1 Exploring - The - Relationship - Bet

EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP, PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY, AND JOB-RELATED AFFECTIVE WELL-BEING OF SELF-IDENTIFED LEADERS
By
Leo Villarreal
Dissertation
Presented to the Faculty of the Department
of Leadership Studies
Our Lady of the Lake University,
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
In Leadership Studies
Our Lady of the Lake University

San Antonio, Texas
April 14, 2020
____________________________ April 14, 2020

Phyllis Duncan, Ph.D. Date
Committee Chair
____________________________ April 14, 2020

Meghan Carmody-Bubb, Ph.D. Date
Committee Member
____________________________ April 14, 2020

Carol Rownd, Ph.D. Date
Committee Member
ProQuest Number: 27837648
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
ProQuest 27837648
Published by ProQuest LLC ( 2020 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
All Rights Reserved.

This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
ABSTRACT
The importance of physical activity and fitness is well established for the physical
well-being of individuals. However, research regarding physical activity and the
mental/psychological well-being for individual is limited. Particularly, physical activity
and how it relates to leadership and affective well-being. Research shows that physical
fitness builds resiliency to better manage stress and it increases mental stamina and focus.
The purpose of this study aimed to examine the relationship between physical
activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being of self-identified leaders.
Two research models examined the relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership behaviors. The second model examined the relationship between overall
Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being while controlling for physical
activity. A survey was provided and completed by 214 participants that included a
demographic survey, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire SF, Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire, and the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale. Descriptive
statistics, Pearson Product Moment Correlation, and multiple regression analysis were
used to test for significance between the independent and dependent variables.
The results of the analysis found that physical activity was a significant predictor
of Authentic Leadership transparency. Gender was also found to be a predictor the data
showed males were more transparent than females. Education was found to be a
significant predictor of Authentic Leadership Moral/Ethical behavior. Overall Authentic
Leadership showed a significant relationship with Job-related Affective Well-being.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... vii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................ viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Background ................................................................................................................................ 3
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................................. 8
Conceptual Definitions .............................................................................................................. 8
Research Questions .................................................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................... 12
Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 12
Physical Activity and Authentic Leadership ......................................................................... 12
Physical Activity and Leadership ........................................................................................... 13
Authentic Leadership and Job-related Affective Well-being............................................... 15
Age and Authentic Leadership ............................................................................................... 18
Age and Leadership ................................................................................................................. 23
Gender and Authentic Leadership ......................................................................................... 24
Gender and Leadership ........................................................................................................... 27
Ethnicity and Authentic Leadership ...................................................................................... 28
Tenure and Authentic Leadership ......................................................................................... 29
Education and Authentic Leadership .................................................................................... 32
Age and Job Affective Well-being .......................................................................................... 34
Gender and Job Affective Well-being .................................................................................... 35
Ethnicity and Job Affective Well-being ................................................................................. 37
Tenure and Job Affective Well-being..................................................................................... 38
iii
iv
Education and Job Affective Well-being ............................................................................... 39

Physical Activity and Job Affective Well-being .................................................................... 40
Age and Physical Activity........................................................................................................ 43
Gender and Physical Activity ................................................................................................. 45
Ethnicity and Physical Activity............................................................................................... 48
Tenure and Physical Activity .................................................................................................. 49
Education and Physical Activity ............................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................... 51
Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 51
Overview ................................................................................................................................... 51
Sample Plan .............................................................................................................................. 51
Participants............................................................................................................................... 51
Instruments............................................................................................................................... 52
International Physical Activity Questionnaire ..................................................................... 52
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ Version 10. Self)............................................. 53
Job-related Affective Well-being (JAWS) ............................................................................ 54
Operational Definitions ........................................................................................................... 55
Research Design ....................................................................................................................... 56
Null Hypothesis (H0) ................................................................................................................ 57
Procedure .................................................................................................................................. 58
Ethical Considerations............................................................................................................. 60
CHAPTER FOUR........................................................................................................................ 61
Descriptive Statistics ................................................................................................................ 61
Demographics of Participants ................................................................................................. 61
Physical Activity Ratings ......................................................................................................... 64
Authentic Leadership Ratings ................................................................................................ 65
Job Affective Well-being Ratings ........................................................................................... 68
Multiple Regression Analysis .................................................................................................. 69
Null Hypothesis ........................................................................................................................ 74
Null Hypothesis One: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic ......... 74
Leadership Behavior Self-awareness ................................................................................. 74
Null Hypothesis Two: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic ......... 74
v
Leadership Behavior Transparency ................................................................................... 74

Null Hypothesis Three: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic ...... 77
Leadership Behavior Moral/Ethical Perspective .............................................................. 77
Null Hypothesis Four: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic ........ 78
Leadership Behavior Balanced Processing ........................................................................ 78
Null Hypothesis Five: The relationship between Overall Authentic Leadership and ... 79
Job-related Affective Well-being ........................................................................................ 79
Summary of Results ................................................................................................................. 80
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................................... 81
Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 81
Rejection of the Null Hypothesis ............................................................................................ 81
Important Findings .................................................................................................................. 82
Limitation of Study .................................................................................................................. 84
Recommendation for Future Research .................................................................................. 84
Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 85
REFRENCES ............................................................................................................................... 88
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 100
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................. 101
OLLU Institutional Review Board Approval .................................................................. 101
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 102
Participant Consent Form ................................................................................................. 102
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................. 104
Permission to use International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) ...................... 104
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................. 105
Permission to use Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) ...................................... 105
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................. 106
Permission to use Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS) ................................. 106
Appendix F ............................................................................................................................. 107
Demographics Survey ........................................................................................................ 107
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Correlation matrix of continuous variables ……………………………………70
Table 2. Modul summary for physical activity and gender on transparency ……………75
Table 3. Model summary for education on moral/ethical perspective ………………….77
Table 4. Model summary for overall Authentic Leadership on Job-related Affective Well-
being …………………………………………………………………………………….79
Table 5. Summary of Results…………………………………………………………….83
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Distribution of gender of respondents…………………………………………62
Figure 2. Distribution of the age of respondents…………………………………………62
Figure 3. Distribution of the tenure of respondents……………………………………...63
Figure 4. Distribution of the level of education of respondents…………………………64
Figure 5. Distribution of the ethnicity of respondents…………………………………...64
Figure 6. Distribution of physical activity scores………………………………………..65
Figure 7. Distribution of scores on transparency subscale………………………………66
Figure 8. Distribution of cores on moral/ethical subscale………………………….……67
Figure 9. Distribution of scores on balanced processing subscale………………………67
Figure 10. Distribution of scores on self-awareness subscale………………………..…68
Figure 11. Distribution of scores on overall Authentic Leadership scale……………….68
Figure 12. Distribution of scores on Job-related Affective Well-being scale……………69
Figure 13. Bar graph of gender and transparency……………………………………….76
Figure 14. Scatter plot of physical activity and transparency……………………….......76
Figure 15. Bar graph of education and moral/ethical perspective………………………78
Figure 16. Scatter plot of overall Authentic Leadership and Job-related Affective Well-
being…………………………………………………………………………………….80
vii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family for all their love and support
throughout this long adventure. To my mother for always believing in me you supported
me through the good times and the bad, you laid the foundation for me to accomplish
this. Thank you mom and I love you. To my wife, the most important person through this
adventure, thank you for all your support and for always believing in me. You always
pushed me to finish and I am grateful to you, Rocio Villarreal, I love you. Lastly, my two
boys whom I love dearly thank you for your patience and understanding and I hope you
can see that anything is possible.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to begin by thanking my committee chair Dr. Phyllis Duncan, for her
guidance and support throughout this process. Thank you so much Dr. Duncan for your
encouragement and inspiration to complete my dissertation and for your contribution to
my professional development. To the members of my committee Dr. Meghan A.
Carmody-Bubb and Dr. Carol Rownd thank you for your guidance and support needed to
complete this project. The both of you were patient with me in my development and the
knowledge that you both passed on to me was greatly appreciated.
To my pre-public committee Dr. Esther Chavez Gergen and Dr. Jared Montoya
thank you as well for your guidance and knowledge that propelled me to complete the
process. I also would like to thank the faculty of Our Lady of the Lake University from
the San Antonio and Rio Grande Valley campus to helped me along the way.
I wished to acknowledge and thank my colleagues in RGV Cohort 2, we
supported one another through this process and made some valuable friendships along the
way. A special thank you goes to Dr. Irma Pye Gavito for not giving up on anyone in our
cohort including me. Thank you so much Irma for your support and inspiration.
Finally, to my family and friends for always showing an interest and supporting
me through this process. I want to thank Dr. Martin (Butch) Farias my childhood friend
for pushing me to continue my education after my master’s degree and my cousin Cesar
Jesus (CJ) Gonzalez whose conversations inspired me to continue my education, I miss
you guys.
ix
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Physical activity is becoming more and more important these days with obesity on
the rise in children and adults’ causing medical professionals to encourage patients to
lose weight and to be more active. The United States has been experiencing a dramatic
increase in the prevalence of obesity and has become a public health crisis (Wang &
Beydoun, 2007). Sedentary lifestyles have been associated with this public health crisis
linking it to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, which is the reason the
promotion of active lifestyles has become an important public health priority (Lee,
Macfarlane, Lam, & Stewart, 2011). The Harvard Business Review published an article
comparing the stress of an athlete and that of the executive regarding the physical and
emotional demands of the hectic workweek. The article explains that in business having a
well-established foundation of physical well-being, such as vigorous exercise will clear
the way for emotional intelligence and the rest of the factors of the High-Performance
Pyramid (Loehr & Schwartz, 2001).
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) define chronic diseases as conditions that
last one year or more and require ongoing medical attention or limit activities of daily
living or both. Chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes are the leading
causes of death and disability in the United States. They are also leading causes of the
nation’s $3.5 trillion in annual health care costs (Center for Disease Control). Employees
that have three or more risk factors such as extremely sedentary, smoke, and drink too
much are likely to have 50% more absences from work than those employees who have
1
2
no such risk factors (Shain & Kramer, 2004). Similarly, an obesity report by the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has estimated that
obesity is responsible for 5% to 10% of total health expenditures in the United States
(2014). The economic burden of chronic disease attributable to obesity is projected to
increase by $66 billion in the United States by 2030 (Bell, Hamer, Hees, Singh-Manoux,
Kivimaki, & Sabia, 2015)
Regular physical activity can help keep your thinking, learning, and judgment
skills sharp as you age, according to the CDC. It can also reduce your risk
of depression and anxiety and help you sleep better. Physical fitness is an important tool
to assist individuals to build resiliency towards work stress and to regenerate in the active
work environment in a healthy way (Lovelace, Manz, & Alves, 2007). Furthermore,
building resiliency through physical fitness in high demand organizations increases
stamina and mental focus to make sound decisions (Lovelace et. al., 2007). Research has
shown that exercise enhances mood by reducing anxiety and depression, and increases
feelings of vigor (Neck & Cooper, 2000).
Job well-being is an important factor for leaders that are working at becoming
resilient. Health and well-being in the workplace have become common topics in the
mainstream media (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Well-being is viewed as encompassing the
various life/non-work satisfactions, the work/job-related satisfaction, and overall general
health (1999). Subjective well-being is a multi-faceted construct that comprises of
affective and cognitive well-being (Luhman, Hawkley, Eid, &Cacioppo, 2012). Affective
well-being refers to the frequency and intensity of positive and negative emotions and
cognitive well-being refers to global evaluations of life such as marital status or life
3
satisfaction (2012). Health is a sub-component of well-being which is a combination of
mental and psychological indicators as affect, frustration, and anxiety and physical and
psychological indicators as blood pressure, heart condition, and general physical health
(Dana & Griffin, 1999).
Background
Researchers and managers recognize that leaders’ physical activity in the
workplace enhances productivity, reduces staff turnover and absenteeism, improves
health of workers, and improves moral among the staff (World Health Organization &
World Economic Forum, 2008). Physical activity has important health benefits, that
include reduce risk associated with cardiovascular disease, overweight and obesity,
hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, some cancers, osteoporosis and musculoskeletal
impairments, and depressions (Warburton, Nicol, & Bredin, 2006). In an HBO
documentary “Weight of a Nation,” Thomas Friedman from the Center of Disease
Control and Prevention described how physical activity is the wonder drug to many of
these health concerns (2012). Moreover, the former Texas Comptroller of Public
Accounts, Susan Combs, states the importance of the crisis regarding the obesity
epidemic, it will affect employees and employers and employers will not be able to make
their bottom-line business if they do not have fit employees (2012).
The World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Economic Forum
developed a joint report as a plan or outline for companies to use, if they wish, to
promote a healthy lifestyle in the workplace. The report also states that by addressing diet
and physical activity in the workplace it has the potential to contribute to a positive and
caring image of the company, reduce sick leave, health plan costs, and workers’
4
compensation and disability payments (2008). The worksite is the best place for taking
action to prevent work related injury and disease; it is also an appropriate setting for a
broader approach to promotion and prevention; the responsibility for improving health
has to be shared by government, management, trade unions, health professionals, and the
individual worker (Schilling, 1998). Physical activity is important as fit executives are
better able to handle the enormous demands and pressures that confront them (Neck,
Mitchell, Manz, Cooper, & Thompson, 2000). Not addressing the leaders’ health and
well-being has the potential to affect leaders and followers of an organizations in
negative ways such as becoming less productive, make lower quality decisions, and be
more prone to absenteeism (Danna & Griffen, 1999).
Physical activity is imperative for an employee’s well-being in the workforce.
Affective well-being is the core dimension of employee well-being (Rahimnia &
Sharifirad, 2014). According to research affective well-being addresses both positive and
negative effects that make up the various emotions that relate to job stressors and job
affect (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Stress is highly correlated with employee health practices
and conditions hostile to well-being (Rahimnia & Sharifirad, 2014). Moreover, job
satisfaction is the key objective for an individual’s well-being as it is the positive
emotional state resulting from the appraisal of the individual’s job experience (Luhmann,
Hawkley, Eid, & Cacioppo, 2012). These complex and stressful workplaces present
challenges to organizational leaders tasked with managing while concurrently
maintaining commitment and moral (Lyons & Schneider, 2009). As a result, leaders
should practice positive emotional leadership behaviors that nurtures these positive
characteristics.
5
Research shows that leaders who engage in Authentic Leadership behaviors are
more effective at fostering worker motivation, which results in follower satisfaction with
the leader, follower job satisfaction and performance, and organizational commitment
(Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). Authentic Leadership is a
leader behavior theory that enhances job satisfaction and decreases stress symptoms of
employee well-being (Illies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005). Leaders that are Authentic
impact the well-being of both the leader and the follower that will assist with the high
demands of a hectic work environment (Illies, et.al., 2005). The National Institute of
Mental Health (NIMH) explains how health problems can occur if stress response goes
on for too long or becomes chronic, such as when the source of stress is constant, or if the
response continues after the danger has subsided. According to the American
Psychological Association (APA), chronic stress may cause coronary disease because of
changes in the body or overeating, smoking, and other bad habits people use to cope with
stress that results from job strain (2013). Consequently, the research shows that Authentic
Leadership theory may alleviate the stress in the work environment with the positive
behaviors.
Leadership is key to an organization and an individual to be successful.
Employees want a leader who is empathetic, positive, and someone who will believe in
them. Authentic Leadership is a theory that looks at the leaders and how followers react
to their leaders. Authentic Leadership is defined as a pattern of leader behavior that draws
upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate,
to foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of
information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers,
6
fostering positive self-development (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and
Peterson, 2008). In a study by Rahimnia and Sharifirad (2015) found that the process of
Authentic Leadership positively influences self-awareness and self-regulated positive
behaviors on the part of both leaders and followers, and it provokes positive personal
growth and self-development. Both studies formerly mentioned, as well as other
researchers, state how authentic leadership positively influences the leaders and that this
leadership trait is spread to others that the leader works with.
A study on the effects of exercise training on mood and anxiety found that aerobic
training has a favorable effect on psychological well-being. The authors conclude that
moderate exercise training is effective and has important implications for the use of
physical conditioning programs in health care (Steptoe, Edwards, Moses & Mathews,
1998). The authors also found that exercise training has been found effective in reducing
anxiety levels in non-anxious groups and women reporting stress at work and in helping
people to cope with stressful events (Steptoe et. al., 1998). Another study revealed that
those in the study who reported greater physical activity also reported less stress and
lower levels of depression (Norris, Carrol, & Cochrane, 1991). Furthermore, physical
activity and exercise training on psychological stress and well-being that subjects
undergoing high intensity exercise reported significantly less stress than subjects in the
groups that did not (Norris, et. al., 1991). A study that examined the relationship between
the intensity and duration of physical activity and subject well-being found that a 30-
minute fitness program conducted twice a week over a four-week period significantly
improved the subjects’ well-being (Wicker & Frick, 2015). Supervisors are considered as
the key individual as they can have an enormous effect, positive or negative, on
7
employee’s lives since supervisors significantly influence work demand, control and
social support (Harris and Kacmar, 2006). Therefore, it is imperative that employers
begin to look at the well-being of their leaders and what they can do to improve the work
environment.
Statement of the Problem
Leaders can often be a central source of stress among employees. Stress
originating from work is highly correlated with employee personal health practices and
conditions that are hostile to their well-being (Shain & Kramer, 2004). However, leaders
who promote supportive relationships, elicit motivation among subordinates, facilitate
more positive and less negative emotions among subordinates, and engender more benign
evaluations of stressful tasks among subordinates may be more effective than the more
traditional leaders who tend toward task-directive techniques (Lyons & Schneider, 2009).
Authentic leadership enhances job satisfaction and decreases stress and stress symptoms
of employee well-being (Rahimnia & Sharifirad, 2014). Authentic Leadership behaviors
impacts well-being on both the leader and the followers (Illies, Morgeson, Nahrgang,
2005).
Research on the relationship between physical activity, authentic leadership, and
job well-being is needed to understand the role of the organization in healthy employees.
Studies have shown a correlation between the effects of exercise training on mental well-
being (Moses et al., 1988) and the effects of physical activity on psychological stress and
well-being (Norris et al., 1991). Leaders can often be a central source of stress among
employee and yet research on Authentic Leadership and well-being is limited.
Furthermore, few studies on self-reported physical activity and Authentic Leadership

