Article
Sawdust-Based Concrete Composite-Filled Steel Tube Beams:
An Experimental and Analytical Investigation
Ammar N. Hanoon 1 , Mahir M. Hason 2 , Amjad Ali K. Sharba 3 , Ali A. Abdulhameed 1 ,
Mugahed Amran 4,5, * , Siva Avudaiappan 6,7 and Erick Saavedra Flores 7
Citation: Hanoon, A.N.; Hason,
M.M.; Sharba, A.A.K.; Abdulhameed,
A.A.; Amran, M.; Avudaiappan, S.;
Flores, E.S. Sawdust-Based Concrete
Composite-Filled Steel Tube Beams:
An Experimental and Analytical
Investigation. J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7,
256. https://doi.org/10.3390/
jcs7060256
Academic Editors: Francesco
Tornabene and Thanasis Triantafillou
Received: 17 February 2023
Revised: 15 April 2023
Accepted: 5 May 2023
Published: 19 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs7060256
1 Department of Reconstruction and Projects, University of Baghdad, Baghdad 10071, Iraq
2 Disaster Information Management Centre, Ministry of Science and Technology, Baghdad 10071, Iraq
3 Department of Civil Engineering, Mustansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq
4 Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Alkharj 16273, Saudi Arabia
5 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, Amran University, Amran 9677, Yemen
6 Departamento de Ingeniería Civil, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 3349001, Chile
7 Departamento de Ingeniería en Obras Civiles, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Av. Ecuador 3659,
Estación Central, Santiago, Chile
* Correspondence: m.amran@psau.edu.sa
Abstract: Incorporating waste byproducts into concrete is an innovative and promising way to
minimize the environmental impact of waste material while maintaining and/or improving con-
crete’s mechanical characteristics and strength. The proper application of sawdust as a pozzolan
in the building industry remains a significant challenge. Consequently, this study conducted an
experimental evaluation of sawdust as a fill material. In particular, sawdust as a fine aggregate in
concrete offers a realistic structural and economical possibility for the construction of lightweight
structural systems. Failure under four-point loads was investigated for six concrete-filled steel tube
(CFST) specimens. The results indicated that recycled lightweight concrete performed similarly to
conventional concrete when used as a filler material in composite steel tube beams. The structural
effects of sawdust substitution on ultimate load and initial stiffness were less substantial than the
relative changes in the material properties, and the ultimate capacity of the tested samples decreased
moderately as the substitution percentage of sawdust increased. Moreover, the maximum load
capacity was observed to decrease by 6.43–30.71% for sawdust replacement levels between 5% and
45.1% across all tested samples. Additionally, when using lightweight concrete with 5% sawdust,
the moment value of the CFST sample was reduced by 6.4%. Notably, the sawdust CFST samples
exhibited a flexural behavior that was relatively comparable to that of the standard CFST samples.
Keywords: sawdust; waste materials; environmental; concrete-filled steel tube; behavior
1. Introduction
It is well known that when considering resource extraction, energy usage, pollution,
gas releases, and trash generation, the building industry stands out as a major economic
actor [1]. Thus, supporting and implementing sustainability in buildings can contribute
to preserving the planet’s environment, protecting natural materials, and enhancing the
ecological circumstances of all varieties of life. An effort in this direction involves recycling
and reusing the waste in order to accomplish this goal [2,3]. By processing the wastes and
reusing them as recycled fine or coarse aggregates in concrete production, it would be
possible to manufacture and use “green” concrete for new construction.
Composite joints with concrete-filled steel tube columns and unequally high steel
beams were studied [4]. To gain an understanding of the hysteretic behavior of asymmet-
rical composite joints with CFST columns and unequal-height steel beams, 36 full-scale
composite joints were designed. The results indicated that as the compressive strength
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 2 of 21

