Highway Surveys 3
In comparison with surveys for new locations, those for
relocations cover a relatively narrow strip of territory. But
it is necessary to measure and record many more topographic
details. Among these are present paving, curbs, sidewalks,
trees, guard rails, drainage structures, fences, walls, property
lines, public utilities, buildings, land usage, intersecting high-
ways, streams, railroads, and—in general— alll features which
might affect the grade-line design or which might have to be
removed and relocated.
Measurements for topography and right-of-way data are
customarily made by the transit party and recorded in the
field book. Details are tied to the base line by “plus and
offset," supplemented by range ties, Intersecting railroads,
pole lines, ete. are located by stationing and angle of intersec-
tion, Contours are not located in this form of topographic
survey. Some highway departments use the “feld-sheet”
method described in Art. 9-9.
Cross-sectioning differs from railroad practice in that the
process of cross-section leveling is used instead of slope stak-
ing. The usual method is that given in Art. 6-7, though some
engineers prefer to run profile levels first and then to do cross~
sectioning by recording rod readings as plus or minus from
the given center-line elevations. Since no elevations are de-
termined in taking topography, the cross-sections must give
the needed information concerning elevations of existing
curbs, walls, drainage structures, utilities, and building
foundations. Other special methods are found in Art. 10-7.
Though ground cross-sections are used principally for deter-
mining earthwork end areas, they sometimes serve the purpose
of plotting contours to assist in the design of ramps and grade
separations,
10-5. Soil Surveys—Comprehensive soil surveys, rarely
needed in railroad location, have become standard practice
‘among progressive State highway departments. Such surveys
are superseding the former types of soil surveys which were
often restricted to borings at bridge sites and cursory examina-
tion of the route for surface indications of snow slides or
unstable side slopes.312 * Highway Surveys
Modern alignment standards often require that routes
traverse topographic features formerly avoided; as a result,
Jong heavy fills and deep cuts—sometimes through bedrock—
are frequently necessary. Since the cost of a modern high-
way may exceed one-half million dollars per mile, possible
savings in construction and maintenance costs justify using
fairly expensive methods of determining pertinent informa-
tion about surface and subsurface soil conditions.
Soils investigations for highways continue to grow more
comprehensive in scope. This phase of highway engineering
requires close cooperation with the soil physicist, the geologist,
and even the seismologist. The modern tendency is to go
beyond merely making auger borings along the proposed route
and classifying the soil samples in the laboratory. Instead,
the past geologic history of the area is investigated. From
these studies, area soil maps are prepared which show the soil
“pattern'’—land forms, types of soil deposits, swamp areas,
drainage conditions, and related information. A proposed.
route traversing the region covered by an area soil map is then
the subject of a preliminary soil report which shows the rela-
tionship of the soils to the engineering considerations of align-
ment, grade, drainage, and grading and compaction processes.
‘The availability of materials for borrow, for subbase, or for
concrete aggregates is also indicated. ‘The report may suggest
alignment changes; it also contains specific recommendations
regarding the extent of subsurface exploration needed to
answer detailed questions for design and construction.
In glaciated regions, erratic depths to bedrock may rgd
the use of seismic methods of subsurface exploration.
achusetts, for example, has developed a ae
geologic “strip” map is prepared and the locations where
seismic studies are recommended, such as at deep cuts and
bridge sites, are shown on this map. Seismological field work
has been done under a cooperative program of the Mass-
achusetts Department of Public Works and the U.S. Geological
Survey. Extensive use was made of seismic profiles in obtain-
ing quantity estimates on the Massachusetts Turnpike.!*
Seismic methods have become less costly with the develop-
ment of a light-weight seismograph, the sound waves for
‘Superscript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter.Highway Surveys 313
which are generated by the impact of a sledge hammer on a
metal plate instead of by an explosive charge.
Complete treatment of the subject of modern highway
soil surveys is beyond the scope of a text on Route Surveying.
For detailed information, see any modern text on Highway
Engineering. Broader aspects of the subject are described in
detail in References 3 through 7 in the bibliography.
10-6. Preparation of Plans.—Office procedure in design
and preparation of plans for a major highway project involves
@ multitude of operations. Some of these are quite routine
and may be done by the sub-professional members of the
surveying crews during rainy weather; others require special-
ized training and experience.
State highway departments usually follow certain “‘stand-
ards” with regard to methods of design, sizes of drawing
sheets, arrangement of work, and forms for estimating quanti-
ties. No one scheme is best for all projects; a great deal
depends on the size and type of the project and on the per-
sonnel available. However, on Federal-Aid projects certain
specifications of the B.P.R. relative to size of drawing sheet
and form of layout must be followed.
The final objective of the office work is to prepare a cost
estimate and a complete set of plans showing clearly all in-
formation needed (1) by the engineers in laying out the lines
and grades to be used by the contractor in building the project,
(2) by the contractor in estimating the nature and extent of all
work to be performed, in order that he may prepare his bid,
and (3) by the legal agents to assist in preparing the right-of-
way descriptions and other data connected with land takings
and easements.
‘A detailed description of office design methods not only
would be too voluminous for inclusion in this book but also
would encroach upon subjects more properly treated in a
study of highway engineering. Consequently, only an outline
of conventional office routine is given to show the relation
between survey work and design. Since about 1956, the use
of automation in location and design (see Chapter 13) has led
to important changes in some of the steps described.
Supplied with the reconnaissance report and all the data
from the field surveys, the designers carry out these steps:314 - Highway Surveys
1. Design of typical sections: These are dimensioned
drawings showing the proposed roadway cross-sections of the
standard portions of the project. Shown are width, thick-
ness, and crown of pavements; shoulder widths and slopes;
positions of ditches, side slopes, curbs, median strips, guard
rails, and other construction details.
2. Preparation of location map: Usually done on a series
of 22”x36" Federal Aid Sheets, which show the profile as
well as the plan. Common scales are 1” =100/ horizontally;
1’’=10' vertically. Plan shows survey base lines, topographic
details, and all alignment and right-of-way data. Profile
(sometimes drawn on separate sheets) shows the ground line,
grade line as finally designed, drainage structures, and esti-
mated earthwork quantities and balance points.
8. Plotting of cross-sections: Ground cross-sections, used
for earthwork calculation and in grade-line design, are plotted
directly from the cross-section leveling notes, A common
scale is 1”=10’, Scale may be larger when end areas are to
be determined by the “strip” method (Art. 6-6); smaller
when found by calculating machine (Art. 6-4),
4. Establishing of profile grades: Grade line designed with
regard to relative importance of economy of construction,
balance of earthwork quantities, property damage, sight
distances, safety of operation, drainage and soil conditions,
aesthetics, and adaptability to future property development
and to future highway or railroad grade separations. Fre-
quent reference to plotted ground cross-sections is helpful in
design.
5. Drawing of cross-section plans: Proposed roadway
cross-sections drawn on ground cross-section sheets in con=
formity with the designed profile grades. These sections
show the pay lines for excavation, Widening and supereleva~
tion are allowed for.
6. Making of special detail drawings: Includes detail draw-
ings of all types of drainage structures; of retaining walls,
curbs, guard rails, and other appurtenances; and of compli-
cated interchanges and intersections. In connection with the
latter problems, standards often followed are those given in
the AASHO Policy on Geometric Highway Design.