8
Behaviors exist. Finally, after an extensive search no studies could be found on the
relationship between physical activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-
being.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between leaders’ self-
rated physical activity and Authentic Leadership Behaviors. To examine the relationships
between leaders’ self-rated overall Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being
when controlling for physical activity. Thus, with no studies found on the relationship
between physical activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being this study
will add an understanding to this important and much needed research topic.
Conceptual Definitions
Physical Activity refers to any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles
that requires energy expenditure–including activities undertaken while working, playing,
carrying out household chores, traveling, and engaging in recreational pursuits (World
Health Organization, 2015).
International Physical Activity Questionnaire is an instrument developed by
International Consensus Group to establish a standardized and culturally adaptable
measurement tool to assess the levels of habitual Physical Activity for individuals (Kim,
Park, & Kang, 2012).
Authentic Leadership is defined as a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon
and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to
foster greater self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of

9
information, and relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers,
fostering positive self-development (Walumbwa, et al., 2008).
Self-Awareness refers to demonstrating an understanding of how one derives and
makes meaning of the world and how that meaning making process impacts the way one
views himself or herself over time (Walumbwa, et al., 2008).
Transparency refers to presenting one’s authentic self, as opposed to a fake or
distorted self, to others. Such behavior promotes trust through disclosures that involve
openly sharing information and expressions of one’s true thoughts and feelings while
trying to minimize displays of inappropriate emotions (Walumbwa, et al., 2008).
Balanced Processing refers to leaders who show that they objectively analyze all
relevant data before coming to a decision (Walumbwa, et al., 2008).
Moral/Ethical Perspective refers to an internationalized and integrated form of
self-regulation. This sort of self-regulation is guided by internal moral standards and
values versus group, organizational, and societal pressures, and it results in expressed
decision making and behavior that is consistent with these internalized values
(Walumbwa, et al., 2008).
Job-Related Affective Well-Being (JAWS) is an instrument developed to assess
both positive and negative emotional reactions a job makes one feel (Van Katwyk,
Spector, Fox, & Kelloway, 2000).
Well-being refers to a multi-faceted construct comprising affective and cognitive
components (Luhmann, Hawkley, Eid, & Cacioppo, 2012).
Affective Well-being refers to the frequency and intensity of positive and
negative emotions and mood (Luhmann, Hawkley, Eid, & Cacioppo, 2012).
10
Age refers to the length of time in completed years that the leader has lived (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2018).
Gender refers to the social construction whereby a society or culture assigns
certain tendencies or behaviors the labels of masculine or feminine (U.S. Census Bureau,
2018).
Ethnicity refers to the leader’s self-identification of their origin or descent,
“roots,” heritage, or place where the leader or his/her parents or ancestors were born
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2018).
Tenure refers to the distinctive years in current job position (U.S. Census Bureau,
2018).
Education refers to the highest level of education that the leader has completed
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2018).
Research Questions
RQ 1: Is there a relationship between physical activity and authentic leadership behavior
(self-awareness) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender, ethnicity,
tenure, and education.
(transparency) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender, ethnicity,
tenure, and education.
RQ 3: Is there a relationship between physical activity authentic leadership behavior
(moral/ethical perspective) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
ethnicity, tenure, and education.

11
(balanced processing) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
RQ 5: Is there a relationship between overall authentic leadership behavior and job-
related affective well-being of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,

CHAPTER TWO
Literature Review
The following is a review of the research that is related to the current study. This
review of literature section will address the independent variable physical activity and
dependent variable Authentic Leadership Behaviors of self-awareness, transparency,
moral/ethical perspective and balanced processing. The control variables for the first
research model are age, gender, tenure, ethnicity, and education level. The next segment
of the research will address the second research model of the independent variable overall
Authentic Leadership and the dependent variable job affective well-being and adding
physical activity as a control variable.
Physical Activity and Authentic Leadership
Ruiz (2017) conducted a study exploring the relationship of physical activity,
Authentic Leadership Behaviors, and Emotional Intelligence. The Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire, the Shutte Emotional Intelligence Test, and the International Physical
Activity Questionnaire were administered to a sample size of 281 participants. The
dependent variable are Authentic Leadership and the four components: Transparency,
Moral/Ethical, Self-Awareness, and Balanced Processing. The independent variables
were Emotional Intelligence and physical activity. Control variables included age,
gender, years of work experience, education and organization. A multiple regression
analysis was conducted to determine if independent variables are predictive of dependent
variables. Other statistical analysis used were Pearson correlation, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), and Sheffe post hoc test. Years of work experience (R2 = .026, β = .162, p <
12
13
.05), managing others’ emotions (ΔR2 = .192, β = .438, rp = .444, p < .05) and managing
own emotions (ΔR2 = .023, β = .186, rp = .173, p < .05) were all significant predictors of
Authentic Leadership component Self-awareness. Work experience (R2 = .052, β = .229,
p < .05), Organization (ΔR2 = .038, β = -.037, rp = -.032, p < .05) F(5,275) = 3.23, (p <
.05), managing own emotions (ΔR2 = .015, β = .149, rp = .131, p < .05), managing others’
emotions (ΔR2 = .056, β = .240, rp = .248, p < .05), and physical activity (ΔR2 = .013, β =
-.122, rp = -.125, p < .05) were all significant predictors of Authentic Leadership
component balanced processing. Years of work experience (R2 = .073, β = .270, p < .05),
managing others’ emotions (ΔR2 = .109, β = .330, rp = .343, p < .05) and managing own
emotions (ΔR2 = .011, β = .130, rp = .118, p < .05) were all significant predictors of
Authentic Leadership component transparency. Work experience (R2 = .073, β = .270, p
< .05), organization (ΔR2 = .049, β = .064, rp = .059, p < .05) F(5,275) = 6.29 (p < .05),
managing own emotions (ΔR2 = .013, β = .139, rp = .134, p < .05), managing others’
emotions (ΔR2 = .097, β = .315, rp = .246, p < .05), and physical activity (ΔR2 = .011, β
= -.112, rp = -.126, p < .05) were all significant predictors of Authentic Leadership
component moral/ethical.
Physical Activity and Leadership
In a 2002 study, McDowell-Larsen, Kearney, and Campbell administered the
Executive Success Profile (ESP) and the Campbell Leadership Index (CLI) along with a
health and physical activity questionnaire to 600 senior level executives attending the
Leadership at the Peak, a five-day course at the Center for Creative Leadership. The
executives completed a health and physical activity questionnaire before arriving, after
14
they arrived fitness professionals collected additional data such as percent body fat,
blood-pressure, and exercise routine. The data was then compared with the results of the
ESP and the CLI, which required a self-assessment along with parallel ratings by an
observer group of bosses, subordinates, and peers. The ratings by direct reports on the
ESP scale rated the exercisers significantly higher (p < .05) on 32% (7/22) of the scales.
The average of all the scales was also significantly higher for the exercisers. Peers rated
exercisers higher on 12 out of 22 scales (55%). There were no differences between
exercisers and non-exercisers when the bosses rated the executives. The CLI scales all
were combined to make up the leadership orientation score were significantly higher for
the exercisers (p < .05) than for the non-exercisers.
A study by Kiser and Clayton in 2018, administered a self-reporting 22 item
survey that was administered through survey monkey to 120 principals. The principals
were sent a survey via e-mail that was distributed by the Center for Education
Improvement (CEI). Many of the participants (66%) were female (n = 73) and 34% were
male (n = 38), nine participants chose not to answer that question. A chi square statistic
was not significant (p = .155) for the number of days physically active, however it was
for the amount of time physically active (p = .001). A McNemar’s test was used to test
the amount of aerobic physical activity and found that the amount of physical activity
changed after becoming principals (p = .010) as did the amount of time (p = .0001).
Exploratory data showed that principals who engage in the recommended amount of
aerobic physical activity report experiencing lower levels of stress (M = 2.57, SD = .52, n
= 37) than principals that did not engage in the recommended amount (M = 2.96, SD =
15
.70, n = 69). A significant difference t(93.451) = 3.386, p = .001, and represented a
medium sized d = .33.
In 2007, Lovelace, Manz, and Alves examined literature on work stress, physical
fitness, the flow of managing demands, increasing job control, and leadership. The
authors looked at leaders work environment, their job demands and the control these
leaders have, and the amount of physical fitness leaders’ practice. The authors determined
that outcomes of high-strain work environments on leader health were an increased risk
of disease and psychological strain. It was proposed that leaders could achieve healthful
regeneration through physical fitness and that by practicing self-leadership strategies
leaders could achieve higher levels of physical fitness.
In another review of literature by Neck, Mitchell, Manz, Cooper, and Thompson
in 2000, describe the importance of fitness for top ranking executive leaders. The article
discusses how fitness can contribute to stamina, mental clarity, ability to cope with stress
and a variety of other factors that can affect an executive’s ability to lead. The study
supported this premise by looking at research studies and actual accounts of top
executives from a variety of business organizations. The authors found that leaders who
are fit are better able to handle the enormous demands and pressures that confront them
the endless meetings, grueling travel schedules, high pressure, and stress.
Authentic Leadership and Job-related Affective Well-being
A 2016 meta-analysis by Banks, McCauley, Gardner, and Guler (k = 100, N =
25,452) was to compare Authentic Leadership and Transformational Leadership theories
for redundancy. The estimate of the true score mean correlation was used between
Authentic Leadership and Transformational Leadership found (k = 23, N = 5,414, rho =

16
.72) a strong overlap between the two leadership theories. Also, the study found a strong
relationship with Authentic Leadership and group or organizational performance. Job
satisfaction (k = 16, N = 4,084, rho = .53), follower satisfaction with leader (k = 6, N =
1,318, rho = .66), organization performance (k = 4, N = 333, rho = .40), Leader-rated
effectiveness (k = 7, N = 1,413, rho = .58), task performance (k = 9, N = 2,054, rho =
.14), organization citizenship behavior (k = 10, N = 2,309, rho = .48), organizational
commitment (k = 17, N = 4,077, p (rho) = .51), and counterproductive work behaviors (k
= 3, N = 1,549, p (rho) = -.31) are all strongly correlated with Authentic Leadership.
In another related meta-analysis in 2016, by Hock, Bommer, Dulebohn, and Wu
examined a number of organizationally relevant measures in the comparison of Authentic
Leadership with Transformational Leadership. The nine measures of job performance (k
= 8, N = 2,101, rho = .12), organizational citizenship behavior (k = 8, N = 1,256, rho =
.33), employee deviance (k = 4, N = 1,175, rho = -.25), job satisfaction (k = 9, N = 2,129,
rho = .48), organization commitment (k = 5, N = 797, rho = .48), empowerment (k = 4, N
= 1,117, rho = .52), psychological capital (k = 7, N = 2,236, rho = .53), moral identity (k
= 4, N = 578, rho = .45), and trust in manager (k = 6, N = 929, rho = .69) were found to
be highly correlated with Authentic Leadership. The relationship across the nine common
measures were about the same for Transformational Leadership which shows the two
leadership styles highly correlated with each other.
A study in 20014, by Nelson, Boudrias, Brunet, Morin, De Civita, Savoie, and
Alderson administered self-reported questionnaires Authentic Leadership Questionnaire
(ALQ), a 17-item scale to access the perception of work climate, and a 25-item validated
scale assessed psychological well-being at work to 406 nurses. The purpose of the
17
research aims to deepen the understanding of psychological well-being among nurses by
assessing the role of both Authentic Leadership and work climate. A time-lagged study
design was employed to determine the mediational role of work climate in explaining the
impact of Authentic Leadership. This study used correlational analysis to verify the
associations between the socio demographic variables and variables of the model.
Education was found to be positively related to Authentic Leadership (r = .10, p < .05),
and work climate (r = .12, p < .05). Number of hours work per week was negatively
related to psychological well-being (r = .18, p < .05), frequency of contact with the
supervisor is positively related to Authentic Leadership (r = .24, p < .05), and work
climate (r = .10, p < .05). ANOVA analysis was used to verify associations between
categorical variables and variables of the model. The results of the ANOVA show two
statistically significant differences, the first in work climate and employment status F(2,
403) = 6.35, p < .05 with nurses working full time (M = 4.64) better perceive their work
climate than nurses working part time (M = 4.29). The second difference is work climate
and work shift F(2, 403) = 6.35, p < .05 nurses working the day shift (M = 4.61) better
perceive their work climate than nurses working the evening shift (M = 4.32). The
findings indicate that Authentic Leadership impacts the work climate in a positive
manner thereby, increasing levels of psychological well-being at work.
Illies, Morgeson, and Nahrang (2005) in a literature review examined the concept
of Authentic Leadership and the influences of authenticity on leader and follower and
follower well-being. The framework linking Authentic Leadership components and
follower well-being that were proposed in this review of literature found a positive
contribution to the theoretical development of Authentic Leadership. One was how it

