Engineering Materials

Why study materials?

• applied scientists or engineers must make material choices
• materials selection
• in-service performance
• deterioration
• economics
BUT…really, everyone makes material choices!
aluminum glass plastic
What is material?
• Material is nothing but a matter of substance used to create a certain
thing.
• Engineering materials are the materials used to for the application of
engineering works.
• Based on the mechanical, physical, chemical and manufacturing
properties materials are selected according to the application.
Factors for selection of materials
The selection of material for the required functioning application is
based on some of the following factors:
• Stresses to which the work piece or component will be subjected.
• Corrosion resistance.
• Temperature, wear and tear resistance.
• Flexibility and rigidity.
• Easiness of the manufacturing process.
• Cost effectiveness for the product development.
• Availability of the material.
Classification of Engineering Materials
 Common type of materials

Metals Non-Metals

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Polymers Ceramics

Hybrids (Composites)
Classification of Materials
Metals Ceramics & Glasses Polymers
• good conductors of • thermally and • low density, low weight
electricity and heat electrically insulating • maybe extremely
• lustrous appearance • resistant to high flexible
• susceptible to temperatures and
corrosion harsh environments
• strong, but • hard, but brittle
deformable
Classification of Materials
Biomaterials Semiconductors Composites
• implanted in human • electrical properties • consist of more than
body between conductors one material type
• compatible with and insulators • designed to display
body tissues • electrical properties a combination of
can be precisely properties of each
controlled component

Hip replacement Intel Pentium 4 Fiberglass surfboards

Metals
 Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of
differentially oriented fine crystals.
 Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature.
 However, some metals such as mercury are also in liquid state at normal
temperature.
 All metals are having high thermal and electrical conductivity.
 All metals are having positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
 Means resistance of metals increases with increase in temperature.
 Examples of metals – Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin
etc.
Metals can be further divided into two groups
Ferrous Metals
 All ferrous metals are having iron as common element.
 All ferrous materials are having very high permeability which makes these
materials suitable for construction of core of electrical machines.
 Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel,
Spring Steel etc.
 Non-Ferrous Metals
 All non-ferrous metals are having very low permeability.
Example: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.
Metals
• Ferrous Metals • Non-ferrous metals
• Carbon steel • Aluminum and its alloys
• Stainless steel • Copper and its alloys
• Cast irons • Magnesium and its alloys
• Alloy steel • Nickel and its alloys
• Super alloys • Titanium and its alloys
• Iron-based • Zinc and its alloys
• Nickel-based • Lead & Tin
• Cobalt-based • Refractory metals
• Precious metals
Carbon steels
• Carbon steels are possibly the most widely used type of ferrous metal.
• They are primarily made up of iron, with over 90% of their chemical composition being that element.
• The only other major alloying element in carbon steel is carbon.
• There are only trace amounts of other elements.
• Common applications of carbon steels include structures, furniture, and automotive components

1. Low-carbon steel or mild steel, < 0.2%C, bolts, nuts and sheet plates.
2. Medium-carbon steel, 0.2% ~ 0.6%C, machinery, automotive and agricultural
equipment.