7. Preparation of right-of-way plans: Property maps of allHighway Surveys 315
parcels to be acquired or conveyed, showing locations, owners’
names, and ties to existing and proposed right-of-ways.
8, Estimate of quantities: Detailed estimate of quantities
of grading, paving, and other construction work, prepared
systematically with the aid of special “take-off sheets.”
Summary of results, to serve as basis for engineer's cost esti-
mate and to aid contractors in preparing bids.
9. Preparation of specifications: Detailed general and
special provisions relating to proposal conditions, submission
of bids, prosecution of work, construction details, and methods
of measurement and payment.
10-7. Construction Surveys.—Generally, the types of sur-
veying operations needed on highway construction are the
same as those outlined for railroad construction in Art. 9-14;
therefore, the descriptions will not be repeated here.
In general, field layout and staking are somewhat more
complex in highway work, owing to the multiplicity of lanes
and the many ramps and intersections. Staking practices
vary with the type of highway, the nature of the terrain, the
magnitude and the cuts and fills, and the preferences of the
particular organization.
In the conventional method, tacked line stakes, marked with
station and offset, are set no more than 50 feet apart on offset
lines from the construction base lines. Their elevations are
determined and recorded for future use in setting grade stakes.
After the right-of-way has been cleared, a double line of slope
stakes or “rough grading” stakes is set at 50-foot intervals.
Finishing stakes are necessary for the final operations of side-
slope trimming, subgrade preparation, and setting of forms for
paving. After the grading has been completed, “blue-topped””
line and grade stakes are set on the subgrade near enough to
the work to permit forms to be set truly by means of a short
grade board.
In mountainous terrain, where grading is very heavy and
there are complications in the form of variable slopes and
benches, the customary method of setting construction slope
stakes is very clumsy. Instead, a “traverse method” may
be used to great advantage. Because of its specialized applica
tion, the traverse method will not be described. (See Refer-
ence 8 for details).316 = Highway Surveys
‘The use of freeway design, in which double roadways are
often at different levels separated by a median of varying
width, complicates not only the construction staking but also
the calculation of grading quantities. Good results can be
obtained by substituting a contour grading plan for the usual
voluminous set of cross-section sheets. In essence, “contour
grading” consists in superimposing contour lines of the pro-
posed construction on the existing contour map, thereby form-
ing a series of areas bounded by closed contours. The areas
are planimetered, and the volumes of the horizontal slices of
earthwork are determined by the average-end-area method.
This method is subject to further refinement and greater
accuracy if partial contour intervals are taken into account.
As a result of some time studies, it is estimated that earthwork
calculations, together with the drafting and survey operations,
can save about 40 per cent in man-hours.’ Even this saving
is small, however, compared with that resulting from the use
of electronic computers (see Chapter 13)
Warped surfaces at intersections require specially worked
out staking arrangements in order to produce smooth riding
surfaces.
Record plans of all work ‘as built” are worked up as con-
struction proceeds. Since pavement is usually paid for on
the basis of surface area, the final measurement of the length
of the project is somewhat greater than the horizontal survey
measurement.
10-8. Examples of Modern Practice—Examples of good
practice in highway location and interchange design are so
numerous as to permit reference to only afew. The following
examples illustrate various types of problems:
1, “Difficult Location Problems on 476-Mile Blue Ridge
Parkway.” (Shows application of railway surveying methods
to new highway location in mountainous terrain. Alignment
includes spirals and double spirals, eleven tunnels, grade
separations, and grade compensation for curvature.) Civil
Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 7, July, 1947, pp. 378 ff.
2. “North Santiam Highway Follows Difficult Route Near
Cascade Summit.” (Costly 15.6-mile Oregon highway in-
volves heavy cuts and fills; stability of fills affected by possibleHighway Surveys 317
sudden drawdown of flood-control reservoir.) Civil Engineer
ing, Vol. 18, No. 8, August, 1948, pp. 507 ff.
3. “Application of Coordinate Methods to Freeway Plan-
ning and Construction.” (Describes precise surveying
methods used to solve complex design and right-of-way prob-
Jems on freeway construction in urban areas.) California
Highways and Public Works, Nov.—Dec., 1946.
4, “Evolution of the Pennsylvania Superhighway.” (Entire
issue devoted to the history, financing, design and construc
tion of the nation’s first modern toll highway.) Roads and
Streets, Vol. 82, No. 10, October, 1939.
5. “New Jersey Turnpike.” (A group of articles covering
the planning, financing, design, and construction of this 118-
mile expressway.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 22, No. 1, January,
1952, pp. 1-69.
6. “New York State Thruway.” (A group of articles
covering the planning, financing, and design of the first 427-
mile section of this modern toll highway.) Civil Engineering,
Vol. 23, No. 11, November, 1953, pp. 735-752.
7, “Tough Terrain Conquered by Builders of West Virginia
Turnpike.” (Describes a difficult location problem in which
a modern $8-mile highway, having geometric design standards
suited to speeds of 60 mph or higher, replaced a tortuous route
107 miles long that had some grades of 9% and some curves of
50-ft radius.) Civil Engineering, Vol. 24, No. 2, February,
1954, pp. 74-80.
8, “Big Freeway Will Link Los Angeles, San Diego, Mexico.”
Describes 165-mile San Diego Freeway being constructed to
Sane width at an ultimate cost close to one-half billion
dollars.) Engineering News-Record, Vol. 161, No. 22, Nov.
27, 1958, pp. 30 ff.
9. “I-80 Spans Mid-America from Coast to Coast.”
(Describes the 2,900-mile highway which by 1972 will link
New York City and San Francisco, with termini marked by
two of the world’s greatest bridges.) Engineering News-
Record, Vol. 175, No. 5, July 29, 1965, pp. 28-32.318 2 Highway Surveys
10-9. Use of Aerial Surveys.—It is noteworthy that high-
way engineers have been active in adapting aerial surveys to
ever-widening fields of usefulness in the planning, location,
and design of highways. In fact, the science has progressed
to such a point that E, T. Gawkins, commenting upon the
results of experience in New York State, wrote:””
«+» aerial surveying . . . will in most cases obviate the need for one
more reconnaissance surveys and all the labor required for pre-
liminary estimates of several alternate routes. Once the line has been
selected from the use of aerial surveys, field surveying can be reduced
to include only those necessary steps such as laying out of base line,
setting of stakes, determination of right-of-way limits on the ground,
and taking of sections for earthwork estimates prior to the award of the
contract—the steps that will always be required for the construction of
‘a highway.
The most suitable relationship between ground-survey and
aerial-survey methods has yet to be worked out. Possible
combinations of these two methods are suggested in Chapter
12, Their relative use is largely an economic question involv-
ing the size of the project, the character of the terrain, and
the availability of existing photographs to suitable scale.
‘Most of the United States has been photographed from the
air at least once. The work has been done by several agencies
and for a variety of purposes. Consequently, not all the
photographs are suitable for highway-location purposes.
Up-to-date information on the existence and nature of avail-
able aerial photographs may be obtained from the Map
Information Office of the United States Geological Survey.
‘The Bureau of Public Roads lists the six stages of highway
location as follows:
First Stage—Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
between terminal points.
Second Stage—Reconnaissance survey of all feasible route
bands.
Third Stage—Preliminary survey of the best route.
Fourth Stage—Location of the highway on the ground.