18
anchors the concept in historical philosophical approaches to psychological well-being
and links to the larger psychological and positive organization movements. A conceptual
model was used to define Authentic Leadership as a four-component construct which
complements other work that has examined the concept and process Authentic
Leadership and how it is able to positively influence the well-being of followers.
Age and Authentic Leadership
Stone (2015) administered the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale for self-esteem, the
Internal Control Index for locus of control, and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire
for leadership to 562 veterinarians. The statistical analysis of the collected data included
Pearson’s correlation coefficient, t-test, multiple regression, ANOVA, and Sheffe post
hoc. The study of veterinarians found that age was a significant predictor of three
Authentic Leadership scales. The older the veterinarians the higher rated higher on
Transparency (R2 = .31, β = .175) Balanced Processing (R2 = .022, β = .148, rp = .149),
and Moral/Ethical conduct (R2 = .011, β = .104, rp = .104).
Rodriguez (2016) administered the Shutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test
and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 254 self-identified leaders. Descriptive
statistics were used to establish the characteristics of the participants, Multiple
Regression analysis used to explain variance that included further analysis if significant
using beta weight and partial correlation. A t-test used for dichotomous variables for
significant findings with categorical variables. The age distribution of the respondents
ranged from 21 to 64, with an average mean of 38.61 years and a standard deviation of
11.77 years. The results indicated that age was significant predictor of Ethical/Moral
19
Perspective. Age explained 1.9% of the total variance (R2 = .019, β = .137, p < .05) the
older the leader the higher the leader self-rated on Ethical/Moral Perspective.
Teaff (2014) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, the Moral
Foundations Questionnaire, and the General Self-Efficacy Scale to 130 participants. The
study examined political ideology, moral reasoning, and Authentic Leadership behaviors.
Regression analysis was used to determine predictable relationship exists between
political ideology, moral reasoning and Authentic Leadership. Descriptive statistics was
used for demographic survey, t-test used to determine if political ideology in the study is
a fair representation of the normative sample in US, Pearson Correlation used on data to
further examine relationship between variables. The regression analysis revealed that age,
ranging from 22 to 68 years (M = 41.09, SD = 11.317), was found to be a significant
predictor of Authentic Leadership with an additional 3% of variance explained (R2 =
.129, ΔR2 = .030, p < .05). The findings revealed that the older the individual, the higher
the Authentic Leadership scores (β = .315, rp = .327, p < .05).
A study in 2015, Corner, administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire
and the Psychological Capital Questionnaire to 147 secondary school principals. The
study examined the principal’s psychological capital and measured the principal’s
Authentic Leadership behavior. The sample had a wide range of ages with 5.26% of the
sample less than 35 years old, 23.03% of the sample over the age of 54, and over 1/3 of
the sample between the ages of 40 and 49 years. One-way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) was performed to test the mean differences among the variables. Age revealed
significant difference in Authentic Leadership four subscales. Post hoc test conducted
20
using Turkey HSD revealed that the less than 35 group (M = 13.43, SD = 3.31) rated
significantly lower in transparency than the 45-49 group (M = 16.39, SD = 2.04), 50-54
group (M = 16.23, SD = 1.80), and 54+ group (M = 17.54, SD = 1.56). In overall
authentic leadership, less than 35-year-old principals were significantly lower (M =
46.00, SD =8.33) than 45-49-year-old principals (M = 54.36, SD = 4.42), 50-54-year-old
principals (M = 53.38, SD = 3.92), and more than 54-year-old principals (M = 56.46,
SD = 4.38). The over 54-year-old principals were also significantly higher in
transparency (M = 17.54, SD = 1.56) than 35-39-year-old principals (M = 15.00, SD =
2.81). Additionally, over 54-year-old principals were significantly higher in self-
awareness (M = 10.06, SD = 1.26) than less than 35-year-old principals (M = 8.00, SD =
1.83) and 40-44-year-old principals (M = 8.96, SD = 1.48). In the subscale of balanced
processing, both the over 54 year old principals (M = 13.89, SD = 1.66) as well as the 45-
49-year-old principals (M = 13.54, SD = 1.73) were significantly higher than the less than
35-year-old principals (M = 11.29, SD = 2.36).
Prestol-Puesan (2014) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to
147 financial leaders. The self-report on Authentic Leadership consisted of 35 males and
10 females. The ages range was from their 30s to their 70s, with 71% of them in age
groups ranging from 50 to 69 years of age. The canonical correlation analysis tested the
associations between Authentic Leadership subscales and the participant’s characteristics
(age, gender, tenure, and education) revealed a significant relationship using the Wilk’s 𝜆
= .446 criterion, F(20, 120) = 1.65), p = .051, Rc = 581, Rc2 = .338, and RI = .175. The
findings indicate that the age (.428) was a strong predictor of Authentic Leadership and
included transparency (.36) and moral/ethical perspective (.62) of the subscales.

21
The following ten studies found no significant relationship between age and
Authentic Leadership. Beginning with Ruiz (2017) administered the Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire, the Shutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test, and the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire to 281 participants. Respondents ages
ranged from 18 to 81, with a mean of 39.73. Multiple regression revealed no significance
with Authentic Leadership or any of the four behaviors.
Lopez (2015 administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the
Charismatic/Value based leadership adapted from GLOBE research survey. The 147
respondents self-reported age ranged from 22 to 61, with a mean age of 38.22, and a
median age of 37. Bivariate correlation analysis was performed to determine correlations
between significant continuous variable and the dependent variables. No statistical
significance was found among age and Authentic Leadership.
Cerne, Jaklic, and Skerlavai, (2013) administered the Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire to 289 participants from a manufacturing and processing company in
Slovenia. A translation/back-translation procedure was used to translate the questionnaire
from English to Slovenian and back to English. Pearson product-moments correlation
was conducted, and no significant difference was found between age and self-ascribed
Authentic Leadership.
Azanza, Moriano, and Molero (2013) administered the Spanish version of the
FOCUS 93 Questionnaire and the 13 item Spanish adaptation of the Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire to 571 participants. In this sample, 53.8% of the participants
were female, the average age was 35.62 years (SD = 8.61), and the average seniority was
7.85 years (SD = 7.32); 41.7% of participants had a college degree and 21.9% were
22
graduated from vocational school. Pearson correlations was conducted and found no
significant difference between age and Authentic Leadership.
Sendjaya, Pekerti, Hirst, Hartel, and Butarbutar (2016) administered the Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire and the Machiavellianism Personality Scale to 70 respondents.
The respondents were 42 (60%) male and 28 (40%) female, ages ranged from 31 – 40
years old (52.90%), and 41 – 50 years old (28.60%). Zero order correlations and
regression analysis examined independent variables, dependent variables, and control
variables found no significance with age and Authentic Leadership.
Nielson, (2013) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, Negative
Acts Questionnaire Revised, Global Transformational Leadership Scale, Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire and the Norwegian offshore risk and safety climate inventory
to 594 participants from two large Norwegian shipping companies. The respondents were
588 males (99%) and 6 females (1%), the range for age was 18 to 63 with a mean of 40.4
years (SD = 10.0). Pearson’s r used to examine the relationship found a negative
correlation between age and Authentic Leadership (r = -.18, p < .01, 2-tailed) that
indicates younger participants rated higher on Authentic Leadership.
Toor and Ofori (2009) administer The Authenticity Inventory (AI:3) a self-report
45-item scale, Ryff’s psychological well-being scale, 15-item Contingent Self-Esteem
Scale to 32 leaders from the construction industry in Singapore. Data was analyzed using
t-test, ANOVA, correlations analysis and regression. Participants age were as follows less
than 30 years old, 31 – 40 years old, 41 – 50 years old, and 51 – 60 years old with a mean
age was 42.45. An analysis of variance was used to examine age and Authentic
Leadership and found no significant association.

23
Gatling, Castelli, and Cole (2013) administered the Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire to 96 participants, age ranged 30 – 49 years old and 50+ years old with
32% being 31 and 68% 65 years of age. Pearson’s correlation coefficient analysis found
no significant relationship between age and Authentic Leadership.
Gatling (2014) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 96
business coaches to investigate the effectiveness of coaching. An analysis of variance
found no difference in the scores between age and Authentic Leadership.
Beyer (2010) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 75
participants that consisted from sample population of junior Wisconsin Army National
guard officers. A convenience sample was taken of the officers using voluntary data on
their authenticity. Descriptive statistics generated mean, minimum and maximum values
and the standard deviation and variation between constructs was determined using an
ANOVA analysis. Age ranged from 18 – 21 years, 21 – 24 years, 25 – 28 years, 28 – 31
years, and 31+ years. A one-way analysis of variance found no significant relationship
between age and Authentic Leadership subscales.
Age and Leadership
Sessa, Kabacoff, Deal, and Brown (2007) administered a 360-degree evaluation
process called Leadership 360 (Management Research Group, 1992) to 20,640 business
professionals. Of the total sample, 2,440 were born between 1925 and 1945 (Silent),
6,631 were born between 1946 and 1954 (Early Boomers), 7,722 were born between
1955 and 1963 (Late Boomers), and 3,847 were born between 1964 and 1982 (Gen-
Xers). The canonical variate ranked the cohorts in order from Silents (-.570), Early
Boomers (-.230), Late Boomers (.113), and Xers (.532) with roughly equal spacing
24
between each group. The analysis found that younger leaders tended to perceive
themselves and be perceived by others to utilize the more individual leadership style
whereas older leaders tended to perceive themselves and be perceived by others to utilize
a more consensual leadership style, with middle age leaders falling somewhere in
between.
Gender and Authentic Leadership
Beyer (2010) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 75
participants that consisted from sample population of junior Wisconsin Army National
guard officers. A convenience sample was taken of the officers using voluntary data on
their authenticity. Descriptive statistics generated mean, minimum and maximum values
and the standard deviation and variation between constructs was determined using an
ANOVA analysis. Age ranged from 18 – 21 years, 21 – 24 years, 25 – 28 years, 28 – 31
years, and 31+ years. Males made up 78.3% of the respondents and females made up
22.7%. A one-way analysis of variance demonstrated significance at the p < .05 level
between gender and balanced processing F(1, 67) = 6.160, p = .016. A Turkey HSD Post
Hoc test was performed to quantify the specific relationships within the independent
variables found gender variables demonstrated a tend for males (M = 4.28, 95% CI [4.15,
4.41]) to have a greater level of balanced processing than females (M = 3.91, 95% CI
[3.55, 4.27]).
A study in 2016, Rodriguez administered the Shutte Self Report Emotional
Intelligence Test and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 254 self-identified
leaders. Descriptive statistics were used to establish the characteristics of the participants,
Multiple Regression analysis used to explain variance that included further analysis if
25
significant using beta weight and partial correlation. A t-test used for dichotomous
variables for significant findings with categorical variables. Males made up 40% (102) of
the respondents and females made up 60% (152) of the respondents who completed the
survey. Results indicate gender was a significant predictor of balanced processing with
3.2% of the variance explained (R2 = .032, p < .05). A t-test between males and
females revealed males self-rated higher than females on balanced processing, t(252) =
2.867, p < .05.
hoc. The study of veterinarians found that gender was a significant predictor of two
Authentic Leadership scales. Gender was 7% of the variance explained (ΔR2 = .007, p <
.05). A t-test found that females rated higher in transparency than males, t(526) = 12.78, p
< .05. The other finding with gender was a significance of moral/ethical perspective
accounting for an additional 1.1% of the variance explained (ΔR2 = .011, p < .05) a t-test
revealed that females rated higher on moral ethical perspective than males t(526) = 13.31,
p < .05.
Jasso (2016) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the
Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test to 493 first time college students. The
study examined the relationship among Authentic Leadership, emotional intelligence,
student success, and control variables that included gender. The respondent’s gender
were 292 females (59.23%) and 201 males (40.77%). The study used multiple regression
26
analysis to determine the relationships of variables. Multiple regression analysis found
that gender accounted for an additional .9% of the total variance (ΔR2 = .009, p < .05). A
t-test revealed t(491) = 2.483, p < .05, that female participants (M = 3.14) have a
statistically significantly higher mean score on self-awareness than male participants (M
= 3.00, p < .05). Gender accounted for an additional .9% of the total variance (ΔR2 =
.009, p < .05). A t-test revealed t(491) = 2.160, p < .05 shows that female participants (M
= 3.21) have a statistically significantly higher mean score on ethical/moral behavior than
male participants (M = 3.09) (p < .05).
The following three studies found that gender was not a predictor of Authentic
Leadership. Peterson (2017) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire,
Concise Physical Activity Questionnaire, The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-
Short Form, and the Short Profile of Emotional Competences to 350 participants. The
purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to assess the relationship between the
characteristics of authentic leadership and three variables: physical activity, mindfulness,
and emotional competence. Participant response by gender was male 189 (54%) and
female 161 (46%). A one way analysis of variance revealed that gender was not
significant with Authentic Leadership.
Ruiz (2017) conducted a study exploring the relationship of physical activity,
Authentic Leadership Behaviors, and Emotional Intelligence. The Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire, the Shutte Emotional Intelligence Test, and the International Physical
Activity Questionnaire were administered to a sample size of 281 participants. The
dependent variable are Authentic Leadership and the four components: Transparency,
Moral/Ethical, Self-Awareness, and Balanced Processing. The independent variables

27
were Emotional Intelligence and physical activity. Control variables included age,
gender, years of work experience, education and organization. A multiple regression
analysis was conducted to determine if independent variables are predictive of dependent
variables. Other statistical analysis used were Pearson correlation, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), and Sheffe post hoc test. The results found no significant difference with
gender and Authentic Leadership.
Tate (2008) administered a self-report 18 item Authentic Leadership scale based
on George’s (2003) five dimensions of Authentic Leadership and a Self-Monitoring Scale
to 69 participants. Correlational analysis shows that gender was not a significant
predictor of Authentic Leadership (r = .02, p > .05).
Gender and Leadership
A meta-analysis by Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and van Egan (2003) was
conducted to address the issues of gender and leadership styles (k = 44, N = 29,874). A
quantitative synthesis of studies that had compared men and women on measures of
transformation, transactional, and laissez-faire styles. Hedges g and Cohen’s d was used
for effect size Eagly et. al. followed (Hedges and Olkin’s) procedures where gs were
converted to ds by correcting them for bias, and each d was weighted by the reciprocal of
its variance in the analysis. Examination of the mean weighted effect sizes shows that, by
this standard of statistical significance, female leaders were more transformation than male
leaders in their leadership style. On transactional leadership, female leaders scored higher
than male leaders on the first subscale, contingent reward. However, male leaders scored
higher than female leaders on the management by exception (active) and management by
exception (passive) subscales of transactional leadership. Idealized influence (attribute) d+

28
= -.12; Idealized influence (behavior) d+ = -.02; Inspirational motivation d+ = -.05;
Intellectual stimulation d+ = -.05; and Individualized consideration d+ = -.19. Results for
transactional leadership were mixed Females scored higher on contingent reward d+ = -
.13; men scored higher on management by exception active d+ = 12 and passive d+ = .27.
Ethnicity and Authentic Leadership
hoc. The study of veterinarians found ethnicity was a significant predictor of two
Authentic Leadership behaviors. The first significant predictor transparency accounted
for 1.3% of the variance explained (ΔR2 = .013, p < .05). A t-test found that non-Whites
scored higher in transparency than Whites, t(526) = 5.01, p < .05. The second, ethnicity
was a significant predictor of balanced processing accounting for 1.9% of the variance
explained (ΔR2 = .019, p < .05). A t-test revealed that non-Whites scored higher on
balanced processing than Whites t(526) = 5.0, p < .05.
Jasso (2016) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the
Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test to 493 first time college students. The
study examined the relationship among Authentic Leadership, emotional intelligence,
student success, and control variables that included gender. The respondent’s ethnicity
was 14 American Indian or Alaskan Native, 19 Asian, 37 Black or African American,
320 Hispanic or Latino, and 103 White. The study used multiple regression analysis to
29
determine the relationships of variables. Multiple regression analysis found that ethnicity
was not a significant predictor of Authentic Leadership.
A study in 2016, Rodriguez administered the Shutte Self Report Emotional
Intelligence Test and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 254 self-identified
leaders. Descriptive statistics were used to establish the characteristics of the participants,
Multiple Regression analysis used to explain variance that included further analysis if
significant using beta weight and partial correlation. A t-test used for dichotomous
variables for significant findings with categorical variables. The respondent’s ethnicity
was 218 Hispanic and 36 non-Hispanic (30 White/non-Hispanic, 1 Black/African
American, and 5 Asian or Pacific Islander). No significant predictor was found between
ethnicity and Authentic Leadership.
Peterson (2017) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, Concise
Physical Activity Questionnaire, The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form,
and the Short Profile of Emotional Competences to 350 participants. The purpose of this
quantitative correlational study was to assess the relationship between the characteristics
of Authentic Leadership and three variables: physical activity, mindfulness, and
emotional competence. Participant response by ethnicity was White 264 (75.4%),
Hispanic 31 (8.9%), African American 31 (8.9%), Asian or Pacific 15 (4.3%), Native
American 2 (.6%), Other 1 (.3%), and 6 (1.7%) declined to answer. A one-way analysis
of variance revealed a difference with ethnicity and Authentic Leadership F(20, 329) =
1.25, p = .08.
Tenure and Authentic Leadership