3. High-carbon steel, > 0.60% C, springs, cutlery, cable.

Stainless steels
• Stainless steel is another group of ferrous metals that are commonly used.
• In general, stainless steels have a high amount of chromium that helps
them to resist corrosion better than carbon steels.
• Stainless steels can be further broken down into subgroups.
• Austenitic stainless steels have the most corrosion resistance, with high
amounts of nickel and chromium.
• There are also ferritic, martensitic, and duplex stainless steels. Each has
their own advantages and disadvantages depending on the application.
• Common applications of stainless steels include appliances, pharmaceutical
and medical equipment, food-grade equipment, and knives
Cast Iron
• Cast iron is a type of ferrous metal that has more carbon than most
other types.
• This gives it a high amount of strength. Although high in strength, it is
quite brittle.
• The lack of other alloying elements outside of iron and carbon make it
a relatively affordable ferrous metal.
• Common applications of cast iron include cookware, small
components subject to wear such as gears, rods, and pins, and mining
equipment
Cast Iron ( Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder
iron)
1. Grey Cast Iron, Cast iron which contain carbon in free form, known as Gray cast iron. It is also
known as commercial cast iron due to mostly used in commercial purpose. It contains 3 to 3.5 %
carbon and rest iron. This cast iron has low tensile strength, high compressive strength and no
ductility (C 3.4, Si 1.8, Mn 0.5) (Engine cylinder blocks, flywheels, gearbox cases, machine-tool
bases)
2. White cast iron, Cast iron in which carbon is present in combined form or in carbide form known
as white cast iron. White colour is due to carbide formation. It contain up to 2.3 percent carbon. It
is hard and not suitable for machining. This iron has high tensile strength and a low compressive
strength (Bearing Surface)
3. Malleable cast iron, This cast iron is obtained from white cast iron by heat treatment process. It is
mostly obtain by annealing of white cast iron. It has improved strength and ductility like steel but
can be cast easily. Uses include electrical fittings, hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence
fittings etc
Silicon: It is present in cast iron up to 4 percent. It
promotes graphite formation which make it soft and
easily machinable.
Sulphur: It is present up to 0.1 present. It makes
cast iron hard and brittle.
Manganese: It promote carbide formation of cast
iron which make it ehite and hard. It is present up
to 0.75 percent.
Chromium: It also promote carbide formation
which make it hard and difficult to machine
Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are a type of ferrous metal specially formulated to serve specific purposes. While composed
primarily of iron, differing amounts of copper, vanadium, tungsten, manganese, and other elements can
be used to tailor an alloy steel to have higher toughness, ductility, tensile strength, hardness, and other
properties. Common applications of alloy steels include tools, dies, and machining equipment
• Steels containing alloys in specifiable amounts
• 1.65% or more manganese
• 0.60% silicon
• 0.60% copper
• Most common alloying elements are chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt,
boron and copper
• Low alloy steels contain less than 8% alloy additions
• High alloy steels contain more than 8% alloy additions
Common Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
Alloy
• Alloy is a combination of two or more metals. It is named based on metallic bonding character. It is of two
types’ ferrous metal alloy and non ferrous metal alloy.
• Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon and silicon.
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Applications
• Due to their toughness and ability to sterilize at high temperatures metals are used as needles, surgical
blades.
• Due to their strength and ability to withstand heavy weights metals like iron and steel are used in
construction.
• Metals like gold, silver, platinum, etc are used in jewellery.
• Metals are used in machines and automobiles as they can withstand high temperature, pressure and
workloads.
• Aluminium and titanium play important role in light weight category for aircraft alloys.
• Tungsten is used in high temperature applications.
 Aluminium and aluminium alloys
• Aluminum alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivity and good corrosion resistant
characteristics. But low melting point (660°C).
• These alloys are ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily.
• Major alloying elements include Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn
• Alloys of Al and other low-density metals like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention due to high strength to
weight ratio.
• Al-Li alloys are widely use in aircraft industry
• Common applications of Al alloys include beverage cans, automotive parts, bus bodies, aircraft
structures, etc

Factors for selecting are:

1. High strength to weight ratio
2. Resistance to corrosion
3. High thermal and electrical conductivity
4. Ease of machinability
5. Non-magnetic
Copper and Copper alloys
• Unalloyed Cu is soft, ductile thus hard to machine, and has the virtually
unlimited capacity for cold work
• Copper alloys have good electrical and mechanical properties, corrosion
resistant in diverse atmosphere, thermal conductivity and wear
resistance.
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
• Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
• Bronzes are stronger and more corrosion resistant than brasses.
• Applications of Cu alloys include costume jewellery, coins, musical
instruments, electronics, springs, bushes, heat exchangers surgical and
dental instruments, radiators
Magnesium and Magnesium alloys
• Mg has low density among all structural metals.
• Mg alloys are difficult to form at room temperatures. Hence Mg
alloys are usually fabricated by casting or hot working.
• Major alloying additions are Al, Zn and Mn.
• Alloys are used in structural and non-structural applications.
• Common applications of Mg alloys include hand-held devices like
saws, tools, automotive parts like steering wheels, seat frames,
electronics like casing for laptops, camcorders, cell phones
• Also has good vibration-damping characteristics.
 Titanium and titanium alloys
• Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength and have a very
high melting point. they are easy to machine and forge.
• Titanium (Ti) is expensive, has high strength-to-weight ratio and
corrosion and wear resistance.
• The major limitation is Ti’s chemical reactivity at high temperatures.
• Common applications include space vehicles, airplane structures, surgical
implants, and petroleum and chemical industries.
Nickel and nickel alloys
• Nickel (Ni) has good strength, toughness, and
corrosion resistance. It resist high temp. and
pressure
• Used in stainless steels and nickel-base alloys.
• Alloys are used for high temperature applications,
such as jet-engine components and rockets.
• Monel (Ni + Cu) is used for deep- sea mining due to
its high corrosion resistant property.
Non-Metals
• Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature.
• These are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal
temperature.
• Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc.
• As these non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them
suitable for insulation purpose in electrical machines.
CERAMICS
• Compounds b/w metallic and nonmetallic elements with interatomic
bonds having ionic and covalent character
• Ceramics have regular atomic structure and crystal structure.
Ceramics are mainly oxides, nitrides and carbides.
• They are non conducting materials, due to its insulating property they
are used as insulators.
• They are very hard and brittle in nature and high compressive
strength.
Eg: alumina, silica, silicon carbide, diamond, bricks, etc.
Properties:
Applications:
• Due to the compressive strength bricks are used in construction
• Because of their good thermal insulation ceramic tiles are used in ovens.
• Some ceramics are transparent to radar and other electromagnetic waves are
used in radomes* and transmitters.
• Glass ceramics have high temperature capabilities so they are used in optical
equipment and fiber insulation.
• Alumina, silica, silicon carbide are used in making tools.
• Diamond is used in ornaments and cutting tool applications.