of concrete cubes improved, so did the peak load and ductility of the specimens. Other
scholars developed a numerical model to investigate concrete-filled steel tubes under pure
torsion [5]. The models were evaluated against published experiments for validity and
then subjected to parametric analyses. According to the parametric analysis results, the
compressive strength of concrete enhanced the torsional moment capacity of the CFST
while preventing buckling and enhancing the steel tubes’ performance.
The utilization of reed and sawdust, as waste materials, to produce cementitious
building units was studied [6,7]. A theoretical analysis was conducted on the behavior
and strength of simply supported composite beams enhanced by steel cover plates, taking
the partial interaction of shear connections and the nonlinear behavior of the materials
and shear connectors into consideration. The results were compared to available experi-
mental results, which demonstrated a high degree of agreement. As the composite section
approaches its ultimate bending capacity and the lower flange begins to yield due to heavy
loading, a cover plate is provided to extend the beam’s load-bearing ability. Furthermore,
the effect of internal bars on the axial response of concrete-filled fiberglass tube (CFFT)
columns was studied [4,8]. A total of seven CFFTs and three RC columns were designed and
tested under cyclic axial loading for failure to serve as control specimens for comparison.
Several important inferences were drawn from the data with respect to the general pattern
and ultimate state of the axial stress–strain behavior, the mode of failure of the tested CFFT
columns, and the plastic strains.
For many years, it was thought that confining concrete in steel tubes is a practi-
cal solution to increase the concrete strength [9]. This is because confinement not only
improves the concrete’s compressive strength and prevents crack growth but also seals
the core concrete preventing the moisture exchange with the environment and greatly
reduces the concrete’s lateral deformation [10,11]. To enhance RAC’s mechanical character-
istics, the concept of using recycled aggregate (RA) concrete in steel tubes was formally
introduced [12]. The resulting structural component is known as steel tube filled with
recycled aggregate concrete (RACFST). Since then, the effectiveness of employing building
and deconstruction waste material as recycled aggregates has been investigated using a
variety of steel tube types, including carbon and stainless-steel tubing and fiber-reinforced
polymer (FRP)-strengthened steel tubing.
According to Yang and Han’s [13] experimental program, the failure mechanism of
recycled aggregate CFST beams evaluated during bending loads was always linked to
localized buckles in the compression side of the steel tubes; hence, the replacement per-
centage of recycled aggregate (RA) (0%, 25%, and 50%) had little effect on these failure
modes. The preliminary and serviceability levels of bending stiffness of the RA–concrete
beams were found to be 3.3–8.7% and 3.1–8.2%, less than those of regular concrete beams.
The specimens filled with normal concrete were found to be between 3.5% and 8.1% more
robust in terms of ultimate flexural moment than the specimens with recycled aggregate
concrete. It was also revealed that when used in offshore conditions in which rust is a critical
challenge, stainless-steel tubing should be utilized instead of carbon steel pipes as a jacketing
material [14]. This allows for greater resistance to corrosion. Utilizing stainless-steel tubes
can not only provide the benefits of durability and aesthetics but also provide additional
benefits. A test examination was performed of the efficiency of steel tube beams filled
with recycled aggregate concrete submitted to a bending load in a four-point pattern [13].
According to the testing outcomes, the failure mechanism of such beams filled with recycled
aggregate concrete (RAC) was comparable to that of beams filled with natural aggregate,
and the replacement ratio of recycled aggregate (RA) had no effect on the failure mode.
In an effort to reduce waste, the current study also examined how sawdust affects the
structural performance of the CFST system. According to the authors’ best information,
there are not many data in the literature that covers how CFST systems behave when
using different core materials, particularly sawdust. The best-known waste product from
the wood industry is sawdust [15]. Timbers create waste when mechanically milled into
different sizes and shapes. Sawdust is a substance that is considered a type of waste and a
 In an effort to reduce waste, the current study also examined how sawdust affects the
structural performance of the CFST system. According to the authors’ best information,
there are not many data in the literature that covers how CFST systems behave when using
different core materials, particularly sawdust. The best-known waste product from the
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 3 of 21
wood industry is sawdust [15]. Timbers create waste when mechanically milled into dif-
ferent sizes and shapes. Sawdust is a substance that is considered a type of waste and a
by-product of the wood and timber industries. It is obtained when timber is cut, sawed,
by-product
or ground.of the wood
Sawmills and timber
generate industries.
enormous It is obtained
amounts of sawdust when timber
every year is[16,17]
cut, sawed,
(Figure or
ground. Sawmills
1). Sawdust wastesgenerate enormous
play a significant amounts
role of sawdust
in a number every year problems,
of environmental [16,17] (Figure
and as 1).
Sawdust wastes aplay
a consequence, a significant
developing countryroleisinseriously
a number at of environmental
risk if there it doesproblems, and as a
not have enough
consequence,
landfill space a developing
[15]. The amount country is seriously
of surplus sawdustatwaste
risk if there it does
produced not have
by factories, enough
mills, and
landfill space [15]. The amount of surplus sawdust waste produced by
residential activities increases annually [18]. The annual wood waste production is 64 mil- factories, mills,
and
lionresidential
tons in the activities increases
U. S.A., 8.8 million annually [18]. The4.6
tons in Germany, annual
million wood
tons waste production
in the U.K., and 4.5is
64 million
million tons
tons inin the U.S.A.,
Australia. 8.8 than
More million
halftons in Germany,
of these volumes4.6 aremillion tons in
not reused theThe
[19]. U.K., and
large
4.5 million tons
percentage in Australia.
of wood More
waste that is than half of these
not recycled shows volumes are not
that there are reused [19]. effective
not enough The large
percentage of wood waste
recycling approaches. The that is not
regular recycledofshows
recycling wood that
waste there
andare
its not enoughusage
successful effective
in
recycling
concrete areapproaches.
necessary The regular recycling
to guarantee its proper of wood as
disposal waste and its successful
an ecological remedy [20].usage in
concrete are necessary to guarantee its proper disposal as an ecological remedy [20].