30
hoc. No relationship was found between tenure and Authentic Leadership.
emotional competence. A one-way ANOVA found no significant difference with tenure
and Authentic Leadership.
Ruiz (2017) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, the Shutte
Emotional Intelligence Test, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire to 281
participants. The study examined the relationship of physical activity, Authentic
Leadership Behaviors, and Emotional Intelligence. A multiple regression analysis was
conducted to determine if independent variables are predictive of dependent variables.
Other statistical analysis used were Pearson correlation, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA),
and Sheffe post hoc test. The results found work experience (tenure) predicted 2.6% of
the total variance (R2 = .26, β = .162, p < .05). The correlation shows that the more work
experiences the participants had, the higher they scored on Authentic Leadership scale
Self-Awareness.
31
and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 254 self-identified leaders. Descriptive
statistics were used to establish the characteristics of the participants, Multiple
Regression analysis used to explain variance that included further analysis if significant
using beta weight and partial correlation. A t-test used for dichotomous variables for
significant findings with categorical variables. The respondent’s tenure mean score was
9.08 years with a standard deviation of 8.10 years. Results indicate tenure explained 3.0%
of the total variance (R2 = .030, β = .162, p < .05). The greater number of years
participants have worked for their current employer the higher they self-rated on
transparency.
Ng and Feldman (2013) conducted a meta-analysis that included 98 empirical
studies (k = 98, N = 15,932) to examine the relationship of age and organizational tenure
with the generation, dissemination, and implementation of new ideas. Detailed
information about the organizational tenure of samples, the average was 7.8 years, with a
range from 2.5 to 19 years of service. A breakdown of the distribution of mean tenure
across samples is as follows: <5 years (k = 23), between 5 and 10 years (k = 24), and
more than 0 years (k = 18). Meta-analysis techniques used in the study was to correct the
observed correlations between tenure and innovation-related behavior (IRB) for
measurement error variance because of various studies measured IRB with different
scales, a diattenuation process was needed to adjust for different levels of measurement
error variance. The weighted mean corrected correlation of effect sizes for relationship
between tenure and IRB found that <5 years of tenure (rc = .29); 5 – 10 years od tenure
(rc = .23); and more than 10 years of tenure (rc = -.01). The lack of significant
32
relationships of tenure with Innovative-related behavior suggests that older and longer
tenured workers are capable of contributing as effectively as younger more junior
employees to innovative-related activities.
Education and Authentic Leadership
All Studies without significance
Lopez (2015) study revealed no significant relationship between education level
(90 participants earned a Bachelors, 56 participants earned a Masters, and 1 earned a
PhD) and Authentic Leadership after performing a correlation analysis.
Teaf (2014) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, the Moral
Foundations Questionnaire, and the General Self-Efficacy Scale to 130 participants.
Regression analysis was used to determine predictable relationship exists between
political ideology, moral reasoning and Authentic Leadership. Descriptive statistics was
used for demographic survey, t-test used to determine if political ideology in the study is
a fair representation of the normative sample in US, Pearson Correlation used on data to
further examine relationship between variables. The regression analysis revealed
education was not a significant predictor of Authentic Leadership.
Ruiz (2017) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire, the Shutte
Emotional Intelligence Test, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire to 281
participants. There were 110 respondents that did not competed a bachelor’s degree, 71
competed a bachelor’s degree, 100 respondents had obtained a graduate degree or a Ph.D.
The study examined the relationship of physical activity, Authentic Leadership
Behaviors, and Emotional Intelligence. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to

33
determine if independent variables are predictive of dependent variables. Correlation
analysis revealed no significant predictor between education and Authentic Leadership.
emotional competence. A one-way ANOVA found no significant difference with
education and Authentic Leadership.
and the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 254 self-identified leaders. There were 72
respondents with a high school or less education, 42 with an associate’s education, 84
with a bachelor’s education, and 56 with a graduate education. Descriptive statistics were
used to establish the characteristics of the participants, Multiple Regression analysis used
to explain variance. Correlation analysis revealed no significant predictor between
education and Authentic Leadership.
Azanza, et al. (2013) administered the Spanish version of the FOCUS 93
Questionnaire and the 13 item Spanish adaptation of the Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire to 571 participants, 41.7% of participants had a college degree and 21.9%
were graduated from vocational school. Pearson correlations was conducted and found no
significance between education level attained and Authentic Leadership.
Sendjaya et. al. (2016) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and
the Machiavellianism Personality Scale to 70 respondents. Zero order correlations and

34
regression analysis examined independent variables, dependent variables, and control
variables found no significance with education and Authentic Leadership.
Gatling et. al (2013) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 96
participants. Pearson’s correlation coefficient analysis found no significant relationship
between education and Authentic Leadership.
Gatling (2014) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire to 96
business coaches to investigate the effectiveness of coaching. An analysis of variance
found no difference in the scores between education and Authentic Leadership.
Corner (2015) administered the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire and the
Psychological Capital Questionnaire to 152 secondary school principals. The study
examined the principal’s psychological capital and measured the principal’s Authentic
Leadership behavior. Education was divided into two groups master’s degree 126
(82.89%) and doctoral degree 26 (17.11%). One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
was performed to test the mean differences among the variables and found no significant
difference between education level and Authentic Leadership.
Age and Job Affective Well-being
In a 2012 study, Grant and Kinman administered the Shutte Self-Report Emotional
Intelligence Test (SSEIT), Groningen Reflection Ability Scale (GRAS), Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI), Social Support Questionnaire, Resilience Scale (RS), General
Health Questionnaire (GHQ – 12) to 240 participants. Correlations test was run, and all
were found significant. participants rated themselves (Self-Raters). This study looked at
undergraduate social work students and that the younger generation ready to go into the
workforce will need to practice resilience and well-being to handle the stress of what is to
35
come. Analysis of the data revealed a strong need for interventions to enhance resilience
and well-being (p < .001) as high levels of psychological distress compared to
community and occupational norms were found amongst the trainee social workers that
were surveyed.
In a 1978 study Warr administered survey questions on positive and negative
affect, anxiety levels, and feelings about present life to 1,655 participants. The age
distribution was under 25 years 7%, 25 to 34 years 17%, 35 to 44 years 19%, 45 to 54
years 25%, and 55years and above 31%. An Analysis of variance indicated a significant
difference in well-being with employment position is for the middle-aged group and the
youngest group under 25 age group (p < .001). Members of the 45 – 54 age group who
are unemployed tend to have particularly low well-being scores.
Collins, Stewart, Coffey, Margaret, and Morris (2010) administered an eighty-
two-item questionnaire to 76 participants and the age range of the respondents varied
considerably. Using a Chi-square and ANOVA, no statistically significant differences
were found between student of different ages and well-being.
Gender and Job Affective Well-being
In a 1988 study, Harris, Heller, and Braddock administered a 13 item scale
assessing anxiety, depression, and irritation (α = .92), cognitive appraisal measured 4
item scale (α = .73), a 2-item scale measured situation appraisal (α = .78), attachment
used an 8-item index (α = .82), and social support used a 5-point scale (α = .65) to 454
participants. The purpose of the study was to examine gender differences in
psychological well-being during the closing of a mental health care facility. There was a
total of 115 males and 333 females, the majority were white (91%), and the mean age of
36
the sample was 38. A t-test comparing males and females with regard to psychological
well-being was statistically Signiant t(438) = 2.04, p < .05. Gender differences in well-
being during a facility closure confirmed that females report more psychological health
problems than men.
Daley and Parfitt (1996) administered the Bipolar Profile of Mood States, Job
Satisfaction Questionnaire, and the Harvard Step Test in addition to a set of physical
activity questions to 293 subjects. Of these employees 147 were male and 146 were
female. Ages ranged from 18 to 63 (M = 34.6, SD = 15.6). Participants held various
positions within the company ranging from clerical duties and secretarial work to
administrative and managerial/director posts. The MANCOVA revealed a significant
main effect for gender (F(1,257) = 2.51, p < .01). Analyses identified that males were
significantly physically fitter (p < .01) and reported significantly higher levels of physical
activity (p < .01) than females. The findings revealed that more physically active subjects
reported more job satisfaction as well as fewer perceived health problems and less
anxiety than physically inactive workers. Also, experienced fewer days of absenteeism
compared to non-active participants.
Collins et. al. (2010) administered an eighty-two-item questionnaire to 76
participants and the age range of the respondents varied considerably. Using an
independent t-test, there were no statistically significant differences for scores between
males and females and well-being.
Saboe (2012) administered Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ)
for physical fitness, SF-36 Health survey, Food Frequency Questionnaire, Watson and
Clark’s PANAS 10-item subscale (α = .92), and Rosenberg’s 10-item Self-esteem scale
37
(α = .83) to 107 subordinates and supervisors. Of the subordinate respondents 69.2%
were female and 30.8% were male and of the supervisors 47.7% were female and 50.5%
were male. Regression analysis revealed no significant relationship between gender and
well-being.
Ethnicity and Job Affective Well-being
An exhaustive search of self-reported ethnicity and well-being articles concluded
that research is limited in this area. The search found three articles with no significance
between ethnicity and well-being
Dyrbye, Thomas, Eacker, Harper, Massie, Power, Huschika, Novotny, Sloan, and
Shanafelt (2007) administered Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), Primary Care
Evaluation of Mental Disorders (PRIME MD), and the Medical Outcome Study – Short
Form (SF-8) to 3,080 participants. The study explored differences in the prevalence of
burnout, depressive symptoms, and quality of life among minority and nonminority
medical students as well as the role race/ethnicity plays in student’s experiences.
Participants rated themselves (Self-Rated). Statistical Analysis used: Chi Square (x2), or
Kruskal – Wallis test, A forward stepwise logistic regression used to evaluate
independent associations among minority status, and multivariate analysis for age. There
were no statistically significant differences in screening positive for symptoms of
depression among minority groups (p = .49) or between minority students as a group and
nonminority students (p = .12). Also, no statistically significant differences in mental or
physical scores between different minority groups (p = .41 and p = .85 for mental and
physical scores respectively)

38
Collins et. al. (2010) administered an eighty-two-item questionnaire to 76
participants and the age range of the respondents varied considerably. Using a Chi Square
and ANOVA no statistically significant differences were found between ethnic
backgrounds and well-being.
(α = .83) to 107 subordinates and supervisors. Regression analysis revealed no significant
relationship between ethnicity and well-being.
Tenure and Job Affective Well-being
affect, anxiety levels, and feelings about present life to 1,655 participants. The age
distribution was under 25 years 7%, 25 to 34 years 17%, 35 to 44 years 19%, 45 to 54
years 25%, and 55years and above 31%. Correlation analysis of well-being found the
unemployed people report significantly lower well-being than those who have work.
Danna and Griffin (1999) conducted a review and synthesis of literature on health
and well-being in the workplace. The purpose of this paper is to summarize and integrate
the extant literatures dealing with health and well-being in the workplace, with the goal
of moving this topic toward the mainstream of organizational research. An organizing
framework for the discussion and examines commonly used definitions and
conceptualizations of health and well-being, discuss factors associated with health and
well-being, and address how health and well-being can be improved through various
interventions. The review and synthesis implications are the clear need for creating a
39
rigorous model or theory of health and well-being in the workplace. The study found that
companies that have health interventions programs benefits both the employee and the
corporation.
(α = .83) to 107 subordinates and supervisors. Subordinates’ reported being employed
with their current organization an average 4 years 7 months (M = 55.4 months, SD =
68.3) supervisors reported work with their current organization an average of 11 years 3
months (M = 111.5 months, SD = 93.8). Regression analysis revealed that supervisor’s
tenure in current position (β = -.18, p < .05) shares a significant relationship well-being.
Education and Job Affective Well-being
affect, anxiety levels, and feelings about present life to 1,655 participants. Correlation
analysis of well-being found educational levels, participants with degree level
qualifications and higher-level national certificate, to be significantly associated with
positive well-being scores.
(α = .83) to 107 subordinates and supervisors. Regression analysis revealed that
education level does not share a significant relationship with well-being.

40
Physical Activity and Job Affective Well-being
Daley and Parfitt (1996) administered the Bipolar Profile of Mood States, Job
Satisfaction Questionnaire, and the Harvard Step Test in addition to a set of physical
activity questions to 293 subjects. Of these employees 147 were male and 146 were
female. Ages ranged from 18 to 63 (M = 34.6, SD = 15.6). Participants held various
positions within the company ranging from clerical duties and secretarial work to
administrative and managerial/director posts. A two-factor analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) was calculated for the job satisfaction data. There was a main effect for the
physical fitness group (F(2,257) = 5.68, p < -01). Scheffe’s follow-up tests indicated that
members were on the whole more satisfied (M = 5.2, SD = 1.09) with their jobs (p < .01)
than the nonphysical active group (M = 4.5, SD = 1.3). The findings revealed that more
physically active subjects reported more job satisfaction as well as fewer perceived health
problems and less anxiety than physically inactive workers. Also, experienced fewer days
of absenteeism compared to non-active participants
In 2015, Wicker and Frick conducted a cross-sectional research study based on
survey data from the Eurobarometer and the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM)
estimator used for large scale cross-sectional data. Survey data from 28 European
countries were used for the analysis with 22,971 participants. Two regression models
(Generalized Method of Moments) are estimated which analyze the effect of participation
intensity and duration on Subjective Well-being (SWB) (measured by life satisfaction).
The average level of SWB is 2.99 (SD = .77) equivalent to fairly satisfied. Respondents,
on average, reported that they practiced 2.17 days at moderate intensity (SD = 2.44) and
1.46 days at vigorous intensity (SD = 2.06) in the week. Regression analysis show that
41
the number of days people were physically active at moderate intensity significantly add
to SWB (r = .528, p < .001). Findings saw that the number of days people participate in
moderate-intensity activity is positively associated with Subjective Well-being – as well
as the duration of moderate-intensity activity.
Bell, Hamer, van Hees, Singh-Manoux, Kivimaki, and Sabia (2015) administered
the Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire to assess self-reported
physical activity. Physical activity was also assessed using an accelerometer on their
wrist; and metabolic risk factor data was taken by a nurse to 3,457. The statistical
analysis of instruments of physical activity variables were standardized using z scores to
allow comparison between measure. Regression coefficients from general linear models
and accompanying 95% CIs were used to examine cross-sectional differences in
questionnaire and accelerometer-assessed total physical activity across six phenotypes.
Spearman’s correlation between self-reported and objectively assessed total physical
activity appeared to be nondifferential between healthy and normal-weight (.300, P <
.001) and healthy obese (.296, P < .001) adults. This correlation was weaker within
unhealthy obese adults (.205, P < .001). Pairwise comparisons showed differences in total
physical activity between healthy and unhealthy groups within all categories at both
stages of adjustment; healthy obese adults had higher total physical activity than their
unhealthy obese counterparts (P = .002). Research revealed that increased physical
activity was associated with reduced prevalence of all metabolic risk factors individually
including in overweight and obese adults.
Norris, Carroll, and Cochrane (1989) administered the Job Stress Questionnaire
(JSQ), the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), and Life Situation Survey (LSS) to 100
42
police officers with health problems. The study sought to examine different types of
training (i.e. aerobic vs anaerobic exercise regimes) to provide an active control for group
effects. Males between 20 – 50 years of age were assigned to either aerobic or anaerobic
training groups. Both groups (F(2,74) = 4.05, p < .05) and time (F(1,74) = 7.58, p < .01)
exerted a significant effect on responses to the JSQ. Post hoc comparisons reported
aerobic group reported less job stress than anaerobic group (p < .01). however, following
intervention aerobic and anaerobic registered lower job stress scores than the control
group (p < .01). LSS an ANOVA revealed (F(1,74) = 7.44, p < .01) as highly significant
and post hoc indicated that following intervention the aerobic and anaerobic group
registered lower scores than the control group (p < .01). Scores for GHQ scores similar,
ANOVA yielded significant effect (F(1,74) = 15.17, p < .001) post hoc revealed aerobic
and anaerobic group different scores with control group (p < .01). The study found that
the effects of training on self-reports surveys showed aerobic and anaerobic training
improves health and well-being.
A 2008, meta-analysis conducted by Parks and Steelman examined the effects of
participation in an organizational wellness program (fitness or comprehensive) on
absenteeism and job satisfaction. For the purposes of this study, organizational wellness
programs were classified into two types: fitness only and comprehensive. Fitness-
oriented programs provide on or off-site membership to health clubs in which participants
enjoy aerobic and nonaerobic activities, as well as weight training. Comprehensive
wellness programs include both a fitness component and an educational component such
as nutrition or stress reduction classes. A total of 17 studies met the inclusion criteria for
the meta-analysis (15 published studies and 2 dissertations) yielding 7,705 individuals
43
with absenteeism data and 2,480 individuals with job satisfaction data. Meta-analytic
procedures followed a standardized mean difference effect size was calculated. In this
case, the effect size provided an estimate of the size of the treatment effect (participation
in a wellness program) as compared to the control group (non-participation in a wellness
program) and was calculated using the d statistic. For absenteeism the mean effect size
was (d = -.30, p < .00) with a confident interval of -.48 to -.22. For job satisfaction the
mean effect size was moderate (Cohen, 1969; d = .42, p < .03) with a confidence interval
of .05 to .80, indicating those participating in wellness programs tended to report higher
job satisfaction. Results indicate that participation in organizational wellness programs
ten to have lower absenteeism and higher job satisfaction.
Age and Physical Activity
Norris, Carroll, and Cochrane conducted two studies of adolescents (1992). In the
first study the measurements administered to 147 participants were Life Events
Questionnaire, Seriousness of Illness Rating Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the
Multiple Affect Adjective Check List at a comprehensive secondary school. The purpose
of the study was to determine whether participating in physical activity affects
psychological well-being in and adolescent population. The participants completed self-
reports of exercise and psychological stress and well-being. Correlational analysis found
a significant relationship with perceived stress (r = -.23, p < .01) and depression (r = -.18,
p < .05). Examination of the exercise variable reveals that it is consistently correlated
with the psychological well-being. In accordance with the evidence, it appears that
adolescents who report exercising more frequently also report significantly less perceived
stress and depression.