Fifth Stage—Construction of the highway.
‘Sizth Stage—Operation and maintenance of the highway.
The earliest use of aerial photography in highway location
was as a supplement to the usual ground reconnaissance'
Highway Surveys 319
surveys. Improvements in the art have now enabled photo-
grammetry to supplant ground methods for reconnaissance
studies of large areas.
‘The first stage, according to present practice, consists of
stereoscopic examination of small-scale aerial photographs
covering a broad area between the terminal points. Inter-
mediate controls related to topography and land-use are
disclosed and broadly considered. The result of these studies
is the determination of all bands within the area which might
contain a feasible location for the highway.
In the second stage, large-scale aerial photographs are
taken along each of the feasible route bands. The photographs
are examined stereoscopically, as before, but their larger
scale permits the controls of topography and land-use to be
given special scrutiny. All possible route bands are compared,
after evaluating the several controls, and the best one is
chosen for more-detailed surveys. Thus, the use of aerial
photographs in two stages of reconnaissance will have dis-
closed the best route without costly ground surveys of several
alternate routes.
The third stage of location includes the making of a topo-
graphic map of the selected route band, and the projection
of a geometric location by the familiar paper-location method
(see Art. 9-11). As indicated in the quotation on page 318
photogrammetric methods are being used to an increasing
degree in studies following reconnaissance, especially in the
preparation of topographic maps. A reproduction of an
original aerial photograph, and the resulting topographic map,
are shown in Fig. 12-3. Fig. 12-4 shows a newer develop-
ment—the photo-contour map.
‘The fourth stage will always be done by ground surveying,
since aerial methods cannot conceivably be extended to the
processes of running in curves or setting stakes for grading and
other construction operations. Information of great. value in
connection with the fifth and sixth stages can also be obtained
from aerial photographs.
In the over-all problem of route location, both photogram-
metric and ground surveying methods will be used. For
practical examples of their interrelationships the engineer
should study the up-to-date practices described in Chapter 12.320 3 Highway Surveys
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Murphy, V.J., “Seismic Profiles Speed Quantity Esti-
mates for Massachusetts Turnpike,” Civil Engineering, Vol.
26, No. 6, June, 1956, pp. 374-375.
2, Licbenow, W.R., “Subsurface Bedrock Along Highway
Route Mapped by Seismograph,” Public Works, July, 1960,
pp. 111-112,
3. “Highway-Materials Surveys,” Bulletin 62, Highway
Research Board, 1952,
4, “Mapping and Subsurface Explorations for Engineering
Purposes,” Bulletin 65, Highway Research Board, 1952.
5. “Engineering Applications of Soil Surveying and Map-
ping,” Bulletin 83, Highway Research Board, 1953.
6. “Air Photo and Soil Mapping Methods: Appraisal and
Application,” Bulletin 180, Highway Research Board, 1958.
7. “Soil and Materials Surveys by Use of Aerial Photo-
graphs,” Bulletin 213, Highway Research Board, 1959.
8. Construction Manual, State of California, Dept. of Public
Works, Div. of Highways.
9. Kane, C.V., “Contour Grading,” California Highways
and Public Works, Sept.-Oct., 1952, pp. 1-5.
10. Gawkins, E.T., “Aerial Mapping Cuts Cost of Highway
Location in New York,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 2,
February, 1947, pp. 80-82.
11. Pryor, W.T., “Photogrammetry as Applied to Highway
Engineering,” Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 1,
March, 1951, pp. 111-125.chapter ll
Surveys for Other Routes
11-1. Foreword.—Reference to the broad definition of
transportation stated in Art. 1-2 suggests that the following
additional types of transportation may involve surveying
operations similar to those already described for railroads
and highways:
1, Transportation (transmission) of power and messages
by means of overhead tower or pole lines, or by lines in under-
ground conduits.
2. Transportation of liquids and gases through closed
conduits under pressure, such as pipe lines for water, gasoline,
oil, and natural gas; through closed conduits by means of
gravity, such as sewers and aqueducts; and through open
channels, such as canals and flumes,
3. Transportation of materials (sand, gravel, stone, or
selected borrow) to the site of large construction projects, by
means of cableways and belt conveyors.
Whenever any of the foregoing are projects of considerable
magnitude and involve termini a fairly long distance apart,
the required surveying operations may properly be included
in the term route surveying.
Special types of surveys are necessary in the case of tunnel
location and construction. These are noted briefly in Art.
11-6.
11-2, Similarity to Railroad and Highway Surveys.—Sur-
veys for all routes of transportation and communication are
similar in general respects to those described in Chapters 9
and 10 for railroads and highways. This is because all
routes have certain location controls (Art. 9-3); in fitting the
line to those controls the natural sequence of field and office
work approximates that outlined in Art, 1-8, The particular
differences that do occur are caused by requirements peculiar
to a specific type of route. The engineer acquainted with
railroad or highway surveying should have no difficulty in
321322 ae. Surveys for Other Routes
adapting his knowledge to surveys for other routes, once the
uses to which the surveys are to be put are known. Surveys
for some other routes are described briefly in the succeeding
articles.
11-3. Transmission-Line Surveys.—The location of a
power transmission line is controlled less by topography than
is the location of other types of routes. Power loss due to
voltage drop is proportional to the length of the conductor;
consequently, high-tension transmission lines run as directly
as possible from generating station to substation. Changes in
direction, where required by intermediate controls, are made
at angle towers instead of along curves. A trunk telephone or
telegraph line is usually located within the right-of-way of a
highway or of a railroad, in which case the curves of the right-
of-way must be followed.
Unless aerial photographs are used, the field and office work
for transmission-line location involves, after a study of avail-
able maps, the following operations:
1, Reconnaissance for the location of intermediate features
to be avoided, such as buildings, cemeteries, extensive swamps,
stands of heavy timber, and particularly valuable improved
land; and for the location of intermediate controls fixing points
on the line, such as the most advantageous crossings of impor-
tant highways, railroads, and streams.
2. A transit-and-tape (or a stadia) traverse. ‘The traverse
may be either a preliminary line or the final center line, the
selection depending on the difficulty of the problem. In stak-
ing the long straight sections between intermediate controls,
the deflection-angle method of by-passing obstacles on tan-
gents (described in Art. 9-13) is particularly useful. Contours
are not located; however, all topographic features and right-
of-way data are measured with respect to the traverse, as
described in Art, 10-4,
3. Levels sufficient in extent to aid in locating the towers.
‘These may be merely “‘spot'’ elevations or those for a complete
profile along the traverse line. On final location in difficult
terrain, it is advisable to take levels along two lines, one on
each side of the center line, in order to obtain proper conductor
clearance when spotting the positions of the towers.
__FaSurveys for Other Routes 323
4. Office studies, including the features common to all route
location: drawing of the map, description of right-of-way ease-
ments, estimate of quantities and cost, and preparation of
specifications. A special problem in transmission-line design
is the location of the towers. This location work may be done
with the aid of special transparent templates, as described
after step 5.
5, Construction surveys. These are relatively simple on
transmission-line construction, since there is practically
no grading. Stakes are needed only for clearing the right-
of-way and for building tower footings. However, the sur-
veyor's assistance is also valuable in planning other details
related to construction, such as in spotting cable reels and
locating suitable dead-end and pulling points.