*radome is a structural, weatherproof

enclosure that protects a radar system or
antenna and is constructed of material that
minimally attenuates the electromagnetic
signal transmitted or received by the
antenna
POLYMERS
• Polymers have chain molecule structure of carbon as back bone atoms. They
are mainly made up of tough organic materials.
• They are low density materials and also flexible. In some cases polymers are
not flexible.
• Polymers are not only used as structural materials, they can be used as fiber
and resins in the matrix of composite materials.
Eg : polyester as fibers, phenolic and epoxides as resins.
• Elastomers are also polymers but they are considered separately due to their
specific design for certain purposes like shock and vibration absorption.
• Natural polymers :
• Eg : wool, silk, DNA, cellulose, proteins, etc.
• Synthetic polymers:
• Thermoplastics
• Thermosetting plastics
• Eg: nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon, epoxy, Bakelite, etc.
• Applications:
• Polyethylene is used for making carry bags.
• Polypropylene is used for making high temperature resistance products
like feeding bottle.
• Polyether ether ketone and polyethylene ketone are used in mineral
water bottle concept.
• Poly carbonate is used to make high performance polymers like
transparent polymers
• Polyaniline is a conducting polymer.
• Bakelite used for making insulating materials.
COMPOSITE
• Composite material is the composition of two or more constituent materials with different physical
and chemical properties (and insoluble in nature) to produce a different characteristic material.
• Composite material may be both metals or metal and ceramic or metal and polymer, depending upon
the application requirement the combination is made.
• Eg : Wood and Bones (Naturally occurring polymers), concrete/RCC, plywood fiber glass, CFRP (carbon
fiber reinforced plastic), GFRP (glass fiber reinforced plastic), etc.
Matrix- Polymer, Ceramic
Reinforcement- Continuous, Discontinuous
• Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in weight so ratios
of strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight are several times greater
than steel and aluminium.
• Fatigue properties are better than most common materials.
• Toughness is often greater too.
• Composites can be designed that do not corrode like steel.
• Possible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with
metal, ceramics and polymers
• Ceramics has poor fracture toughness ( Reinforcement improves this
property)
Matrix
• Materials that holds the reinforcement in place.
• Provides the bulk form of the part or product made of the composite material.
• When a load is applied, the matrix shares the load with the reinforcing element
• 80M : 20R or 70M: 30R
Reinforcing elements
• Material that provides strength or reinforcement to the matrix.
eg. Fibers, particulates, Flakes, whiskers, layers
How composites are different from alloy
 So, both the constituents are present in reasonable proportions (>5%).
 Two chemical must be insoluble in nature. It means there should be interface between
them.
 There must be continuity of any of the constituents.
 Composite properties are noticeably different form the properties of the constituents.
Composite Materials
• Nonuniform solid consisting of two or more different
materials
• Mechanically or metallurgically bonded
• Each of the constituent materials maintains its identity
• Properties depend on:
• Properties of individual components
• Relative amounts
• Size, shape, and distribution
• Orientation
• Degree of bonding
Advantages:
• They have tailor made properties.
• Light weight.
• Good Mechanical Properties (Fracture or Toughness).
• Integral design and part integration (Do not need to make parts
assembly).
• Ease of fabrication/install (Bridges/Foot over bridge).
• Inherent surface & Finish
Limitations:
• Polymer based product are not suitable for high temperature
application.
Applications:
• CFRP and GFRP are used for automotive body parts.
• CRPF and honeycomb composites are used for chassis.
• Some fuel tanks are made up of Kevlar reinforced fiber.
• Reinforced thermosets are used in springs and bumper system.
• Fiberglass reinforced plastic has been used for boat hulls, fishing rods,
tennis rackets, helmets, bows and arrows.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Semiconductor is an intermediate conducting material.
• Their conductivity is not high as like metals and low as like insulating
ceramic materials.
• In these materials' resistance decreases as their temperature increases.
• The unique atomic structure allows to control the conductivity.
Eg : silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, selenium, etc.
• Applications:
• Gallium arsenide is widely used in low noise, high gain and weak signal
amplifying devices.
• A semi conductor device can perform the function of a vacuum tube having
hundreds of times its volume.
 BIOMATERIALS
• Biomaterials are non-viable materials.
Eg : alumina, zirconia, titanium, tantalum, niobium, carbon, etc.
Applications:
• Metals are used in medicine to cure any micronutrient metal
deficiency diseases in humans and animals, like iron is a part of
hemoglobin a bio molecule which can be used as ferrous sulphate to
cure some forms of anemia.
• Implants in the body to repair or replace the damaged tissue.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Strength  Elasticity
Hardness  Plasticity
Toughness  Rigidity
Brittleness  Machinability
Ductility  Resilience
Malleability  Fatigue
 Creep
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The characteristics of material that describe the behavior under the
action of external loads are referred as its mechanical properties. The
common mechanical properties are as follows
STRENGTH :
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist loads without failure.
It is usually expressed or measured in terms of maximum load per unit
area (i.e. maximum stress or ultimate strength) that a material can
withstand failure and it varies according to the type of loading .
Further the strength is divided into three types:
1. Tensile Strength:
The tensile strength or tenacity is defined
as the ability of material to resist a stretching
(tensile) load without fracture.
2. Compressive strength:
The ability of a material to resist squeezing
(compressive) load without fracture is called
compressive strength.

