted papers are prohibited from
publishing the results in other publications that appear before the
paper is published in the Journal unless they receive approval for
doing so from the editors.
95
Volume 7 Issue 1
1.4 KEY ASPECTS OF CONTENT
1.4.1 Cover sheet
A cover sheet giving name(s) and Affiliation(s) of authors

and exact length of the article i.e. Word count and state the
intended type of submission. The cover sheet must be kept
separate from the text as the Journal uses blind refereeing.
1.4.2 Abstract
The abstract (around 200 words) should describe the main

arguments and conclusions of the article. Precedes main text
of article.
Key words
Up to eight keywords to be used for web searching. Placed
after the abstract.
Introduction, literature review, methodology, results,

discussions, conclusions and recommendations
Papers should include an introduction, a review of related
literature, a section to describe the methodology used in the
research, presentation of the results and a section on
discussion of the results and of the key findings. In addition,
the paper should also include conclusions and
recommendations section of at least 400 words. This should
identify the key issues, problems and consequences for the
findings of the research together with clear recommendations
to the Industry, practitioners, the professions and for further
research.
Tables
Tables should also be uploaded as separate files. Any
diagrams or maps should be in .TIF or .JPG formats in
individual files. These should be prepared in black and white.
Tints should be avoided; use patterns instead.
96
Acknowledgements
The authors should acknowledge where applicable the
source(s) of funding and describe the role of sponsors in the
research project.
Copyright
Papers accepted for publication rests with the publisher. It is
the author's responsibility to ensure that where copyright
materials are included within an article the permission of the
copyright holder has been obtained.
1.5 FORMAT OF PRESENTATION
1.5.1 Font Size
For the basic text, the 12-point font size is to be used.

However, the 10-point font size may be used for items like
captions, figures, and tables.
1.5.2 Font Style
Use only “Times New Roman” font style.
1.5.3 Paragraphing, Line Spacing and Paging
The typing should be one and half spaced. Each page (other
than the cover page) is given a page number at the bottom-
middle part of the page. Each main paragraph or heading is
numbered with whole number, sub-heading is given in
decimals of the whole number of the main heading, and
subsidiary paragraphs to the sub-heads are to be in decimal
points of the sub-heads.
1.5.4 Margins
The following margins should be observed:

LEFT 4.0 cm
TOP 2.5 cm
RIGHT 2.5 cm
BOTTOM 3.0 cm
97
Volume 7 Issue 1
1.5.5 Outline Structure of Paper
The following format is recommended for the papers:

Cover Sheet
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Literature Review (titles of sections to be decided by
authors)
Methodology
Data Analysis, discussion of results
Conclusions and recommendations
References
For the shorter practitioner papers the following is

recommended;
Cover sheet
Abstract
Key Words
Introduction
Topics (titles of sections to be decided by authors)
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
1.6 FORMAT OF REFERENCING
1.6.1 Harvard Reference System
The Harvard System uses in the name of the author and a

date of publication as a key to the full bibliography details,
which are set out in references.
When the name of the author is mentioned in the text,
the date is inserted in parentheses immediately after the
name, as in ‘Raymond (1995)’. When a less direct reference
is made to one or more other authors, both name and date are
bracketed, with the references separated by semicolon, as in
‘several authors have noted this trend (Roberts, 1992;
Brunson, 1990; Johnson, 1989)’
98
1.6.2 Format of Reference Lists and Bibliographies
Submission should include a reference list or bibliography,

the content and format which conform to the following
examples:
1.6.2.1 Book
Bromwich, M (1985). The Economics of Standard
Setting. London: Prentice Hall.
1.6.2.2 Multiple author

Bruns, WJ and Kaplan, R s (eds) (1987). Accounting
and Management: Field Study Perspectives. Boston:
HarvardBusinessSchool Press.
1.6.2.3 Article in journal

Ordelheide, D (1993). ‘The true and fair view: Impact
on and of the Fourth Directive’, European
Accounting Review, 2 (1): 81-90
1.6.2.4 Report
Fitchew, GE (1990) ‘Summing up’, in Commission
of the European Communities, the Future of
Harmonisation of Accounting Standards within the
European Communities, Brussels.
1.6.2.5 Article in newspaper