Figure 1. Global wood harvest (containing wood fuel) calculated per country, m3 /km2 —Annotations:
Figure 1. Global wood harvest (containing wood fuel) calculated per country, m3/km2—Annota-
the white spots indicate low harvest or few available data (adapted from [16,17]).
tions: the white spots indicate low harvest or few available data (adapted from [16,17]).
It has become a strategy to create new building materials from recycled industrial
waste,Itbuthasstudies
become area currently
strategy to create
facing new building
a substantial materials
challenge fromof
because recycled industrial
the steady growth
waste, but studies are currently facing a substantial challenge
in applications of high-performance lightweight concrete (LWC) for building materials because of the steady
[21].
growth in applications
According of high-performance
to this perspective, using waste lightweight
sawdust as concrete (LWC)aggregate
a lightweight for building hasma-im-
terials [21].
proved LWCs. According
Sawdust to has
this been
perspective,
used inusing waste
the past to sawdust
produce as a lightweight
lightweight aggregate
concrete, and
ahas improved
number LWCs.have
of studies Sawdust has at
looked been
theused
rolesinitthe pastintocement
plays produceand lightweight
concrete concrete,
[22]. The
thermal conductivity of the cement composite produced from sawdust concrete
and a number of studies have looked at the roles it plays in cement and waste and [22].
its The
ther-
thermal conductivity of the cement composite produced from sawdust
mal characteristics were significantly lowered by up to 20%, especially in comparison waste and its ther-
tomal characteristics
those were significantly
of conventional concrete [23].lowered by up to 20%,
The lightweight especially
concrete in comparison
composites’ increased to
those of conventional concrete [23]. The lightweight concrete composites’
porosity and reduced density were indicated as the causes of the considerable reduction in increased po-
rosity and reduced
conductivity [18]. density were indicated as the causes of the considerable reduction in
conductivity [18]. sawdust wastes for natural aggregates (fine aggregate) in normal
By substituting
By substituting sawdust wastes
concretes in varied proportions for natural
ranging from 0% aggregates
to 100%, (fine aggregate)
Oyedepo in normal
et al. [24] con-
discovered
that a proportion of 25% or more of sawdust in substitution to natural aggregates can that
cretes in varied proportions ranging from 0% to 100%, Oyedepo et al. [24] discovered have
aanegative
proportion of 25%
impact or more
on the of sawdust
mechanical in substitution
properties and concrete to natural
density.aggregates
In comparable can have a
studies,
negativewas
sawdust impact
usedonin the mechanical
place properties
of fine aggregate andinconcrete
(sand) concretedensity.
in variousIn comparable
proportionsstud-(from
10% to 40%). It was proposed that substituting sawdust for fine aggregates in proportions
ies, sawdust was used in place of fine aggregate (sand) in concrete in various a proportion
up to 10% could increase the concrete mechanical durability and density [21]. Sawdust
waste was utilized in concrete by Boob [25] as a replacement for sand (in a proportion
between 0% and 15%). Mageswari and Vidivelli [26] showed that utilizing sawdust as an
alternative to fine aggregate (natural sand) to provide fine aggregates in concrete may be
a suitable choice. In addition to enabling the conservation of natural fine aggregates, it
may considerably reduce the problem of clearing sawdust waste [18]. It has been shown
that the thermal characteristics of the concrete composite are enhanced by the addition of
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 4 of 21