3. Shear strength:
The ability of a material to resist transverse
loads i.e. loads tending to separate (or cut)
the material is called shear strength.

STIFFNESS:
It is the ability of material to resist deformation or deflection
under load. Within the elastic limit, stiffness is measured by
the modulus of elasticity.
ELASTICITY:
The ability of a material to deform under load and return to
its original shape when the load is removed is called elasticity.
It is essential for structural components

PLASTICTY:
The ability of a material to deform under load and retain its
new shape when the load is removed is called plasticity.
It makes the material to be formable.

DUCTILITY:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed
plastically without rupture under tensile load.
Due to this property material can drawn out
into fine wire without fracture.
BRITTLENESS:
It is the property of sudden fracture without any visible permanent
deformation.
MALLEABILTY:
It is the ability of a material to be deformed plastically without rupture
under compressive load. Due to this property metals are hammered and
rolled into thin sheets.
Point to remember: if a material is ductile it will be malleable. but if it
malleable, then it is not necessary that it will be ductile.
TOUGHNESS:
 It describes a material’s resistance to fracture under impact loading. It is
often expressed in terms of the amount of energy a material can absorb
before fracture.
 It is the property by virtue of which a material absorbs energy before
fracture
 Toughness is not a single property but rather a combination of strength
and ductility.
RESILIENCE:
It is a property of material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is
measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit.
It is very important property for springs
HARDNESS:
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist scratching or indentation by another
hard body. Hardness is directly related to strength.
CREEP:
• It is the progressive deformation of a material under a constant static load maintained
for a long period of time. It is a slow, temperature-aided, time-dependent
deformation. It shows some indication before fracture
FATIGUE:
Failure of material under repeated or reversal stresses is called fatigue.
In this case sudden failure takes place. Under this loading even ductile material gives
brittle failure.
MACHINABILITY:
The ease with which a given material may be worked or
shaped with a cutting tool is called machinability.
Machinability depends on chemical composition, structure
and mechanical properties.
WELDABILITY:
It is the ability of material to be joined by welding. Weldability
depends on chemical composition, physical properties and
heat treatment to which they are subjected.
CASTABILITY:
Castability of metal refer to the ease with which it can be cast
into different shapes and is concerned with the behavior of
metal in its molten state.