Mechanical Properties of Materials

Al-ISRAA University College Ass. Lec.
Hayder Ali
Building & Construction
Ass. Lec. Ahmed Hasan
Tech. Eng. Dep.
Strength of Materials / Second Stage
Chapter 3
Mechanical Properties of Materials
3.1 Stress – Strain Diagram

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue deformation or
failure. This strength is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment. One of
the most important tests to perform in this regard is the tension or compression test. Once this test is
performed, we can then determine the relationship between the average normal stress and average
normal strain in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
To perform a tension or compression test, a specimen of the

material is made into a “standard” shape and size, Fig. 3–1. As
shown it has a constant circular cross section with enlarged
ends, so that when tested, failure will occur somewhere within
the central region of the specimen. Before testing, two small
punch marks are sometimes placed along the specimen’s
uniform length. Measurements are taken of both the specimen’s
initial cross-sectional area, A0, and the gage-length distance L0
between the punch marks.
A testing machine like the one shown in Fig. 3–2 is then used
to stretch the specimen at a very slow, constant rate until it fails.
The machine is designed to read the load required to maintain
this uniform stretching.
Strength of Materials 1
Al-ISRAA University College Ass. Lec. Hayder Ali
Tech. Eng. Dep.
3.2 Plotting the Stress – Strain diagram
Once the stress and strain data from the test are known, then the results can be plotted to produce a
curve called the stress–strain diagram. This diagram is very useful since it applies to a specimen of
the material made of any size. There are two ways in which the stress–strain diagram is normally
described:
1- Conventional (Engineering) Stress–Strain Diagram
2- True Stress–Strain Diagram
3.2.1 Conventional (Engineering) Stress–Strain Diagram
The nominal or engineering stress is determined by dividing the applied load P by the specimen’s
original cross-sectional area A0. This calculation assumes that the stress is constant over the cross
section and throughout the gage length. We have:
Likewise, the nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gage reading, or by
dividing the change in the specimen’s gage length, d, by the specimen’s original gage length L0. Thus,
When these values of σ and ɛ are plotted, where the vertical axis is the stress and the horizontal
axis is the strain, the resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain diagram. A typical
example of this curve is shown in Fig. 3–3
Tech. Eng. Dep.
From the curve above, we can identify four different regions in which the material behaves in a
unique way, depending on the amount of strain induced in the material:
1- Elastic region (Elastic Behaviour)
2- Yielding
3- Strain Hardening (Plastic Behaviour)
4- Necking
❖ Elastic Behaviour:
The initial region of the curve, indicated in light orange, is referred to as the elastic region. Here
the curve is a straight line up to the point where the stress reaches the proportional limit, σpl. What
makes the elastic region unique, however, is that after reaching σY, if the load is removed, the
specimen will recover its original shape. In other words, no damage will be done to the material.
Tech. Eng. Dep.
Because the curve is a straight line up to σpl, any increase in stress will cause a proportional
increase in strain. This fact was discovered in 1676 by Robert Hooke, using springs, and is known as
Hooke’s law. It is expressed mathematically as:
( Hooke’s law )
In Hooke’s law, E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young
modulus of elasticity represents the slope of the straight line portion of the curve. Since strain is
dimensionless, E will have the same units as stress:
∆𝝈 𝝈𝑷𝒍
𝑬= 𝒐𝒓 𝑬=
∆𝝐 𝝐𝑷𝒍
❖ Yielding:
A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a breakdown of the material and
cause it to deform permanently. This behaviour is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular
dark orange region in Fig. 3–3. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point,
σY, and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation.
❖ Strain Hardening:
When yielding has ended, any load causing an increase in stress will be supported by the specimen,
resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress
referred to as the ultimate stress, σu. The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening,
and it is identified in Fig. 3–3 as the region in light green.
Tech. Eng. Dep.
❖ Necking
Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease in a fairly
uniform manner over the specimen’s entire gage length. However, just after reaching the ultimate
stress, the cross-sectional area will then begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen, and so
it is here where the stress begins to increase. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to form with
further elongation. This region of the curve due to necking is indicated in dark green in Fig. 3–3. Here
the stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress σf.
3.2.2 True Stress–Strain Diagram
The difference between the True stress-strain Diagram from the Conventional Stress-strain Diagram
is instead of always using the original cross-sectional area A0 and specimen length L0 to calculate the
(engineering) stress and strain, we could have used the actual cross-sectional area A and specimen
length L at the instant the load is measured. The values of stress and strain found from these
measurements are called true stress and true strain, and a plot of their values is called the true stress–
strain diagram.
Tech. Eng. Dep.
Example 3.1 Stress-Strain Diagram
A concrete cylinder having a diameter of 6.00 in. and

gauge length of 12 in. is tested in compression. The results of
the test are reported in the table as load versus contraction.
Draw the stress–strain diagram using scales of 1 in. = 0.5 ksi
and 1 in.=0.2(10-3) in./in. From the diagram, determine
approximately the modulus of elasticity.
Solution
Ans.
Tech. Eng. Dep.
A specimen is originally 1 ft long, has a diameter of 0.5 in., and is subjected to a force of 500 lb.
When the force is increased from 500 lb to 1800 lb, the specimen elongates 0.009 in. Determine the
modulus of elasticity for the material if it remains linear elastic.
Solution
Kip= 1000 Ib
Ans.
Tech. Eng. Dep.
The aluminium rod, shown in Fig. 3–4a, has a circular cross section and is subjected to an axial load
of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–strain diagram is shown in Fig. 3–4b, determine the approximate
elongation of the rod when the load is applied. Take Eal = 70 GPa.
Solution
Tech. Eng. Dep.
Ans.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Al-ISRAA University College Ass. Lec.

3.1 Stress – Strain Diagram

To perform a tension or compression test, a specimen of the

3.2 Plotting the Stress – Strain diagram

1- Conventional (Engineering) Stress–Strain Diagram

2- True Stress–Strain Diagram

3.2.1 Conventional (Engineering) Stress–Strain Diagram

1- Elastic region (Elastic Behaviour)

3.2.2 True Stress–Strain Diagram

Example 3.1 Stress-Strain Diagram

A concrete cylinder having a diameter of 6.00 in. and

Example 3.2 Stress-Strain Diagram

Example 3.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

You might also like