44
Norris et. al. second study (1992) administered Life Events Questionnaire,
Seriousness of Illness Rating Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, and the Multiple Affect
Adjective Check List to 80 adolescents to further the study conducted to try to unravel the
mechanisms through which exercise may mediate between stress and illness. The same
self-report measures form study 1 were used in study 2, in addition fitness was assessed
using the Louisiana State University step-test. The data was analyzed using a one factor
ANCOVA and post hoc comparisons were conducted where appropriate using Newman-
Keuls method. The results of ANCOVA to the measures of exercise and perceived stress
(F(3,56) = 3.90, p < .01) shows an effect and post hoc analysis revealed that the high
intensity group displayed significantly lower scores at the end of the study than did the
other three groups (p < .05). ANCOVA applied to anxiety also demonstrated effect
(F(3,56) = 3.52, p < .05), and pair-wise comparisons revealed that the high intensity
group had reliably lower scores than the moderate intensity group (p < .05) at the end of
the intervention. After the ANCOVA results it was apparent that high intensity exercise
has a positive effect on psychological well-being reporting significantly less stress and
anxiety.
In a 2000 study, Lee and Paffenbarger conducted a health study from 13,485 men
who are Harvard Alumni that completed a 1977 survey. The respondents aged were <55,
55 – 64, 65 – 74, and >75 years at baseline 397, 704, 1,057, and 381, respectively, died
during follow-up. The multivariate analysis found that all age groups except the
youngest had a significant inverse trend between total energy expenditure and mortality.
The multivariate risks for men aged <55 years were 1.00, .79, .75, 1.01, and 1.02,
respectively (p, trend = .86). The results reveal a greater participation in moderate
45
activities showed a trend toward lower mortality rates, while greater energy expended in
vigorous activities clearly predicted lower mortality rates.
Caspersen Pereira, and Curran (2000) examined cross-sectional data from the
National Health Interview Survey, using the 1992 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
supplement for 10,645 adolescents and the 1991 Health Promotion/Disease Prevention
supplement for 43,732 adults. The purpose was to determine sex-specific, age-related
changes in physical activity patterns. The study did not use multiple tests of statistical
significance rather a calculate nonoverlapping 95% confidence intervals to identify
potential statistically significant differences was used. Adolescents were computed the
difference in prevalence between ages 12 and 21 and divided the result by 9. Also
computed was the annual rate of change for the 3-year age grouping od 12-15, 15-18, and
18-21 year to compare data. Adults were computed the difference in prevalence between
the age groups of 18-29 and >75 year and divided that result by 57. The results show that
physical activity declined in adult age groups 18-29 years and 75 years and older.
Sustained activity and regular, vigorous activity patterns appeared to stabilize from ages
30 to 64 years, however the prevalence of strengthening and stretching continued to
decline through middle and older adulthood.
Gender and Physical Activity
Pauline (2013) administered the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire,
Exercise Motivation Inventory-2, and an Exercise Self-Efficacy Questionnaire to asses
physical activity, behavior, motivation, and self-efficacy respectively to 871 participants.
The purpose for this study was to assess baseline physical activity levels and psycho-
social determinants of physical activity in college students. The participants

46
demographics were 48.3% female and 51.7% male of undergraduate students (age M =
19.73 years, SD = 1.27) that volunteered to participate in the study. The independent
factors were gender (male and female) and class standing. The dependent variables were
GLTEQ scale scores, EMI-2 subscale scores, and Exercise Self-Efficacy scale scores. A
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were employed to determine if there were
significant differences in physical activity, motivation, and self-efficacy in college
students. The level of significance was set at p < .05 for all analysis. Results indicate that
males and females differed on the type and amount of physical activity. The tests of
between-subjects effects showed males (M = 42.98, SD = 32.73) to significantly engage
in more strenuous exercise minutes per session, F(1,863) = 17.340, p < .001, than
females (M = 34.19, SD = 29.25) and males (M = 35.22, SD = 27.27) to significantly
engage in more moderate exercise minutes per session, F(1,863) = 11.549, p < .001, than
females (M = 29.37 , SD = 23.55). This study revealed male participants engaged in
significantly more vigorous and moderate minutes per session of physical activity than
females. Specifically, female college students displayed higher rates of physical inactivity
than male college students. This is an indication the rates of inactivity are related to
gender.
Caspersen Pereira, and Curran (2000) examined cross-sectional data from the
National Health Interview Survey, using the 1992 Youth Risk Behavior Survey
supplement for 10,645 adolescents and the 1991 Health Promotion/Disease Prevention
supplement for 43,732 adults. The purpose was to determine sex-specific, age-related
changes in physical activity patterns. The study did not use multiple tests of statistical
significance rather a calculate nonoverlapping 95% confidence intervals to identify

47
potential statistically significant differences was used. The results found across the age
groups adult women had a 27% significantly higher prevalence of physical inactivity than
the men 21%, with moderate or large divergences at the youngest and oldest age groups
of 7 and 11 percentage points, respectively. After age 74, the prevalence of regular,
sustained activity began to decline substantially for both sexes, but the decline was more
pronounced for women.
Dagmar, Erik, Karel, and Ales (2011) administered International Physical
Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) Short and Long form and the Neighborhood Environment
Walkability Scale-Abbreviated (ANEWS) to 2,023 participants. The analysis included
957 males and 1,066 females ranging from 25 to 60 years of age (M = 40.18, SD = 9.56).
Statistical analysis carried out using the association between variables and physical
activity were quantified by use of the Spearman correlation coefficient. To assess
significant differences, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test and its relevant effect size
ƞ2 coefficient were used. In the evaluation of total physical activity the study found a
significant increase over the years of monitoring in men [H(3, 957) = 54.08; p < .0001; ƞ2
= .057] and in women [H(3, 1066) = 54.17; p < .001; ƞ2 = .051]. Men showed in total,
significantly more physical activity than women as assessed in MET-min/week [H(1,
2023) = 13.37; p < .0003; ƞ2 = .007]. The study revealed significant differences were
found in vigorous physical activity between mean and women (p < .05) in favor of men.
Shiroma and Lee (2010) conducted a systematic evidence review behind the 2008
Guidelines summarized 30 prospective cohort studies published between 1995 and 2007,
all using self-reported data on physical activity, to examine the association with Coronary
Heart Disease (CHD). In total, these studies included >141,000 men and >263,000
48
women in gender-specific analysis and >50,000 subjects in analysis of both genders
combined. The review indicated that the inverse association between physical activity
and risk of developing coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease is present in
both men and women but more pronounced in women compared with men.
Abu-Omar and Rutten (2008) administered the self-reported instrument
International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form to 29,193 participants. The
objective of the study was to investigate the relationship between physical activities in
different domains (leisure time, occupational, domestic, commuting) and health
indicators. Data was analyzed using multivariate logistic regression modes. Physical
activity is calculated in energy expenditures (MET-minutes/week) using the IPAQ. The
result of leisure time physical activity (compared to no leisure time physical activity) was
positively associated with self-rated health (males: Odds Ration (OR) = 2.85, 95%
Confidence Interval (CI): 2.27, 3.58; females: OR 2.77, 95% CI 2.16, 3.56) and inversely
with obesity (males: OR = .65, 95% CI .50, .83; females: OR = .46, 95% CI .34, .63). The
result of the analysis shows a relationship of leisure time physical activity to health
indicators in both male and females, however men more active than females.
Ethnicity and Physical Activity
Shiroma and Lee (2010) conducted a systematic evidence review behind the 2008
Guidelines summarized 30 prospective cohort studies published between 1995 and 2007,
all using self-reported data on physical activity, to examine the association with Coronary
Heart Disease (CHD). In total, these studies included >141,000 men and >263,000
women in gender-specific analysis and >50,000 subjects in analysis of both genders
combined. The review found no statistically interactions among race were observed.
49
Tenure and Physical Activity
Schwetschenau, O’Brien, Cunningham, and Jex (2008) administered the
Corporate Exercise Barriers Scale (C-EBS) to 88 employees from a mid-western health-
care service corporation. The sample of respondents were 74% female with a mean age of
37 years (SD = 10.21), 58% were members of the on-site fitness center (N = 51), mean
organizational tenure was 5.7 years (SD = 5.7) with an average work week of 43.6 hours
(SD = 6.1), and 20% served in supervisory roles with mean number of people supervised
being 5 (SD = 7). Statistical analysis results indicated no statistical significance with
physical activity or inactivity and organizational tenure.
emotional competence. A one-way ANOVA found no significant difference with
organizational tenure and Authentic Leadership
Education and Physical Activity
A 2014 meta-analysis by Castelli, Centeio, Hwang, Barcelona, Glowacki, Calvert, and
Nicksic examined the history of physical activity and academic performance research.
Empirically experimental design research studies having both control and treatment
group were included in the meta-analysis (k = 20, N = 2,104). The study used Hedge’s
formula to calculate the effect size and assessed heterogeneity by using Q-statistic among
50
studies, significance at (p < .05) indicates a substantial level of heterogeneity. Data
results from all studies comparing physical activity group with control group showed that
children who participated in physical activity had significantly improved academic
performance including academic achievement and cognitive function with a random-
effect model [effect size = .383; Z = 4.934 (SE = .078); p < .05]. Meta-analysis revealed a
positive association between physical activity and academic performance.

CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
Overview
This research examined the relationship of physical activity, Authentic
Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being. The study is a non-experimental research
design that used a sample of convenience to administer instrument surveys to the sample
population. Descriptive statistics is used to address the problem of the statement and the
null hypothesis of the study. This chapter will show a detailed outline regarding the
methodology used to determine the outcome of the relationships examined. A description
of the participants, how data was collected, instruments, research design, statistical
analysis, null hypothesis, operational definitions, ethical definitions, and limitations are
all included in this section.
Sample Plan
Participants
The sample this research study examined was self-identified leaders in South
Texas area. A sample of convenience was used to administer the survey to potential
participants using SurveyMonkey. The potential participants were contacted from the
researcher’s personal network, social media outlets, and participants were requested to
send out link to their network. A total of 584 survey requests were sent out with an email
or posted on social media with a link to the survey. The participants voluntarily
completed the survey online after reading information regarding the survey, the
51
52
participants then agreed to an adult consent form by checking the appropriate box that
stated they agreed before they could continue with survey. The survey included
demographic questions, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire, Authentic
Leadership Questionnaire, and the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale. Participants
age group was from 18 years and older, gender and ethnicity were asked but not a factor
for completing the survey. There was a response rate of 41% or 241 responses from these
responses only 214 were useable.
Instruments
The first part of the survey that the participants completed was a demographics
survey that included questions regarding the participants age, gender, ethnicity, level of
education, and tenure.
International Physical Activity Questionnaire. To assess physical activity
participants completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire 7SF (IPAQ) to
self-report their minutes spent active. The short version of the IPAQ, that consists of a
seven item self-report instrument, is designed to measure health related to physical
activity. The IPAQ was developed by the International Consensus Group in 1998 – 1999
to establish a standardized and culturally adaptable measurement tool across various
populations in the world (Kim, Park, & Kang, 2012). The questions relate to time spent
being physically active in the last seven day prior to the survey. The questions covered
the amount of time in vigorous activity such as heavy lifting, digging, aerobics, or fast
bicycling; moderate activity such as carrying light loads, bicycling at a regular pace, or
tennis; walking this includes at work and home, traveling place to place; and time sitting.
53
Each activity is given a metabolic equivalent task (MET) level that is a score derived
from each type of activity.
Craig, Marshall, Sjostrom, Bauman, Booth, Ainsworth, Pratt, Ekelund, Yngve,
Sallis, and Oja (2003) tested the criterion validity against CSA accelerometers showing
overall acceptable strength for short form (N = 781, ρ = .33, 95% CI .23 – 36). The test-
retest reliability data for consistency of the IPAQ short form revealed acceptable
measurement properties for monitoring population levels of physical activity (N = 1,974,
ρ = .76, 95% CI .73 – 77).
A study of reliability of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire in
college students (N = 123) mean age was 20.8, 75% were Caucasian, 74% were female,
and 94.3% were underclassmen. The overall students reported high physical activity,
engaging in 589.4±404.9 minutes of total physical activity during the previous week.
Males reported spending significantly more time than females in vigorous physical
activity (t = 3.2, df = 37.9, p = .003). The reported time spent in each category of physical
activity was compared between the two administrations of the IPAQ to examine
reliability of the instrument. The reported amount of time in moderate (t = 3.9, df =110, p
< .01) and total physical activity (t = 2.5, df = 110, p = .01) was different between
administrations. The intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from .71 - .89, indicating
moderate to high reliability of the questionnaire items (Dinger, Behrens, and Han Ma,
2006).
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ Version 10. Self). Leadership was
assessed using the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) by the participants
(Avolio, Gardner, and Walumbwa, 2007). Participants completed a 16-item self-report