A convenient method of spotting tower locations on the
profile is to use a transparent template, the lower edge of
which is cut to the curve (approximately parabola) that
will be taken by the conductor cables. Obviously the curve
must be modified to fit the scale of the profile. ‘Two other
curves are inscribed on the template parallel to the curve of
the lower edge. The axial distance from the lower edge to
the middle curve equals the maximum cable sag for a par-
ticular span; that from the middle curve to the upper curve
equals the specified minimum ground clearance.
‘The template is used as shown in Fig. 11-1, First a
point X is located at a suitable position for a tower; then the
lower edge of the template is placed on this point and the
template is moved until the middle curve touches the ground324 a Surveys for Other Routes
line, The other point Y at which the lower edge of the tem-
plate intersects the ground line is the possible location of the
next tower. One template fits a considerable range of spans
with sufficient accuracy.
After the towers at certain controlling points have been
located, the location of the intermediate towers is a matter of
sh ee je ot ic i hot eee
with the least number of towers.
(Os taapem tact ae Giarchi work, aerial photo-
graphs are now commonly used, at least for reconnaissance,
and they are sometimes used for all phases of the survey work
except final staking. The growing file of available aerial
photographs (Art. 10-9) often makes this method feasible
where it was formerly prevented by economic considerations.
11-4. Surveys for Pressure Pipe Lines and Underground
Conduits.—Surveys for the location of long pressure pipe
lines are almost as simple as those for transmission lines. In
fact, the descriptions contained in steps 1 and 2 in Art. 11-3
apply also to pipeline surveys. However, since pressure
pipe lines are usually located underground, greater attention
is paid to foundation conditions and especially to avoiding
costly rock excavation and frequent stream crossings. Acces
sibility to power for operating booster pumping stations is also
an important intermediate control.
Grades and undulations in the profile are relatively unim-
portant, especially on small-diameter steel pipe lines; conse-
quently, detailed profile levels may be omitted and replaced
by spot elevations at proposed pumping stations and at the
high and low points along the line.
On construction, line stakes are more important than
grade stakes. In fact, grade stakes for steel pipe lines may
be needed only at pumping-stations and at crossings of high-
ways, railroads, and streams. Along intervening sections,
at least in easy terrain, several sections of pipe are welded
together on the ground before being laid in the relatively uni-
form trench dug by the trenching machine.
Large reinforced-conerete pipe lines require much more
careful attention to undulations in the profile, since there is aSurveys for Other Routes 325
practical limit to the change in direction possible at each joint,
and beyond that limit special pipe sections are necessary.
‘As in the case of transmission lines, right-of-way for a
pressure pipe line usually takes the form of easements for
its construction and operation,
‘Aerial surveys are particularly useful in the location of long
pipe lines. Only mosaics are used, since contours are not
essential. As a rule, a stereoscopic study of the photographs
will give enough information for the preliminary location.
After this the line may be “walked over" prior to deciding
upon the final location, It is possible, however, to rely upon
aerial photographs to an even greater extent.:?* For example,
in building one of the longest pipe lines from the southwestern
part of the United States to the industrial middle west, no
surveyor went on the job until the sections of pipe were ready
to be laid; yet, the right-of-way agents completed much of
their work before that time.
Surveys for underground conduits containing power lines
on private right-of-way are much the same as those for pres~
sure pipe lines.
‘Underground communication circuits are commonly placed
in conduits located beneath the highway pavement, Access
for maintenance is by means of manholes. Coaxial eables
used for telephone, broadeast, and television circuits may be
drawn through existing conduits, However, they are also
placed directly in a shallow ploughed trench beside the high
way. In neither case is any extensive survey work required.
11-5. Surveys for Construction at the Hydraulic Gradient.
Surveys for hydraulic construction in which flow is by gravity
require very careful attention to elevations, owing to the flat
grades used. If the flow is in an open channel, as in a canal,
the alignment may have to be circuitous in order to obtain
proper velocity and to avoid costly grading. A more direct
alignment is possible if the construction is below the ground
surface, such as in the case of a grade-line tunnel, aqueduct, or
sewer.
Surveys for surface construction may be identical with those
for railroad location, the principal modification being that
a narrower strip of topography will suffice. ‘This condition is
‘*Superseript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter.326 P
caused by the necessity for keeping the gradients between
relatively narrow limits.
Stations on the preliminary traverse are kept close to the
final location by setting them near the “grade contour.” The
grade contour is the line on the ground (starting at a con-
trolling point) along which the grade changes at the rate best
suited to the construction. In locating the stations, it is
obviously necessary that the leveling be kept up with the
transit work. In simple irrigation-ditch construction in easy
terrain, a line may be located on the grade contour in the field
by tape and level, without need for the transit.
On a contour map the grade contour is found by starting
at a controlling point and stepping from contour to contour
with dividers set at a distance equal to the contour interval
divided by the desired rate of grade. The closer the final
alignment follows the grade contour, the lower will be the
grading quantities.
Since economy of grading is an important factor in canal
construction, careful cross-sections are taken at short inter-
vals, Construction surveys for canals are very similar to
those for highways, but all stakes must be set on offset lines.
‘There are cases in which aerial surveys have been used in.
studies for canal location—for example, on the proposed
Florida Barge Canal. ‘They have also been used in studies for
levees and dikes to control meandering rivers. Difficulty of
access for ground-survey parties is an important consideration
favoring the use of aerial-survey methods. However, the
small contour interval needed on maps for canal studies does
not ordinarily permit the location of contours by photo-
tric methods. Mosaics are useful for general studies;
but for detailed location the best method probably is to make
an accurate planimetric map from the aerial photographs and
then to add the contours by the plane-table method.
For gravity-flow structures below the ground surface, it is
entirely suitable to use railroad surveying methods, supple-
mented by adequate subsurface exploration. A most impor-
‘tant aspect of the office studies for such construction is to
decide whether cut-and-cover construction or tunnel con-
struction is the better. Often a combination of the two pro-
vides the most economical solution.
Surveys for Other RoutesSurveys for Other Routes 327
11-6. Tunnel Surveys.—In mountainous terrain, it is
‘sometimes necessary to use tunnels on route alignment.
Surveying operations for locating tunnels vary greatly in
complexity. Preliminary studies are best made by using
aerial photography, especially in regions which have experi-
enced earth movements. Even detailed field studies may not
disclose old earthquake faults, but good photographs quickly
reveal them. As an example, some topographically-favorable
tunnel sites considered for Interstate Highway 70 under the
Continental Divide, west of Denver, were found to follow
major fault zones*, a fact which resulted in the choice of a
different location.‘
‘The final alignment of a short tunnel may be fixed by
locating a transit line on the ground directly over the tunnel.
‘As a rule, however, an indirect precise traverse is necessary.
In the case of subaqueous tunnels or long tunnels to be driven
through rugged mountain ranges, triangulation control must
beused. This is a subject outside the scope of route surveying.
‘The traverse or triangulation control provides only the
data for calculating the tunnel alignment; elevations must be
determined by careful spirit leveling between the proposed
portals.
Locating the portals, adits, and shafts by means of the
accurate control surveys is only one of the surveyor's impor-
tant tasks. His work in controlling the accuracy of the tunnel
driving is fully as important; it must be done with the highest
precision, for it cannot be verified conclusively until the head-
ings are holed through—and then it is too late to make adjust~
ments,
Surveying for tunnels driven through rock involves special-
ized operations not found in other types of route surveying.