The New Straits Times (1991) ‘The Year that Shook
the World’, 23 August 1991:9
1.6.2.6 Articles from the web

The World Bank (2006) ‘Global Economic Prospects:
Overview and Global Outlooks 2006’,
<http://www.worldbank.org/> [Accessed 28
September 2009]
99
Volume 7 Issue 1
1.7 ENQUIRIES
Enquiries concerning any aspect of the Journal may be

directed through email to the editorial team as follows;
Professor Sr Dr Khairuddin Abdul Rashid

khairuddin@iium.edu.my
Professor Dr Christopher Preece

christopher.preece@adu.ac.ae
Assistant Professor Dr Sharina Farihah Hasan

sfarihah@iium.edu.my
Assistant Professor Dr Mohamad Saiful Nizam Mohd.

Suhaimi
saifulnizam@iium.edu.my
Assistant Professor Dr Puteri Nur Farah Naadia Mohd Fauzi

puteri@iium.edu.my
General email address:

thejqscb@gmail.com
Website:
http://www.iium.edu.my/kaed/journalqscb
1.8 POSTAL ADDRESS FOR THE JOURNAL
Editors
Journal of Quantity Surveying & Construction Business
(JQSCB)
Procurement and Project Delivery System Research Unit
Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design
P.O. Box 10, Jalan Gombak 50728
Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
100

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JOURNAL

Khairuddin Abdul Rashid

Professor Dr Christopher Nigel Preece

Assistant Professor Dr Sharina Farihah Hasan

Assistant Professor Dr, Mohamad Saiful Nizam Mohd. Suhaimi

Assistant Professor Dr. Puteri Nur Farah Naadia Mohd Fauzi

INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD

Professor Dr Richard Fellows

Professor Dr Abdul Rashid Abdul Aziz

Professor Roy Morledge

Professor Dr Abd. Ghani Khalid

Professor Dr Low Sui Pheng

Professor Dr Russell Kenley

Associate Professor Dr Razali Adul Hamid

Professor John Barkai

Associate Professor Dr Muhammad Abu Eusof

Associate Professor Dr Mohd Wira Mohd Shafiei

Professor Dr Mohammad Abdul Mohit

Professor Martin Betts

Professor Dr Peter R Davis

Sr Basar bin Juraimi

Professor Kerry London

Associate Professor Dr Abdul Azeez Kadar Hamsa

Dr Mohamad Syazli Fathi

Assistant Professor Sr Dr Tan Chin Keng

Assistant Professor Dr. Mohd. Fairullazi Ayob

JOURNAL OF QUANTITY SURVEYING & CONSTRUCTION BUSINESS

VOLUME 7 ISSUE 1 2016

Improving Co-Learner Interactions through Web-Based Online

Impact of Design Changes on Construction Project

Malaysian Housing Co-Operatives: Performance, Problems and

Technical Study on Conservation and Restoration of Niavaran

Notes for Contributors 94

Welcome to Volume 7 Issue 1 of the Journal of Quantity Surveying

In this Issue there are 4 papers. The first paper discusses

The first paper by Sharifah Mazlina Syed Khuzzan Alhabshi

The second paper by Hamzah Abdul-Rahman, Wang Chen

The third paper by Nadiya Adnan, Hasniyati Hamzah, Muhd

The fourth and final paper in this Issue reports on a historical

In this issue, the Editors would like to express their gratitude

Professor Sr. Dr. Khairuddin Abdul Rashid

Distance Learning (DL) is an educational model in which the

This paper firstly looks into the literature; with respect to

learner interactions within DL settings through ‘effective’ use of

Keywords: Distance Learning (DL), co-learner interactions, web-based online

Advances in information technology (IT) is continually evolving;

learners through web-based online assessments tools within DL

The research methodology approach adopted for this paper embraces

i) To identify the delivery methods currently implemented within

Interviews were conducted with the DL tutors from the case

Learners often express their need for more empowerment within

alone are not appropriate for marking or giving feedback on

DISTANT LEARNING: DEFINITIONS AND

 The influence of an educational organisation both in

In addition to the definitions provided previously, many

Table 1 Definitions of Terms (Du Mont, 2002)

According to Du Mont (2002), definitions of DL exist which

‘distance education’ and ‘distance learning’. According to Berge