54
measure of components that make up Authentic Leadership theory. The four components
that make up Authentic Leadership are self-awareness, transparency, moral/ethical, and
balanced processing. The participants rate themselves on five-point Liker scale (0 = not at
all to 4 = frequently, if not always) that calculates the mean of each component for a
score. The four components that make up Authentic Leadership is averaged for a total
overall Authentic Leadership score (Avolio and Gardner, 2005).
Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) performed a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using two independent samples from the United
States (N = 224) and the People’s Republic of China (N = 212). The CFA examined if
second order Authentic Leadership factor existed and if it explained the relationships
among the four lower order factors. The result was a CFA value of .95 and a root mean
square error of approximation value of .06 or less as indicative of adequate fit. The
estimated internal consistency alphas (Cronbach’s Alpha) for each measure were also
acceptable levels: self-awareness, .92; relational transparency, .87; internalized moral
perspective, .76; and balanced processing, .81.
A study of (N = 170) graduate nurses were selected to examine the relationships
between of Authentic Leadership, work engagement, and job satisfaction. The study used
Cronbach’s Alpha for reliability measures of the instrument and the results show: Overall
Authentic Leadership, .91; self-awareness, .88; transparency, .71; moral/ethical
perspective, .83; and balanced processing, .69.
Job-related Affective Well-being (JAWS). The Job-related Affective Well-being
Scale (JAWS) is a 20-item short version scale designed to assess people’s emotional
reactions to their job (Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, and Kelloway, 2000). Each item is an
55
emotion respondent are asked on how often they have experienced each at work over the
prior 30 days. Responses are made with a five-point scale (Never, Rarely, Sometimes,
Quite often, Extremely often or always).
The internal consistency reliability measures using Cronbach’s Alpha for the 20-
item short form scale range from α = .80 to .90 (Van Katwyk et. al., 2000).
Operational Definitions
Physical activity assessed by the sum of the duration (minutes) and frequency
(days) using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire short form. Expressed as
metabolic equivalent task (MET) – minutes per week: MET level x minutes of
activity/day x days per week. MET levels ae walking = 3.3 METs, moderate intensity =
4.0 METs, and vigorous intensity = 8.0 METs. The selected MET values were derived
from work undertaken during the IPAQ Reliability Study in 2000 – 200, an average MET
score was derived for each type of activity (Craig et. al., 2003).
Authentic Leadership behaviors is evaluated by the mean of each subscale using
the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ Version 1.0 Self). Self-awareness refers to
the mean of the sum of the responses on four items. Transparency refers to the mean of
the sum of the responses on five items. Ethical/Moral perspective refers to the mean of
the sum of the responses on four items. Balanced processing refers to the mean of the
sum of the responses on three items by the leader. Overall Authentic Leadership refers to
the mean of the sum of the responses on all items of the Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire (Avolio et. al., 2007).
Job Affective Well-being is evaluated by completing the Job-related Affective
Well-being Scale (JAWS) by the self-identified leader. JAWS refer to the sum of the
56
responses on all items of the 20-item scale. The instrument measures pure affect as
opposed to the belief oriented and measures specific affected experienced in response to
the job. It has the ability to measure a wide range of affective states and to distinguish
patterns of related affective experience, such as negatively or positively balanced
responses at high or low levels of arousal (Van Katwyk et. al., 1999)
Research Design
This study utilized a non-experimental design with a sample of convenience to
administer survey responses to participants. Descriptive statistics were used to address
the null hypothesis by examine the responses from questionnaire. Pending results from
the categorical, dichotomous, or continuous variables determined the analysis that were
performed. Measures of central tendencies were used to organize the raw data from the
various questionnaires into a representative score. A bivariate correlation was performed
on data to obtain correlation coefficients describing the measure of the relationship
between two linear variables.
Multiple regression analysis performed to predict the value of the independent
and control variables on the dependent variable. Block method was used to enter data to
determine the variance of the model and the relative contribution of each predictor to
total variance explained. Enter method was used in blocks for categorical variables,
dummy variables needed to be created. For continuous or dichotomous variables stepwise
method was used. R2 and R2 measures the proportion of the variation and additional
variance accounted for by the most recent variable. Results that were significant and
continuous variables were analyzed further using beta weights () and partial correlations
57
(rp). Significant results with categorical variables were analyzed using a t-test for
dichotomous variables to find differences between the means of the variables. Analysis of
variance was used if significance was found on categorical variables to compare the
means of three or more groups. If differences found between the means a Fisher LSD
Post Hoc was used to find the significant differences between the groups. The analysis
was performed by using SPSS version 25.0 (IBM Corp. 2017), and p value < .05 on all
statistical analysis indicated statistical significance.
Null Hypothesis (H0)
The following are the null hypothesis for this research study:
H01: There is no relationship between Physical Activity and Authentic Leadership
Behavior (Self-Awareness) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
Behavior (Transparency) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
Behavior (Ethical/Moral Perspective) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age,
gender, ethnicity, tenure, and education.
Behavior (Balanced Processing) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age,

58
H05: There is no relationship between Overall Authentic Leadership Behavior and
Job-related Affective Well-being of self-identified leaders when controlling for age,
gender, ethnicity, tenure, education, and physical activity.
Procedure
Permission was granted to conduct this research by Our Lady of Lake University
Institutional Review Board (IRB). Permission was granted for the following instruments:
International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ Group), this instrument was free to
use. This research project was presented to Mind Garden Institute and was granted use of
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Copyright© 2007 Bruce J. Avolio, William L.
Gardner, and Fred O. Walumbwa. All rights reserved) for the purpose of research. The
Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (Copyright© 2020 Professor Paul E. Spector,
PhD. All Rights Reserved) was granted with a written permission to Professor Spector in
return for results of this dissertation.
A single survey was developed and sent to potential and willing participants that
voluntarily agreed to participate in the research. The survey consists of an invitation to
the potential participant requesting their participation. This will consist of an
introduction, the reason for the study, the benefits of the study, and complete instructions
of what the potential participant will need to do if he or she accepts to continue with the
survey. At the end of the instructions in the introduction participants will agree on the
consent of the survey and continue to the first part of the survey. The first part of the
survey is a five-item demographic questionnaire asking for participant age, gender,
ethnicity, work tenure, and education level. The second part of the survey will be the first
instrument that is the IPAQ. Participants will be asked to complete a self-report of seven
59
items designed to measure health-related physical activity. Next, participants will
complete the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire a 16-item self-report Likert scale.
Participants will then proceed to the last part of the survey that is the Job-related
Affective Well-being Questionnaire. This questionnaire consists of 20 questions, Likert
scale, where participants will self-report both positive and negative emotions related to
their work.
The surveys were then examined using Microsoft Excel to score instruments and
organize the raw data. There were 241 surveys returned however not all were completed,
respondents completed certain instruments and skipping other instruments. As a result,
these surveys were excluded since this study is looking for the relationship between
physical activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being. A total of 214
surveys were used for this research study. Instructions for data cleaning and truncation
rules were followed as per IPAQ website. Next, data were inputted into a research tool
that scored the IPAQ short form on an excel spreadsheet that was developed by Hoi Lun
Cheng, Ph.D. (2016). The ALQ was scored using the instructions from Mind Garden to
average the item value to get the raw score for the scale. JAWS was scored as instructed
negative emotions were reversed scored and missing values were given a median score of
3 as recommended. After the scoring process the decision was made to use only the mean
scores of the positive emotions as Authentic Leadership is based on a pattern of behaviors
that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive
ethical climate. These raw data were then entered into SPSS version 25.0 (IBM Corp.
2017) to analyze data and null hypothesis.

60
Ethical Considerations
This study was voluntary and anonymous at no costs or risks to the participants. The
study and instruments were reviewed and approved by OLLU IRB. A signed informed
consent form was received by participant with principal researcher’s and Dissertation
Committee Chair’s contact information. Identification numbers would be used to identify
each subject and in no way could be linked to any actual individual. Permission granted
to use IPAQ-7SF, ALQ Version 1.0, and JAWS (20-item Version).

CHAPTER FOUR
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between physical
activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being while controlling for age,
gender, ethnicity, tenure, and education. This chapter provides the process of the data, the
descriptive statistics, and the analysis conducted and results.
Descriptive Statistics
Demographics of Participants
The surveys were disseminated electronically with 241 surveys returned of those
participants that returned surveys 214 (N = 214) were useable for this study. The
information provided were entered in SPSS Version 25 for analysis of the variables using
descriptive statistics that include mean score, sample size, and standard deviation. The
following figures of bar graphs and histograms provide a graphical description of the
sample.
Figure 1 provides a bar graph for the number of male and female respondents.
There was a total of 143 (67%) females and 71 (33%) males that completed the survey.
61
62
Figure 1. Distribution of the gender of respondents.
Figure 2. provides a bar graph of the age distribution of the respondents. The age
categories and number of respondents were 18 – 24 years 10 (4.7%), 25 – 34 years 30
(14%), 35 – 44 years 74 (34.6%), 45 – 54 years 66 (30.8%), 55 – 64 years 25 (11.7%),
and 65 years and older 9 (4.2%).
Figure 2. Distribution of the age of respondents.

63
Figure 3 provides a bar graph of the respondents’ tenure by years. Tenure categories
and the number of respondents 0 – 5 years 92 (43%), 6 – 14 years 63 (29%), and 15 and
more of years 59 (28%).
Figure 3. Distribution of tenure of the respondents.
Figure 4 is a bar graph of the respondents’ level of education. The categories and
number of respondents less than bachelor’s degree 36 (16.8%), bachelor’s degree 83
(38.8%), master’s degree 72 (33.6%), doctoral and professional degree 23 (10.7%).

64
Figure 4. Distribution of the level of education of respondents.
Figure 5 is a bar graph of the respondents’ ethnicity. The categories are as follows
Hispanic/Latino 184 (86%) and non-Hispanic/other 30 (14%).
Figure 5. Distribution of ethnicity of the respondents.
Physical Activity Ratings
International Physical Activity Questionnaire 7SF (IPAQ)

65
Physical activity was assessed using the IPAQ 7-item short form completed by
214 participants in the survey. The following section shows a histogram with the
distribution of scores for physical activity in figure 6. The total METs is shown and
ranges from .00 to 20000.00, the mean score is 3711.70 and standard deviation of
3571.90. A floor effect was observed this occurs when the mode is at the bottom of the
scale. The results of a floor effect may lead to an underestimate of the correlations
relative to the population and may lead to a type 2 error.
Figure 6. Distribution of physical activity scores.
Authentic Leadership Ratings
Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ)
Leadership was assessed using the ALQ for Authentic Leadership and the
subscales of the Authentic Leadership components. The following section shows the
distribution of scores for each of the ALQ subscales and the overall total score for
66
Transparency scale scores distribution is shown in figure 7 of a histogram with a
mean score of 3.00 and standard deviation .540.
Figure 7. Distribution of scores on Transparency subscale.
Figure 8 is a histogram showing the distribution of scores on the Moral/Ethical
scale with mean of 3.24 and standard deviation of .604. This distribution indicates a
ceiling effect, which occurs when the mode is at the highest point on the scale. This
causes a skewed distribution that may lead to an underestimate of the correlations relative
to the population and may lead to a type 2 error.

67
Figure 8. Distribution of scores on Moral/Ethical subscale.
Figure 9 is a histogram showing the distribution of scores on the Balanced
Processing scale, a mean of 3.15, and standard deviation .604.
Figure 9. Distribution of scores on Balanced Processing subscale
Figure 10 is a histogram of the distribution of scores on Self-awareness scale, a
mean of 3.12 and standard deviation .543.

68
Figure 10. Distribution of scores on Self-awareness subscale.
Figure 11 is a histogram of the distribution scores for overall Authentic
Leadership, a mean score of 3.13 and standard deviation of .439.
Figure 11. Distribution of scores on Overall Authentic Leadership
Job Affective Well-being Ratings
Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS)

69
Job Affective Well-being was assessed with the JAWS that were completed by
the participants. The scores range from 1.00 to 5.00, a mean of 3.36, and a standard
deviation of .734. Figure 12 is a histogram of the distribution of scores for the JAWS.
Figure 12. Distribution of scores on Job Affective Well-being
Multiple Regression Analysis
Multiple regression analysis was used as the primary statistical method for this
study. Multiple regression analysis identifies the relationships between multiple
independent variables and dependent variables in two areas of research.
Research area one, the independent variable was physical activity and the
dependent variable was the four subscales of Authentic Leadership. The four subscales
that make up Authentic Leadership are Self-awareness, Transparency, Moral/Ethical
Perspective, and Balanced Processing. The demographic variables that were included
with physical activity were age, gender, ethnicity, tenure, and education.
Research area two, the independent variable was overall Authentic Leadership
and the dependent variable was Job Affective Well-being. The demographic variables are
70
age, gender, ethnicity, tenure, education, and physical activity was added in the second
research area for control.
A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients analysis was conducted to
identify bivariate relationships between the continuous variables. The analysis measures
the strength and direction of a linear association between two variables and is denoted by
r. The values from a Pearson correlation range in values from +1 to -1, a value of 0
indicates no association between two variables. A value greater than 0 indicates a positive
association and a value less than 0 indicates a negative association. Values of .01 to .29
indicate a weak association, values from .30 to .49 indicate a moderate association, and
values from .50 to 1.0 indicate a strong association. The bi-variate correlation coefficient
matrix of continuous variables can be seen in Table 1.
Table 1
Bi-Variate Correlation Table

Job-related Overall
Affective Moral/ Balanced Self Authentic IPAQ
Well-being Transparency Ethical Processing Awareness Leadership METs
Job-related
Affective Well-
being 1
Transparency 1
Moral/Ethical .433** 1
Balanced
Processing .211** .352** .491** 1
Self Awareness .215** .399** .431** .655** 1
Overall Authentic
Leadership .207** .697** .774** .814** .799** 1
IPAQ METs .213** .139* 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Weak Values .01 - .299 indicate weak association
Moderate Values .30 - .499 indicate a moderate association
Strong Values .50 - 1.0 indicate a strong association
71
Multiple regression blocks were designed, after the correlation analysis, to test the
null hypothesis. The multiple regression analysis allowed for the prediction of the
dependent variable from multiple independent variables.
In addition to multiple regression, a t-test was performed for dichotomous
variables and an analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Fisher’s LSD Post Hoc for
categorical variables with three or more categories to identify relationships, differences,
and statistical significance of the variables. The continuous variables were International
Physical Activity Questionnaire, the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire scales, and the
overall Authentic Leadership. The categorical variables were age, tenure, and education.
Gender and ethnicity were dichotomous variables.
The Stepwise and Enter regression method were performed on the variables after
the variables had been set up in blocks. Multiple regression blocks allow for the variance
explained for a dependent variable by a set of predictor variables. Stepwise method was
performed for dichotomous variables or for continuous variables and enter method were
performed on categorical variables. Categorical variables must be dummy coded and
entered in a separate block because regression requires continuous variables. The dummy
coding creates a frequency counts of categories within one true variable. Stepwise
method enters the variables in different combinations until the best linear combination is
found and throws out non-significant and sets up significant predictors in the equation in
order of strongest to weakest.
Research area one used five blocks for each of the dependent variable Authentic
Leadership subscales (self-awareness, transparency, moral/ethical perspective, and
balanced processing).
72
In block 1, stepwise method was used in the regression analysis for the
demographic variables of gender and ethnicity.
Block 2 enter method was used in the regression analysis for the demographic
variable age. Dummy coding was required for the categories as there were six that
comprised the age variable.
Block 3 used an enter method in the regression analysis for the variable tenure.
Dummy coding was necessary as there were three categories that were included in the
variable tenure.
In block 4, the enter method was used in the regression analysis for the variable
education. This variable required dummy coding as there were four categories in
education variable.
Block 5 used stepwise method in the regression analysis for the total physical
activity variable.
▪ Block 1: Stepwise
➢ Gender (dichotomous)
➢ Ethnicity (dichotomous)
▪ Block 2: Age (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
▪ Block 3: Tenure (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
▪ Block 4: Education (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
▪ Block 5: Physical Activity (Stepwise)

73
In research area two, Job-related Affective Well-being is now the dependent variable.
Block 1 used stepwise method in the regression analysis for gender, ethnicity, and
physical activity. The stepwise method may include both dichotomous and continuous
variables.
Block 2 used an enter method in the regression analysis for the demographic
variable age. Dummy coding was required for the categories as there were six that
comprised the age variable.
Block 3 used an enter method in the regression analysis for the variable tenure.
Dummy coding was necessary as there were three categories that were included in the
variable tenure.
Block 4, the enter method was used in the regression analysis for the variable
education. This variable required dummy coding as there were four categories in
education variable.
Block 5 a stepwise method was used in the regression analysis for overall
▪ Block 1: Stepwise
➢ Gender (dichotomous)
➢ Ethnicity (dichotomous)
➢ Physical Activity (continuous)
▪ Block 2: Age (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
▪ Block 3: Tenure (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
74
▪ Block 4: Education (Enter Method)
➢ Dummy coded
▪ Block 5: Overall Authentic Leadership (Stepwise)
Null Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis One: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership Behavior Self-awareness
H01: There is no relationship between physical activity and Authentic Leadership
Behavior (Self-awareness) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
The hypothesis was tested using multiple regression with five blocks. Block 1
included gender and ethnicity and was stepwise. Block 2, 3, and 4 contained age, tenure,
and education, respectively and were all enter method with dummy coding. Block 5
included physical activity and was stepwise. This regression analysis did not find any
statistical significance in this block. As a result, the study failed to reject the null
hypothesis one.
Null Hypothesis Two: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership Behavior Transparency
H02: There is no relationship between physical activity and Authentic Leadership
ethnicity, tenure and education.