Among these are:
1. Carrying the alignment down shafts by means of heavy
bobs damped in oil and suspended from piano wires. The
equipment also includes lateral adjusting devices for the
sheaves and scales for measuring the swing of the wires.
2. Transferring the alignment from the wires to plumb
bobs suspended from riders, or “‘skyhooks,” mounted on scales
attached to the roof of the tunnel.
3. Extending the alignment into the tunnel on “spads”328 “. Surveys for Other Routes
driven in plugged holes in the roof. The transitman usually
works on a suspended platform, out of the way of the muck
cars,
4. Carrying the alignment to the working face, or “painting
the heading,” for locating the drilt holes.
5. Transferring grade down shafts by means of weighted
tapes or by taping down elevator guides,
6. Carrying temporary grade into the tunnel by means of
inverted rod readings on the wood plugs in which the spads
are driven.
7. Cross-sectioning twice; first for locating “tights” (points
needing trimming), and finally for obtaining permanent
graphical records of the sections and for computing pay
yardage and overbreak.
Several ingenious devices for cross-sectioning have been
used, such as pantographs and “sunflowers.” The latter
are designed to locate breaks in the tunnel cross-section by
polar coordinates.
Since 1965 several different commercial laser instruments®
have become available for accurate line-and-grade control in
the construction of tunnels and underwater pipelines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. MacDonald, G-E., “Surveys and Maps for Pipelines,”
Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 121, 1956, pp. 121-134.
2. Guss, P., “Aerial Photography Aids Pipeline Location,”
Civil Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 6, June, 1961, pp. 48-51.
3. Mitcham, T.W., “Tunnel-Site Selection by Use of Aerial
Photography,” Civil Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 8, August, 1961,
P. 64.
4. “Road Tunnel Will Pierce Divide,” Engineering News-
Record, Vol. 167, No. 7, Aug. 17, 1961, p. 25.
5. Bengston, D., “Construction Control with Lasers,’ Civil
Engineering, Vol. 38, No. 4, April, 1968, pp. 72-74.chapter 12
Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
12-1. Foreword.—The uses of aerial photographs in route
surveying justify devoting a separate chapter to aspects of the
subject not covered in textbooks on photogrammetry. Aside
from a brief review of certain definitions and mapping proc-
esses, this chapter avoids repeating the technical principles of
photogrammetric mapping as described in books on the sub-
ject* Instead, the emphasis is on the special applications of
this new science to route location, and on their advantages,
limitations, and economic value. Some new developments
that involve photogrammetry appear in Chapter 13.
12-2. Definitions.—Definitions of photogrammetric terms
to be used in this chapter are given in this article. For a more
comprehensive list the engineer is referred to the Manual of
Eisoronmaiy of the American Society of Photogrammetry.*
of obtaining reliable
jents by means of photography. ‘The subject is sub-
divided into terrestrial p eee eee Sree
metry. In terrestrial photogrammetry the photographs-are
taken from one or more ground stations; in aerial photogram-
metry, from an aeroplane in flight.Terrestrial_photogram-
horizontal 4
metry utilizes plolomapha ot oblique~photographs,
whereas acrial photogrammetry-utilizes vertical photographs or
oblique photographs. Sit i ly
referred -to-in this chapter are considered to have-been made
with the camera axis vertical, oF a nearly vertical as practi-
in.an aircraft. ~~
‘The photographs used may be contact prints, made with the
negatives in contact with sensitized photographic paper; ratio
prints, the scales of which have been changed from those of
the negatives by enlargement or reduction; or stereoscopic pairs
(stereo-pairs), in which two photographs of the same area are
taken in such a manner as to afford stereoscopic vision.
“Superscript numbers refer to the bibliography at the end of this chapter.
329330 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
An important property of a photograph is its scale, which
is the ratio of a distance on the photograph to a corresponding
distance on the ground. The scale of a photograph varies
from point to point because of displacements caused by camera
tilt and topographic relief. These displacements must be cor-
rected for, if the photograph is to be used for precise measure~
ments.
‘A fight trip 4 in ot eeaacel Jal photo:
graphs taken along a single course. The eeoey
for stereoscopic examination and for the construction
mosaics...
A mosaic is an assemblage of aerial photographs the edges
of which have been trimmed an poe ieee aoe ale a ee
ous photographic representa
surface, If the photographs aS sean sisi lee
to ground control points, the resulting
mosaic; if they have first been brought to.a uniform-scale and
fitted to ground control stations, the map is a controlled mosaic.
A planimetric map is one which shows the horizontal posi-
tions of selected natural and cultural features, whereas a
topographic map also shows relief in measurable form, usually
by contours. ‘The term base map is used to define a large-scale
planimetrie map compiled from aerial photographs. A e2py
of the base map may be used for the addition of contours and
other data located by means of the plane table and/or photo-
grammetric methods. Sete aaa
12-3. Uncontrolled Mosaics.—In-making_an-uncontrolled
mosaic, contact prints covering the area to be studied_are
trimmed and assembled by matching like images and are then
fastened to a rigid or flexible backing. If the mosaic is for
temporary use in the field, the prints are mounted on linen or
other material that will permit the map to be rolled up. For
this purpose semi-matte prints are preferred because they take
pencil lines readily and are not scratched as easily as glossy
prints, For more permanent use, properly matched glossy
prints may be stapled or pasted to a rigid backing. If desired,
the assembly may be photographed to preserve one or more
copies of the complete map, after which the mosaic is dis-_ Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 331
mantled so that the contact prints may be used for stereoscopic
study.
Such a mosaic is relatively inexpensive and, though subject
to errors because of scale variations and displacements, it is
‘extremely valuable for reconnaissance (Art. 12-9) and mis-
eellaneous uses (Art. 12-12).
12-4. Importance of Stereoscopic Vision.—Most aerial
photography is done by flying parallel flights across an area.
During the flights, photographs are taken at intervals such
that adjacent photographs will overlap approximately 30 per
cent at the sides and 60 per cent in the direction of flight.
‘This insures that the center (principal point) in each photo-
graph will appear in the adjacent | picture taken in the line of
flight, thus Berne fing-what is called “stereoscopic overlap.”
By properly orienting the overlapping photographs (stereo-
pairs) and viewing them through a stereoscope, the process
known as “stereoscopic fusion” takes place.
_sions> (A simple demonstration of stereoscopic fusion is
shown in Fig, 12-1.) In effect, two positions of the-camera
Iens_several_thousand_feet_apart—ate—substituted—for~the
observer's eyes. In the resulting image (known as the
‘stereomodel”), relative heights of hills and structures, depths
of canyons, and slopes of terrain are determinable. Used in
this way, the old principle of stereoscopic vision has become
probably the most important basic tool for studying the
manifold problems of route-location.
12-5. Controlled Mosaies.—The utility of a mosaic may
be greatly increased by bringing the photographs to a uniform
“Reale: aoerecting then for fil, and f fitting them in their correct
relative positions. ‘This eee
_SBESansparmr ts ying methods.
Control stations, properly distributed over the area, are
first selected with the aid of the stereoscope. They should be
definite points easily recognized on the photographs and
accessible on the ground. Buildings, fence corners, or road
intersections usually serve this purpose. Preparatory to
planning the ground control surveys, the selected control
points are marked on each photograph by a circled prick point.332 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
traverse, ‘ireuits fro in
elevations-of-the-control_points may be cemputed. Ground
control is costly and should therefore be no more precise or
extensive than is required for the purpose. In research aimed
at reducing the cost of ground control for surveys of very large
areas, great progress in use of air-borne radar, and shoran
techniques, has been made. See also Art. 13-2.
In making the finished mosaic, the contaet-prints are ratioed
(brought to the same predetermined scale), rectified (corrected
for tilt), and fitted on a base ) the plotted ground-eon~
trol points. ‘There are several methods of doing-this;all of
which ate highly technical and require special equipment.
Only the central part of each photograph is used in compiling
the mosaic, and the trimmed edges are feathered on the under-
side. In addition, prints having the same tone, or degree of
exposure, are selected. The finished mosaic then has the
appearance of a single large photograph.
12-6. Planimetric Maps.—A planimetric map, on which are
shown the accurate positions of such-natural and cultural
features as watercourses, forests, highways, and buildings, may
be constructed from aerial photographs which are tied to
adequate ground control. The first step is to make a control
plot on which the ground control points are located from their
computed coordinates. Photographic control points (“‘pic-
ture points””) must also be located on the plot to permit proper
matching of the photographs. These are points that are
clearly visible on two or more photographs but are not tied in
by the ground surveys. They are usually located on the con-
trol plot by an analytic or graphical method of radial tri-
angulation.
‘The positions of details may be transferred from the photo-
graphs to the plot either by a relatively simple tracing method
or by a stereographic method that-employs special plotting
instruments. The tracing method yields good results only
if the photographs are relatively free from relief or tilt dis-
placements. In this method each photograph is fitted as
closely as possible to the plotted control points, and the
selected details are traced onto the plot. The positions ofAerial Photography in Route Surveying 333
details which show on two photographs may have to be
adjusted to compensate for slight differences in their traced
locations.
A ;-free-from the effects of tilt displace
ment, vith the a ‘complex
Mechanical instruments-ealled “stere ers." Those most
widely used include the acablepeopeciion map compilation
plotters: Balplex, Kelsh, Multiplez, and Nistri Photocartograph;
and the more=tostly optical train instruments: Galileo-Santoni
Stereocartograph, Nistri Photostereograph, Wild Autograph, and
Zeiss Stereoplanigraph-
Hold a card at right angles to the page and along
the dotted line. Closing one eye at a time,
adjust the head so that letter X (but not O) can
be seen with the left eye, and conversely with the
right eye. ‘Then open both eyes and focus them
beyond the page. The four dots above the let-
ters will fuse and appear as two. Moreover, the
lower dot will seem to be floating in space relative
tothe upper dot. To prove that all four dots are
in the image, notice that the letters X and O are
‘superimposed.
Fig. 12-1. Stereoscopic fusion
‘These instruments employ the principle of the floating mark.
In the stereoplanigraph and related instruments, the photo-
graphs of a stereo-pair are viewed through two movable334 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
Fig. 12-2. Pair of Multiplex projectors forming a stereoscopic
model. (Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey.)
optical trains, each having a small dot or mark etched on a
lens of the optical system. When the photographs are viewed,
the two marks appear to fuse to form a single mark apparently
floating in space above or below the stereomodel, as demon-
strated in Fig. 12-1. (In a double-projection plotter, of the
type shown in Fig. 12-2, a pin point of light projected through
a hole in a tracing-table platen forms the floating mark.) By
proper manipulation of the instrument the floating mark canAerial Photography in Route Surveying 335
‘be made to rise or sink vertically. In planimetric mapping,
the general procedure is to operate the plotter so that the
floating mark appears to be touching the surface of the ground
(or other feature to be mapped) in the stereomodel, and then to
mark the corresponding points on the manuscript map. In
some stereoplotters the coordinates of the point viewed are
read from scales. More-complex instruments have a special
arrangement of levers, gears, and shafts which permits the
path of the floating mark to be plotted directly (Art. 12-7).
Some types-of-stereoplotters, particularly the optical-train
instruments, are_able to extend ground control accurately
through-a-chain of stereomodels by a process known as bridg-
ing, which_is_an_application-of-aerotriangulation. Aerotri-
angulation and the linkage of stereoplotter to electronic com-
puter are described in Art. 13-9.
il i tographs may be
Many details appearing on the aerial pho!
transferred to the planimetric map without commensurate
increase in cost—in contrast to the situation in ground survey=
ing. Moreover, only the relevant details need be transferred.
"Thus, several different planimetric maps may be constructed
from the same photographs, the features shown on a map
depending on the use to be made of the map.
12-7. Topographic Maps by Photogrammetric Methods.
A stereoscopic plotting instrument may also be manipulated in
such a way as to measure the differences in elevation between
points.on the stereo-pairs. In principle, the first step in doing)
this is to adjust the instrument until the floating mark rests on
a control point of known elevation. The frame carrying the
two eyepieces is then moved in the z-and y-directions until the
mark is at the detail being measured but is apparently floating
in space above or below it. The mark is then made to rise or
sink until it is at the same elevation as the detail. Thi
done by narrowing or increasing the distance between the
eyepieces. Scale readings made during the procedure can be
converted to give the z- and y-coordinates of the particular
detail viewed and its elevation with respect to the control
point, The principle can be extended to the drawing of con-
tours, thus converting the planimetric map into a complete
topographic representation.336 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
As instruments improve, the accuracy of maps made by
photogrammetrie methods approaches that obtained: Secageal
surveys. For example, the National Map Accuracy Standards
for horizontal accuracy (scales larger-than 1:20,000) require
that “not more than 10 per cent of the points tested shall be in
error by more than yy inch for maps on scales of 1:20,000 or
smaller, zy inch,” As to vertical accuracy, “not more than 10
Fig. 12-3. Reproduction of an serial photograph, and a photo-
grammetric map. (Courtesy Jack Ammann Photogrammetric
Engineers, Ine.)‘ ‘i A
| Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 337
per cent of the elevations tested shall be in error more than
ii all”?
pike extension h “ic
toa i i rt
elevations, and 5-ft contours. Even more-rigid requirements
are sometimes specified. For example, topographic maps with
ASTIN
aT
| a aN RBM
| 39 oe jx
<<|
338 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
a contour interval of 1 ft, at a scale of 1 in.=40 ft, have been
prepared for the highway commission of one eastern state.
The accuracy required was that 90 per cent of the contours be
dependable within } ft.8° A reproduction of a portion of an
aerial photograph is shown in Fig. 12-3(a), and a photogram-
metric map of the area covered by the photograph is shown
in Fig. 12-3).
12-8. Orthophotography.—A_new_ improvement over con-
ventional stereoscopic ainhoeremntos Soe rai te ee
with the development of equipment to produce the equivalen
of an orthographic photograph, i.¢., a uniform-scale photo-
graph free from distortions due-to tilt-and-relief. The U.S.
Geological Survey accomplished this by means of a machine
called the orthophotoscope,® The original incentive came from
the acute need for geologic use of uniform-scale maps on which
the full wealth of planimetric detail is provided by photo-
graphic images.
‘At about the same time a different system of producing
topographic maps based on orthophotography was developed
commercially by the R.M. Towhill Corporation of Honolulu.”