75
Multiple regression analysis was used to test the null hypothesis with five blocks.
Block one contained gender and ethnicity these were stepwise method. Block two, three,
four contained age, tenure, and education respectively, and were all enter method. Block
five contained physical activity. Table 2 represents the model summary for Authentic
Leadership behavior transparency.
Table 2: Model summary for Transparency
Model Summary for Physical Activity on Transparency

R
R Square Sig. F
Model R Square Change Beta β rp df1 df2 Change
1 .217a .047 1 212 .001
2 .269b .072 .025 .165 .162 1 211 .018
a Predictors: (Constant), Gender
b Predictors: (Constant), Gender, Physical Activity
Table 2 demonstrates the results of the multiple regression of the independent
variables and the dependent variable, Authentic Leadership Transparency. These results
indicate gender and physical activity were significant predictors of transparency. Gender
explained 4.7% of the total variance (R2 = .047, p < .05). A t-test revealed that males
scored significantly higher than females on transparency (t(212) = -3.24, p < .05). Null
hypothesis two is rejected as a result of the significant findings. Figure 13 represents the
more transparency males scored than females.

76
Figure 13. Bar Graph of Gender and Transparency.
Physical activity accounted for an additional 2.5% of the variance explained (ΔR2
= .025, β = .165, rp = .162, p < .05). Figure 14 represents the higher the physical activity
scores the higher they scored on Transparency.
Figure 14. Scatter plot of Physical Activity and Transparency.

77
Null Hypothesis Three: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership Behavior Moral/Ethical Perspective
Behavior (Moral/Ethical Perspective) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age,
Multiple regression analysis with five blocks tested the null hypothesis. In block
one stepwise was used for the dichotomous variables gender and ethnicity. For blocks
two to four were age, tenure, and education respectively using the enter method. Block
five was physical activity. Table three represent the model summary for the dependent
variable Authentic Leadership Moral/Ethical Perspective.
Table 3: Model Summary for Moral/Ethical Perspective
Model Summary for Physical Activity on Moral/Ethical

R
R Square Sig. F
1 .217a .047 3 210 .018
a Predictors: (Constant), Education
The results of the multiple regression indicate education was the only significant
predictor of Authentic Leadership Moral/Ethical Perspective. Education explained 4.7%
of the total variance (R2 = .047, p < .05). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) used to
compare the means of the groups found a significant difference between the means
(F(3,210) = 3.45, p < .05). A Fisher’s LSD Post Hoc revealed the differences and found
participants with a master’s degree and higher scored significantly higher than
participants with a bachelor’s degree and lower on Moral/Ethical Perspective. This result
failed to reject the null hypothesis however there was a significant predictor with the
78
demographic variable, education. Figure 15 represents the significant difference between
master’s and doctoral degree and bachelor’s degree and below.
Figure 15. Bar Graph on Education and Moral/Ethical Perspective
Null Hypothesis Four: The relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership Behavior Balanced Processing
Multiple regression analysis using the five blocks tested the null hypothesis. In
block one stepwise was used for the dichotomous variables gender and ethnicity. For
blocks two to four were age, tenure, and education respectively using the enter method.
Block five was physical activity. This regression analysis did not find any statistical
significance with Balanced Processing. The study failed to reject the null hypothesis four.
79
Null Hypothesis Five: The relationship between Overall Authentic Leadership and
Job-related Affective Well-being
Multiple regression analysis with five blocks tested the null hypothesis. In block
one stepwise was used for the dichotomous variables gender and ethnicity and continuous
variable physical activity. For blocks two to four were age, tenure, and education
respectively using the enter method. Block five contained the overall Authentic
Leadership continuous variable. Table four represent the model summary for the
dependent variable Job-related Affective Well-being.
Table 4: Model Summary for Job-related Affective Well-being
Model Summary for Overall Authentic Leadership on Job-related Affective Well-being

R
R Square Sig. F
1 .207a .043 .207 1 212 .002
a Predictors: (Constant), Overall Authentic Leadership
The multiple regression results indicate that overall Authentic Leadership was a
significant predictor of Job-related Affective Well-being. Overall Authentic Leadership
accounted for 4.3% of the total variance explained (R2 = .043, β = .207, p < .05).
Therefore, this null hypothesis is rejected with the significant finding. Figure 16
represents the higher participants rated scored on overall Authentic Leadership the higher
they scored on Job-related Affective Well-being.

80
Figure 16. Scatter plot of Overall Authentic Leadership and Job-related Affective Well-
being
Summary of Results
Authentic Leadership Self-awareness: No significance found with self-awareness
with the independent and control variables.
Authentic Leadership Transparency: Males scored higher than females on
transparency. The higher participants rated on physical activity the higher their score on
transparency.
Authentic Leadership Moral/Ethical Perspective: Participants with a master’s
degree and higher scored higher than participants with a bachelor’s degree and below.
Authentic Leadership Balanced Processing: No significance was found with
balanced processing and the independent and control variables.
Job-related Affective Well-being: The higher participants rated on Overall
Authentic Leadership the higher they rated on Job-related Affective Well-being.

CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion
This chapter discusses the results of the study, the limitations of the study, the
implications, and the recommendations for future research. The study examined the
relationship between physical activity and the Authentic Leadership behaviors of self-
awareness, transparency, moral/ethical perspective, and balanced processing. The study
also examined the relationship between overall Authentic Leadership and Job-related
Affective Well-being. The control variables were age, gender, ethnicity, tenure, and
education.
Rejection of the Null Hypothesis
This study examined the relationship between leaders’ self-rated physical activity
and Authentic Leadership Behaviors and the relationships between leaders’ self-rated
overall Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being. There were limited studies
found on the relationship between physical activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job
Affective Well-being. This study will contribute to the research of physical activity,
leadership and well-being.
Five null hypotheses were identified for this study two of which were rejected as
significant relationships were found in the research areas of Authentic Leadership
Transparency and Job-related Affective Well-being. The study failed to reject hypothesis
one, three, and four but did find significance in the dependent variable and an
independent control variable. The five null hypothesis in this study are as follows:
81
82
Behavior (Self-Awareness) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age, gender,
Behavior (Ethical/Moral Perspective) of self-identified leaders when controlling for age,
Important Findings
The research study found statistical relationships between independent variables
and dependent variables, after correlation analysis (Table 1) and multiple regression
analysis were performed (Table 5).
Table 5: Significant predictors associated with dependent variables.

83
p < .05 Dependent Variables

Job-
related
Affective
Independent Self- Balanced Well-
Variables Awareness Transparency Moral/Ethical Processing being
Physical ΔR2 = .025
Activity β = .165
Overall
Authentic R2 = .043
Leadership β = .207
R2 = .047
t(212) = -3.24
Males >
Gender Females
Ethnicity
Age
Tenure
R2 = .047
F(3, 210),-3.45
Master's >
Education Bachelor's
Physical
Activity
Physical activity was a predictor of transparency from the four scales of Authentic
Leadership behaviors. Gender was a predictor of transparency, males scored higher than
females.
Education was a predictor of moral/ethical perspective. Participants with a
master’s degree and higher scored higher on moral/ethical than participants with a
bachelor’s degree and less.

84
Overall Authentic Leadership was a predictor of Job-related Affective Well-
being. The higher participants rated on overall Authentic Leadership the higher they rated
on Job-related Affective Well-being.
The demographic control variables of ethnicity, age, and tenure were not
significant predictors of any of the Authentic Leadership behaviors or Job-related
Affective Well-being dependent variables.
Limitation of Study
The study identified several limitations. The first being that this study was a non-
experimental study that used a sample of convenience. The research instruments were
self-reported by the participants that may overstate levels of activity on survey
instruments. Study was done in the summer month where people are most active, and the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire has a seven-day recall. Another limitation
is the floor effect that was observed with physical activity that may lead correlations to be
underestimated relative to the population. The study also observed a ceiling effect with
moral/ethical perspective that may also lead correlations to be underestimated relative to
the population.
Recommendation for Future Research
The study explored the relationship between physical activity and Authentic
Leadership behaviors and overall Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being.
The purpose for this study was to add to a body of knowledge that to my understanding is
limited. This study contributes to the field of physical activity and leadership while also
providing support for well-being in the workplace. Future research is needed between
85
physical fitness and leadership. Often, we find literature on the importance of physical
activity will physical well-being such as blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, and other
chronic diseases. Though these studies are very important and must continue and new
arena of research should focus on physical activity and the mental/psychological well-
being.
Future research using various leadership theories may also be considered to
expand the limited body of knowledge that currently exists. Leadership theories such as
Full Range Model (Bass & Avolio, 1995) with its different leadership characteristics may
show a better understanding when looking at a relationship with physical activity. Much
more is needed in this field of research there is much to gain and learn from.
Discussion
This study set out to find a relationship between physical activity, Authentic
Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being. Although the study did not find many results
with the statistical analysis used, we did manage to identify some significant relationships
that are at the core of what this study set out to accomplish. The review of the literature
revealed significance with physical activity and leadership, although one study found a
negative relationship. This study also found a positive significance with physical activity
and Authentic Leadership behavior transparency. This process also revealed the limited
research available for this area of study. Another important area of research that is limited
is the relationship of leadership and affective well-being. Previous research has found
significance in these area constructs as well as this study finding a statistical significance
between Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being.

86
Based on the findings of this study and the review of literature some implications
were made. Regarding physical activity and leadership, research shows that physical
activity may build resiliency to cope with stress from the work environment. Physical
activity may lead to more transparency in the leader and the workplace which may lead to
a more positive office environment. Gender showed significance with males being more
transparent than females thus more studies needed to find if there is more to this finding
as more females are entering more leadership roles.
The statistical significance found between Authentic Leadership and Job
Affective Well-being and the previous studies found for the literature review support the
positive relationship between the two constructs. The implications are that practicing
Authentic Leadership behaviors may result in a positive job satisfaction that according to
the research found may lead to follower satisfaction with the leader and job satisfaction is
a fundamental objective of well-being. Another implication is that significance found
with education and moral/ethical perspective of Authentic Leadership theory. There was
no significant relationship found in the literature review between education and
leadership however this study did find significance between education the moral/ethical.
The implications are that individuals in leadership roles tend to be higher educated with
graduate degrees which is when classes on ethics are offered by universities, which is
beneficial to the leader and the organization.
Some of the key takeaways from this study is the findings with physical activity
and transparency and the idea that is finding is added to a limited body of knowledge. As
mentioned previously, this study set out to find a significance between the two and add to
a limited body of knowledge to the area. In the process this study also found significance
87
with overall Authentic Leadership and Job Affective Well-being and according the
research Authentic Leadership decreases stress and enhances employee well-being in the
workplace. Physical activity is a phenomenon that needs more research on the construct
of leadership and well-being. This study explored those relationships and the conclusions
were drawn based on the findings of the data. Research in leadership is expanding with
various leadership theories and the instruments to the theories. The idea of the emerging
constructs of physical activity, leadership, and well-being will help provide information
for individuals to better handle stress and for employers to better assist their workforce to
lead a healthy lifestyle.

REFRENCES
Abu-Omar, K., & Rutten, A., (2008). Relation of leisure time, occupational, domestic,
and commuting physical activity to health indicators in Europe. Elsevier Journal
of Preventive Medicine, 47, 319-323. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.03.012
Armstrong, T., Candeias, V., Quintiliana, L., Roy, C., Ai, X., Leurent, H. & Nayyar, S.,
(2008). Preventing Noncommunicable disease in the workplace through diet and
physical activity. World Health Organization/World Economic Forum. Retrieved
from http://who.int/dietphysicalactivity/en/.
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., & Walumbwa, F. O., 2007). Authentic Leadership
Questionnaire (ALQ Version 1.0 Self). Mind Garden Inc. Retrieved with
permission from http://www.mindgarden.com.
Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F. O., Luthans, F. & May, D. R., (2004).
Unlocking the Mask: A Look at the process by which authentic leaders impact
follower attitudes and behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(6), 801-823. doi:
10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.003
Azanza, G., Moriano, J. A., & Molero, F., (2013). Authentic Leadership and
organizational culture as drivers of employees’ job satisfaction. Journal of Work
and Organizational Psychology, 29, 45-50. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/tr2013a7
Banks, G. C., McCauley, K. D., Gardner, W. L., & Guler, C. E., (2016). A meta-analytic
review of Authentic and Transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. The
Leadership Quarterly, 27, 634-652.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.006
88
89
Bell, J. A., Hamer, M., van Hees, V. T., Stingh-Manoux, A., Kivimaki, M., & Sabia, S.,
(2015). Healthy obesity and objective physical activity. The American Journal of
Clinical Nutrition, 102, 268-275. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.110924
Beyer, P. D., (2010). Authentic Leadership in extremis: A study of combat leadership
(Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global
database. (UMI Number 3398746)
Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W., (2011). A review of the tripartite structure of subjective
well-being: Implications for conceptualization, operationalization, analysis, and
synthesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 290-314. doi:
10.1177/1088868310391271
Caspersen, C. J., Pereira, M. A., & Curran, K. M., (2000). Changes in physical activity
patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age. Medicine & Science
in Sports & Exercise 1601-1609. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200009000-00013
Castelli, D. M., Centeio, E. E., Hwang, J., Barcelona, J. M., Glowacki, E. M., Calvert, H.
G., & Nicksic, H. M., (2014). The history of physical activity and academic
performance research: Informing the future. Society for Research in Child
Development, 79(4), 119–148.
Cerne, M., Jaklic, M. & Skerlavaj, M., (2013). Authentic Leadership, creativity, and
innovation: A multilevel perspective. Leadership, 9(1), 63-85. doi:
10.1177/1742715012455130
Cheng, HL. A simple, easy-to-use spreadsheet for automatic scoring of the International
Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) Short Form (updated November 2016).
ResearchGate, 2016.
90
Clapp-Smith, R., Vogelgesang, G. R., & Avey, J. B., (2009). Authentic Leadership and
Positive Psychological Capital. Journal of Leadership & Organization Studies,
15(3), 227-240. doi: 10.1177/1548051808326596
Collins, S., Coffey, M., & Morris, L., (2010). Social Work Students: Stress, Support and
Well-Being. British Journal of Social Work 40, 963-982. doi:
10.1093/bjsw/bcn148
Craig, C. L., Marshal, A. L., Sjostrom, M. Bauman, A. E., Booth, M. L., Ainsworth, B. E,
Pratt, M., Ekelund, E., Yngve, A., Sallis, J. F., & Oja, P. (2003). International
Physical Activity Questionnaire: 12 Country Reliability and Validity. Medicine &
Science in Sports & Exercise, 1381 – 1395. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.
61453.FB
Dagmar, S., Erik, S., Karel, F., & Ales, S., (2011). Gender Differences in Physical
Activity, Sedentary Behavior and BMI in the Liberec Region: the IPAQ Study in
2002-2009. Journal of Human Kinetics, 28, 123-131. doi: 10.2478/v10078-011-
0029-6
Daley, A. J., & Parfitt, G., (1996). Good health – Is it worth it? Mood states, physical
well-being, job satisfaction and absenteeism in members and non-members of a
British corporate health and fitness club. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology. 69, 121-135.
Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W., (1999). Health and well-being in the workplace: A review
and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357-384.
Diener, E., (1984). Subjective Well-Being. Psychological Bulletin Journal 95(3), 542-
575.
91
Dinger, M. K., Behrens, T. K., & Han, J. L., (2006). Validity and Reliability of the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire in College Students. American
Journal of Health Education, 37(6), 337-343. Doi:
10.1080/19325037.2006.10598924
Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R., Eacker, A., Harper, W., Massie, S. Power, D. V.,
Huschka, M., Novotny, P. J., Sloan, J. A., Shanafelt, T. D., (2007). Race,
Ethnicity, and Medical Student Well-being in the United States. Archives of
Internal Medicine, 167(19), 2301-2109.
Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engan, M. L., (2003). Transformational,
transactional, and laissez-fairre leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing
women and men. American Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569-591. doi:
10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569
Gardner, W. L., Cogliser, C. C., Davis, K. M., Dickens, M. P., (2001). Authentic
Leadership: A review of the literature and research agenda. The Leadership
Quarterly, 22, 1120-1145. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.09.007
Gatling, A., (2014). The Authentic Leadership qualities of business coaches and it impact
on coaching performance. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and
Mentoring, 12(1), 27-46.
Gatling, A., Castelli, P. A., & Cole, M. L., (2013). Authentic Leadership: The role
of self-awareness in promoting coaching effectiveness. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Management Research and Innovation, 9(4), 337-347. doi:
10.1177/2319510X14523097
92
Giallonardo, L. M., Wong, C. A., Iwasiw, C. L., (2010). Authentic Leadership of
preceptors: predictors of new graduate nurses’ work engagement and job
satisfaction. Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 993-1003.
Grant, L., & Kinman, G., (2011). Enhanceing well-being in social work students:
Building resilience in the next generation. Social Work Education The
International Journal, 31(5), 605-621.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2011.590931
Harris, K. J., & Kacmar, M. K., (2006) Too Much of a Good Thing: The Curvilinear
Effect of Leader-Member Exchange on Stress. The Journal of Social
Psychology, 14(6), 65-84, DOI: 10.3200/SOCP.146.1.65-84
Harris, M. M., Heller, T., & Braddock, D., (1988). Sex differences in psychological well-
being during a facility closure. Journal of Management, 14(3), 391-402.
Hock, J. E., Bommer, W. H., Dulebohn, J. H., & Wu, D., (2016). Do Ethical, Authentic,
and Servant Leadership explain variance above and beyond Transformational
Leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 1-29. doi:
10.1177/0149206316665461
Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrang, J. D., (2005). Authentic Leadership and
eudemonic well-being: understanding leader – follower outcomes. The
Leadership Quarterly 16, 373-394. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002
Jasso, S. L., (2016). Authentic Leadership and Emotional Intelligence: Predicting Student
Success (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://library.ollusa.edu/library.