‘The product, called the Photo-Contour Map (Fig. 12-4), is not
a mosaic with contours superimposed. Because of the method
by which the photographic perspective is rectified, it is an
orthographic projection at the same scale as the con’ ontour
plotting. The finished map is a photo copy on which contours
are shown as black or white lines, or a combination of both.
‘The tone of the photograph usually determines which is pre-
ferable. ‘The Photo-Contour Map is practically self-checking.
Inaccurate work in compiling is revealed by obvious mis-
matches in contours and planimetric features. Inspection of
Fig. 12-4 shows that all contours properly track the visible
drains and roads.
In_general, Photo-Contour Maps cost more than topo-
graphic maps made by conventional, photogrammetric stric methods
(see Art. 12-11). However, where a proposed route location
passes through areas having dense planimetricdetail, they
may eee costly because of saving in drafting, time.
12-9. Photogrammetry for Reconnaissance.—Before_mak-
ing the detailed projection of a route ‘between selected termini,339
‘ial Photography in Route Surveying340 Aerial.Photography in Route Surveying
there must be general studies dealing with intermediate con-
trols and interpretation of terrain. These studies may_be
summarized in the one word reconnaissance. If the controls
usually present are examined (see Art. 9-3), they will be seen
to fall into two principal types: (1)
topography. Both types of controls are recorded in great
detail on aerial photographs. In fact, it is-now-generally
agreed that such photographs provide the best means of mak-
ing the type of careful reconnaissance so aptly emphasized by
Wellington (Art. 1-9).
For the first stage of reconnaissance, as described in. Art.
10-9, small-scale photographs of the region between the
termini will enable the designer to select the important con-
trols and locate all feasible route bands. The scale of these
photographs will depend on the distance between the termini
and the importance of the intervening terrain. In practice,
scales as small as 1 in. =2,000 ft (1:24,000) are quite suitable.
‘The best procedure i is to lay up an uncontrolled mosaic and to
study it in conjunction with stereoscopic examination of
stereo-pairs. ‘The result will be the selection of several bands
of terrain between the termini within each of which lies an
apparently feasible location. These bands may be from 1,800
feet to 1 mile or more in width,
‘The second stage of reconnaissance has for its purpose the
comparison of the route bands and the selection of the most
promising one. In some instances the choice will become
apparent during the first stage, but in more-difficult cases it
may first be necessary to study larger-scale photographs.
‘These may be prepared with little extra cost by enlarging the
original photographs up to a practical maximum of about four
diameters. Even when the original photographs are taken in
the summer, these enlargements are usable, since heavy foliage
does not detract seriously from their value in reconnaissance
studies.
In both stages of reconnaissance the aerial photographs
should-be-supplemented-by-other available maps. One in-
genious method is to make photographic enlargements of
U.S.G.S. sheets on a transparent-film base, to serve as an over-
lay at the same scale as the mosaic.'? Used in conjunction
with the stereo-pairs, this method adds a quantitative factorAerial Photography in Route Surveying 341
to the study. Inaccuracies in the maps or scale distortions in
the photographs affect all route bands equally and are not
large enough to invalidate this procedure. Many of the mis-
cellaneous values disclosed by aerial photographs (Art. 12-12)
will become apparent in these studies and will also contribute
toward the selection of the best route band. Field inspection
at critical locations may be needed to resolve some difficulties.
12-10. Photogrammetry for Detailed Location Studies—The__
_type of photogrammetric application used for detailed location
depends on_the type of transportation route involved. It is
possible to establish the location of a transmission ora long
pressure pipe line simply from the study of mosaics and stereo-
pairs. However, the accurate location of a highway, a rail-
road, or other route on which grades and right-of-way costs
are moré important requires a complete topographic map
showing contours at-net more than 6-ft intervals.
In some instances contours may be drawn by stereoscopic
plotting only on certain portions of the planimetric map, the
remaining contours being fixed by plane-table or other ground-
survey methods. This might be true, for example, in ex-
tremely flat areas or where dense ground cover prevents obtain-
ing the specified accuracy of contour location from photo-
graphs.” .
Complete topographic maps, made as outlined in Art. 12-7,
vary in scale from 1 in.=200 ft, with a 5-ft or 10-ft contour
interval, to 1 in.=40 ft, with 1-ft contours. To meet the
National Map Accuracy Standards the scale of the contact
prints cannot ordinarily exceed four times.the map scale,
although the maps to-a scale of 1 in.=200 ft prepared for the
Pennsylvania Turnpike extensions‘? were made from prints
having a taking scale of about 1 in.=1,000 ft. (The selected
route band in these examples was 1 mile wide.)
Other practical examples from states that have used photo-
grammetric maps on highway projects are:
California"—Taking scale 200 ft per inch. Map scale
1 in, =50 ft, with 2ft contours.
Connecticut!"—Taking scales 500, 200, and 100 ft per inch.
Corresponding map scales 1 in,=200 ft (5-ft contours),
1 in, = 100 ft (2-ft contours), 1 in. =40 ft (I-ft contours),342 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
Massachusetts‘*—Taking scale 600 ft per inch for rural
locations; 400 ft per inch for urban work. Map scales
1 in. =200 ft (5-ft contours) and 1 in.=100 ft (2-ft con-
tours).
Ohio"—Taking scale 200 ft per inch. Map scale 1 in.=50
ft, with 2-ft contours.
Once the topographic maps are prepared, trial lines are laid
down on them with a spline, and the best route is
following the usual paper-location procedure, as outlined in
Art. 9-11. With the advent of automation, more-sophisti-
cated methods of alignment design are now available. These
are described in Art. 13-9.
‘An important feature of the paper-location study is the
estimate of grading quantities. If topographic maps made
from aerial photographs actually meet the National Map
Accuracy Standards; there isno-reason why adequate quantity
estimates cannot be prepared from them. Recently, highway
engineers are finding that this is true. For example, in
Massachusetts on a 2-mile relocation the difference between
quantities computed from surveyed cross-sections and from
sections plotted from aerial topographic maps was only 2.6
per cent in embankment and 3.3 per cent in excavation.!> A
similar comparison on a 7,600-ft project in Connecticut
showed discrepancies of 1.4 per cent in cut and 1.2 per cent in
fill. On a 30-mile project in California" the variation in the
excavation quantities was less than 2.5 per cent.
‘The foregoing results lead to the belief that-in-highway
construction we may eventually make contract payment for
excavation on the basis of quantities derived from photogram-
metric studies. A step in this direction was taken in Ohio’
on a 4.12-mile relocation for which a complete set of construc-
tion plans was prepared by photogrammetric studies and these
plans were used immediately for award of the construction con-
tract by the usual competitive method. Since that example,
Ohio has had excellent results with photographic measurement
of cross-sections for pay quantities.” Research shows that
by adjusting photogrammetric sections to field elevations
along a route center-line and taking cross sections from a
stereomodel, the resulting quantities are within limits con-Aerial Photography in Route Surveying 343
sidered satisfactory for purposes of payment.*** The linkage
of stereoplotter and electronic computer (Art. 13-9) is a
further step toward this goal.
12-11. Costs of Photogrammetric Mapping.—In addition to
possessing many-other-advantages, photogrammetric maps
can often be prepared at far less cost than maps made by con-
ventional ground-survey methods. The tabulation on page
344 is instructive in this regard.
In preparing the tabulation, the cost. data for projects not
listed inthe bibliography were obtained from commercial
organizations specializing in photogrammetric mapping. It
is important to observe that the cost per mile of photogram-
metric maps depends principally on the scale and the contour
interval. ‘The length of the project—for given specifications —
has practically no effect on unit costs. Also mapping costs
have not increased significantly over the years despite the
large increase in construction costs. This is due to better
equipment, improved techniques, and more competition among
4 greater number of mapping companies. An important fac-
tor in keeping costs down is the ability of modern stereo-
plotters to extend sparse ground control by bridging.
On a cost-per-mile basis, comparable maps made by ground
urvey methods will rarely cost Jess, and will usually cost much
more, than photogrammetric maps. However, a fairer com-
parison of costs should take into account the fact that maps
compiled from ground surveys rarely cover as wide a strip of
topography as those made photogrammetrically. On work
in Massachusetts, for example, the average cost. of aerial
topographic maps was $680 per mile for a strip 6,000 ft wide;
whereas costs for ground surveys and plotting were about
$1,500 per mile for a strip only 500 ft wide.
Regardless of whether photogrammetry produces savings in
mapping costs, it is likely to yield substantial savings in
construction costs. These savings accrue not only from time
savings but also from reduction in grading quantities and
construction difficulties because the wider strip of topography
and the astute use of stereo-pairs may result in the projec-
tion of a better location than is possible by former methods,
Asan example, on a highway project in Mississippi, excavationAerial Photography in Route Surveying
344
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quantities averaged 42,872 cu yd per mile as determined from
a ground survey location, whereas another location, worked
out later with the aid of aerial photographs, was selected with
excavation quantities averaging only 27,536 cu yd per mile.
Similar comparisons on highway projects in Central America
and Alaska showed phenomenal savings in construction costs
in addition to improvements in alignment and gradients.'*
‘The comments made in Art. 1-13 relative to costs and
ultimate accuracies are especially pertinent in aerial photog-
raphy and mapping. Photographs should be taken at a scale
suited to resolving the smallest detail that must actually be
shown on the map; otherwise additional field surveys will be
needed and costs will mount. The topographic map itself
should be drawn with the smallest horizontal scale and largest
contour interval that will serve the requirements. Greater
accuracy and larger scales than are needed are wasteful and
costly.
12-12, Miscellaneous Uses of Aerial Photographs.—The
technical utility and economic advantages of aerial photo-
graphs, as described in the preceding articles, carry enough
weight to justify their employment on all important route-
location projects, However, it is worth emphasizing that
aerial photographs possess other inherent values which may
result as by-products from their primary uses. Often, these
miscellaneous uses will require little additional cost or effort.
‘The auxiliary uses of aerial photographs are many and
varied. They may be found in any stage of route location,
from the preliminary planning to studies made after the route
is in operation. The following valuable uses have been re-
ported:
For Preliminary Planning
Interpretation of terrain, Drainage patterns. Soil
types. Land use as affecting costs of right-of-way.
Location and extent of wooded areas, swamps, rock
outcrops, snow-slide and erosion scars, and borrow
material and granular deposits for use in construction,
For Detailed Studies
Size of drainage areas for culvert determination, Plan-
ning of interchanges, using oblique photographs.
Large-scale site maps for bridges, intersections, and346 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
other detailed studies, prepared from one pair of
photographs with a stereoscopic plotting instrument.
For Construction
Determination of best means of access. Type of clearing.
Possible effect of terrain and climatic conditions on
choice of construction equipment. Progress reports,
using series of oblique photographs taken in sequence
along route at convenient time intervals.”
After Construction
Traffic studies, including traffic counts, speeds, and
densities, congestion, railroad grade-crossing elimina-
tion, efficiency of existing parking facilities, and location
of new parking areas. Road-inventory studies, includ-
ing changes in use of abutting land and pavement-con-
dition surveys."*
General
Public-relations purposes in general,” such as illustrations
at public hearings and legislative reviews pertaining
to proposed route location and land takings, using
oblique photographs that are easier for the layman to
understand (see the Frontispiece).
12-13. Limitations of Photogrammetry.—Photogrammetry
for purposes of route location is not without its limitations.
Clarity in photographs requires good atmospheric conditions—
freedom from clouds, mist, smoke, or severe haze. In some
parts of the world such ideal conditions may occur only one
or two days in the year.
The interrrelationship between aerial photographs and
ground control requires careful planning as to their timing. A
hasty decision to take aerial photographs, solely in the belief
that they always save time, invites inefficiency and may raise
costs.
It is virtually impossible to determine precise elevations
from photographs taken when there is heavy snow cover or
dense vegetation. Consequently, for contour mapping the
photographs should be taken when the ground is bare and the
trees are defoliated. Regions having dense forests of differentAerial Photography in Route Surveying 347
types and heights of evergreens obviously present a difficult
problem. Reference 19 offers a possible solution.
Photogrammetric methods should not usually be used for
maps requiring elevations with an error of less than 1 ft. For
example, contour mapping by photogrammetry is questionable
for canal location in areas when contours are widely spaced
and where high precision is needed. In such circumstances
is would be better to draw a planimetrie map by photogram-
metric methods and then add contours and spot elevations by
appropriate ground surveying methods.
If the area to be mapped is small or if only a narrow strip
of topography is needed, photogrammetry may then be re-
stricted by economics rather than by technical limitations.
Finally, projects such as highway relocation require addi-
tional data about details that can only be obtained by ground
methods. Among these are: precise location of hydrants,
water gates, and property-line markers; utility-pole numbers;
type, critical elevation, and house number of buildings; size
and invert elevation of culverts; and all the information regard-
ing existing subsurface installations that are needed for design
drawings and construction planning.
12-14. Summary of Advantages of Aerial Photography in
Route Surveying.—To summarize the information in this
chapter, it is apparent that the salient advantages of acrial
photography in route surveying are:
1, The larger area and wider route bands covered by the
photographs give greater flexibility in route location
and practically insure that no better location has been
overlooked.
2, Practically all the studies preceding construction can be
made without encroaching on private property or arous-
ing premature fears in regard to the extent of property
damage. Land speculation is thereby reduced.” More-
over, the eventual acquiring of right-of-way is expedited
because property owners can see clearly on the photo-
graphs the effects of the takings.
3. On a large project the elapsed time between starting the
survey work and construction can be greatly shortened.
Should weather conditions provide only a short field348 Aerial Photography in Route Surveying
season, ground control and photography can be done
then, the map compilation being left for indoor work dur-
ing the winter months. In contrast to plane-table work,
the stereoscopic plotting of contours is independent of
weather and can be done on a day-and-night schedule if
necessary.
4. Over-all survey and mapping costs may be considerably
less than by ground methods.
5. Maps made by photogrammetric methods possess a
more uniform accuracy than is usually found in those
compiled from ground surveys.
6. What was formerly thought to be the ultimate goal of
aerial photography—the compilation of detailed topo-
graphic maps—is being extended to even more useful
purposes, such as quantity estimates and complete con-
struction plans.
7. Photogrammetry is of direct value in reducing the short-
age of engineering services by releasing engineering
personnel from routine survey work for more-advanced
employment in design.
8. Aerial photographs have many auxiliary uses and con-
tain more information about a variety of significant fea-
tures than the engineer can obtain by ground methods
except at greatly increased cost.
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