93
Kim, Y., Park, I., & Kang, M., (2012). Convergent Validity of the International Physical
Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ): meta-analysis. Public Health Nutrition, 16(3),
440-452. doi: 10.1017/S1368980012002996
Kiser, K., & Clayton, J., (2018). Aerobic physical activity and the leadership of
principals. Journal of School Leadership, 28 202-228.
Lee, I., & Paffenbarger, S. Jr., (2000). Associations of Light, Moderate, and Vigorous
Intensity Physical Activity with Longevity. American Journal of Epidemiology,
151(3), 293-299.
Lee, P. H., Macfarlane, D. J., Lam, T., & Stewart, S. M., (2011). Validity of the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form (IPAQ-SF): A
systematic Review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical
Activity 8:115. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-8-115
Locke, E. A., (1969). What is job satisfaction? Organizational Behavior and Human
Performance, 4, 309-336.
Loehr, J., & Schwartz, T., (2009). The Making of a Corporate Athlete. Harvard Business
Review 79(1), 120-128.
Lopez, M. J., (2015). Exploring the relationship between a classroom teacher’s Authentic
Leadership, Charismatic/Value-Based Leadership (Doctoral dissertation).
Available from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global database (ProQuest
Number 3664082).
Lovelace, K. J., (2002). Survival of the fittest: an investigation of the relationship
between stressful work environments, physical fitness, and employee well-being

94
Lovelace, K. J., Manz, C. C., & Alves, J. C., (2007). Work stress and leadership
development: The role of self-leadership, shared leadership, physical fitness and
flow in managing demands and increasing job control. Human Resource
Management Review, 17, 374-387. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2007.08.001
Luhmann, M., Hawkley, L. C., Eid, M., & Cacioppo, J. T., (2012). Time frames and the
distinction between affective and cognitive well-being. National Institute of
Health, 46(4), 431-441. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.04.004
Lyons, J. B., & Schneider, T. R., (2009). The effects of leadership style on stress
outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 737-748. doi:
10.1016/j.leaqua.20019.06.010
McDowell-Larsen, S. L., Kearney, L., & Campbell, D., (2002). Fitness and leadership: is
there a relationship? Regular exercise correlates with higher leadership ratings in
senior-level executives. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(4), 316-324. doi:
10.1108/02683940210428119
Neck, C. P., Mitchell, T. L., Manz, C. C., Cooper, K. H., & Thompson, E. C., (2000).
Observations fit to lead: is fitness the key to effective executive leadership?
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(8), 833-841.
https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940010694323
Nelson, K., Boudrias, J., Brunet, L., Morin, D., De Civita, M., Savoie, A., & Alderson,
M., (2014). Authentic Leadership and psychological well-being at work of nurses:

95
The mediating role of work climate at the individual level of analysis. Journal of
Burnout Research, 1, 90-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2014.08.001
Nevins, S., & Hoffman, J., (Executive Producers). (2012). The Weight of a Nation
[Documentary Series]. Home Box Office, Inc.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C., (2013). A meta-analysis of the relationship of age and
tenure with innovation-related behavior. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, 86, 585-616.
Nielson, M. B., (2013). Bullying in work groups: The impact of leadership. Scandinavian
Journal of Psychology, 54, 127-136. doi: 10.1111/sjop.12011
Norris, R., Carroll, D., & Cochrane, R., (1990). The effect of aerobic and anaerobic
training on fitness, blood pressure, and psychological stress and well-being.
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 34(4), 367-375.
Norris, R., Carroll, D., & Cochrane, R., (1992). The effect of physical activity and
exercise training on psychological stress and well-being in an adolescent
population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 36(1), 55-65
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2014, June).
Obesity update. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/
Parks, K. M. & Steelman, L. A., (2008). Organizational Wellness Programs: A Meta-
Analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13(1), 58-68. doi:
10.1037/1076-8998.13.1.58
Pauline, J. S., (2013). Physical activity behaviors, motivation, and self-efficacy among
college students. College Student Journal, 47(1) 64-74.

96
Peterson, M. L., (2017). Authentic Leadership links between physical activity,
mindfulness, and emotional competence (Doctoral dissertation). Available from
ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global database. (ProQuest Number 10270883)
Prestol-Puesan, J., (2015). An exploratory, correlational, self-rater study on Authentic
Leadership values of Adventist local conference chief financial officers in the
United States (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation &
Theses Global database. (UMI Number 3700503)
Rahimnia, F. & Sharifirad, M. S., (2015). Authentic Leadership and Employee Well-
Being: The Mediating Role of Attachment Insecurity. Journal Business Ethics,
132, 363-377. doi: 10.1007/s10551-014-2318-1
Rodriguez, J., (2016). Emotional intelligence and Authentic Leadership: An empirical
exploration of two emerging theoretical constructs (Doctoral dissertation).
Available from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global database. (ProQuest
10304266)
Ruiz, E. L., (2018). Emotional Intelligence and Physical Activity Predicting Authentic
Leadership (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation &
Theses Global database. (ProQuest 10822995)
Saboe., K. N., (2012). Fit to lead? Supervisors’ health behaviors, well-being, and
leadership behaviors (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest
Dissertation & Theses Global database. (UMI Number 3522785).
Schwetschenau, H. M., O’Brien, W. H., Cunningham, C. J. L., & Jex, S. M., (2008).
Barriers to Physical Activity in an on-site Corporate Fitness Center. Journal of

97
Occupational Health Psychology 13(4), 371-380. doi: 10.1037/1076-
8998.13.4.371
Sendjaya, S., Pekerti, A., Hartel, C., Hirst, G., & Butarbutar, I., (2016). Are Authentic
Leaders always moral? The role of Machiavellianism in the relationship between
Authentic Leaders and morality. Journal of Business Ethics, 133, 125-139. doi:
10.1007/s10551-014-2351-0
Sessa, V. I., Kabacoff, R. I., Deal, J., & Brown, H., (2007). Generational differences in
leader values and leadership behaviors. The Psychologist Manager Journal, 10(1),
47-74.
Shain, M., & Kramer, D. M., (2004). Health promotion in the workplace: framing the
concept; reviewing the evidence. Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
61(7), 643-648.
Shamir, B., & Eilam, G., (2005). “What’s your story?” A life-stories approach to
Authentic Leadership development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395-417. doi:
10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.005
Shiroma, E. J. & Lee, I., (2010). Physical Activity and cardiovascular health lessons
learned from epidemiological studies across age, gender, and race/ethnicity.
Journal Circulation, 122, 743-752. doi:
10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.914721
Steptoe, A., Edwards, S., Moses, J., & Mathews, A., (1989). The effects of exercise
training on mood and perceived coping ability in anxious adults from the general
population. Journal of Psychosomatic research, 33(5), 537-547.

98
Stone, D. A., (2016). A study of the relationships between self-esteem, locus of control,
Authentic Leadership, and veterinarians in the United States (Doctoral
dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global database.
(ProQuest 10014682)
Tate, B., (2008). A longitudinal study of the relationships among self-monitoring,
Authentic Leadership, and perceptions of leadership. Journal of Leadership &
Organizational Studies, 15(1), 16-29
Teaf, S. H., (2014). Authentic Leadership: An examination of the relationship between
political ideology, moral reasoning, and Authentic Leadership behaviors
Toor, S., & Ofori, G., (2009). Authenticity and its influence on psychological well-being
and contingent self-esteem of leaders in Singapore construction sector.
Construction Management and Economics, 27, 299-313. doi:
10.1080/01446190902729721
U.S. Census Bureau, (2016, June 24). Retrieved from
https://www.census.gov/glossary/#term_Age
https://www.census.gov/glossary/#term_Gender
https://www.census.gov/glossary/#term_Educationalattainment
https://www.census.gov/glossary/#term_Ethnicorigin
99
Van Katwyk, P. T., Fox, S., Spector, P. E., & Kelloway, K. E., (2000). Using the Job-
Related Affective Well-Being Scale (JAWS) to Investigate Affective Responses
to Work Stressors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 219-230.
doi: 10.1037//1076-8998.5.2.219
Walumbwa, F. O., Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Wernsing, T. S., Peterson, S. J., (2008).
Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure.
Journal of Management, 34(1), 89-126. doi: 10.1177/0149206307308913
Wang, Y., & Beydoun, M. A., (2007). The obesity epidemic in the United States –
gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: A
systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiologic Review, 29, 6-28.
doi: 10.1093/epirev/mxm007
Warr, P., (1978). A study of psychological well-being. British Journal of Psychology, 69,
111-121.
Wicker, P., & Frick, B., (2015). The relationship between intensity and duration of
physical activity and subjective well-being. European Journal of Public Health,
25(5), 868-872. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckv131
World Health Organization (WHO). (2014, January). Physical activity. Retrieved from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs385/en/#
APPENDICES
Appendix A: OLLU Institutional Review Board Notice of Approval
Appendix B: Participant Consent Form
Appendix C: Permission to use International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)
Appendix D: Permission to use Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ)
Appendix E: Permission to use Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS)
Appendix F: Demographic Survey
100
101
Appendix A
OLLU Institutional Review Board Approval

102
Appendix B
Participant Consent Form

103
Appendix B Continued
Participant Consent Form

104
Appendix C
Permission to use International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)

105
Appendix D
Permission to use Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ)

106
Appendix E
Permission to use Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS)
Dear Leo:
You have my permission for noncommercial research/teaching use of any of my

scales that are in the Our Assessments section of my website paulspector.com,
including the JAWS. You can find copies of the scales in the original English and
for some scales other languages, as well as details about the scale's
development and norms on the website. I allow free use for noncommercial
research and teaching purposes in return for sharing of results. This includes
student theses and dissertations, as well as other student research projects.
Copies of the scale can be reproduced in a thesis or dissertation as long as the
copyright notice is included, "Copyright Paul E. Spector, All rights reserved" with
the appropriate year. Results can be shared by providing an e-copy of a
published or unpublished research report (e.g., a dissertation). You also have
permission to translate the scales into another language under the same
conditions in addition to sharing a copy of the translation with me. Be sure to
include the copyright statement, as well as credit the person who did the
translation with the year.
Thank you for your interest in my scales, and good luck with your research.
Best,
Paul Spector, Distinguished Professor

Department of Psychology
PCD 4118
University of South Florida
Tampa, FL 33620
813-974-0357
pspector@usf.edu
Website: http://shell.cas.usf.edu/~pspector/
107
Appendix F
Demographics Survey

1 Exploring - The - Relationship - Bet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

1 Exploring - The - Relationship - Bet

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Exploring - The - Relationship - Bet

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP, PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY, AND JOB-RELATED AFFECTIVE WELL-BEING OF SELF-IDENTIFED LEADERS

For the Degree of

Our Lady of the Lake University

____________________________ April 14, 2020

____________________________ April 14, 2020

____________________________ April 14, 2020

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All Rights Reserved.

well-being of individuals. However, research regarding physical activity and the

mental/psychological well-being for individual is limited. Particularly, physical activity

activity, Authentic Leadership, and Job Affective Well-being of self-identified leaders.

demographic survey, the International Physical Activity Questionnaire SF, Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire, and the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale. Descriptive

significant predictor of Authentic Leadership Moral/Ethical behavior. Overall Authentic

Leadership showed a significant relationship with Job-related Affective Well-being.

Education and Job Affective Well-being ............................................................................... 39

Leadership Behavior Transparency ................................................................................... 74

Table 1. Correlation matrix of continuous variables ……………………………………70

Table 3. Model summary for education on moral/ethical perspective ………………….77

Table 5. Summary of Results…………………………………………………………….83

Figure 1. Distribution of gender of respondents…………………………………………62

Figure 2. Distribution of the age of respondents…………………………………………62

Figure 3. Distribution of the tenure of respondents……………………………………...63

Figure 4. Distribution of the level of education of respondents…………………………64

Figure 5. Distribution of the ethnicity of respondents…………………………………...64

Figure 6. Distribution of physical activity scores………………………………………..65

Figure 7. Distribution of scores on transparency subscale………………………………66

Figure 8. Distribution of cores on moral/ethical subscale………………………….……67

Figure 9. Distribution of scores on balanced processing subscale………………………67

Figure 10. Distribution of scores on self-awareness subscale………………………..…68

Figure 11. Distribution of scores on overall Authentic Leadership scale……………….68

Figure 12. Distribution of scores on Job-related Affective Well-being scale……………69

Figure 13. Bar graph of gender and transparency……………………………………….76

Figure 14. Scatter plot of physical activity and transparency……………………….......76

Figure 15. Bar graph of education and moral/ethical perspective………………………78

can see that anything is possible.

encouragement and inspiration to complete my dissertation and for your contribution to

my professional development. To the members of my committee Dr. Meghan A.

knowledge that you both passed on to me was greatly appreciated.

I wished to acknowledge and thank my colleagues in RGV Cohort 2, we

Jesus (CJ) Gonzalez whose conversations inspired me to continue my education, I miss

well-established foundation of physical well-being, such as vigorous exercise will clear

Pyramid (Loehr & Schwartz, 2001).

(2014). The economic burden of chronic disease attributable to obesity is projected to

Kivimaki, & Sabia, 2015)

building resiliency through physical fitness in high demand organizations increases

feelings of vigor (Neck & Cooper, 2000).

various life/non-work satisfactions, the work/job-related satisfaction, and overall general

health (1999). Subjective well-being is a multi-faceted construct that comprises of

satisfaction (2012). Health is a sub-component of well-being which is a combination of

(Dana & Griffin, 1999).

Researchers and managers recognize that leaders’ physical activity in the

workplace enhances productivity, reduces staff turnover and absenteeism, improves

hypertension, Type 2 diabetes, some cancers, osteoporosis and musculoskeletal

impairments, and depressions (Warburton, Nicol, & Bredin, 2006). In an HBO

documentary “Weight of a Nation,” Thomas Friedman from the Center of Disease