sawdust, which possesses characteristics of its own [20]. As a result, researchers observed
that sawdust concrete was more cost-effective than other construction materials [1].
Taking into account these previous studies, the primary goal of this study was to
understand if it is proper to use steel tubes filled with sawdust lightweight concrete.
Six tubular steel specimens were constructed and evaluated under pure flexural static
loads and filled with varying percentages of sawdust–concrete material (0%, 15%, 25%,
35%, and 45%). To study additional parameters that so far have not been experimentally
evaluated, two finite elements (FE) models were constructed and then analyzed with
the aid of the ABAQUS software. A discussion is then presented regarding the failure
mechanisms, flexural capacity, and stiffness. Moreover, this study tries to offer more
environmentally friendly solutions that are required due to worldwide environmental
challenges and considering that the use of scrap wood is increasing. Despite many different
types of studies having been conducted, the performance of concrete-filled steel tubes
(CFST) in the presence of wood waste has not been demonstrated. This study investigated
the structural performance, failure mechanisms, ductility, and ultimate capacity of CFST
with different sawdust percentages.

2. Research Significance
Over the past few years, tubular steel filled with concrete (CFST) has drawn a lot
of interest from a diverse group of structural engineering experts to increase, especially,
lightweight concrete strength. At the same time, thousands of tons of sawdust waste
material are produced yearly, which is a new worldwide concern. Thus, the aim of the
current study was to investigate how sawdust impacts the structural behavior of CFST
structure in an effort to lessen the waste and cost of concrete buildings. Six tubular
steel specimens filled with lightweight concrete including various percentages of sawdust
material (5%, 15%, 25, 35%, and 45%) were constructed and evaluated under a flexural
monotonic load. The finite element (FE) ABAQUS model was constructed to validate the
experimental program and to investigate other parameters. The present study is the first
that combined CFST and lightweight sawdust concrete. It is suggested that this type of
concrete in conjunction with CFST would contribute to the structural response in current
design techniques.

3. Experimental Method
3.1. Material Properties
3.1.1. Sawdust
The quality monitoring of recycled aggregate grades and fundamental physical quali-
ties is crucial during the production of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). This is due to
the fact that aggregates significantly impact concrete’s flowability, strength, and durability.
Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of the particle size of coarse and fine aggregates, noting
that sawdust (Figure 3) was used as a partial substitution for sand (fine aggregate) in this
research. As shown in Figure 2, the sawdust had a particle size ranging from 0.72 to 5 mm
and was provided by a local woodworking company in Baghdad, Iraq.

3.1.2. Steel Tubes

Mild steel hot tubes were employed to examine the geometrical properties of the steel
tube sections, as shown in Figure 4. Three coupons were tested through a direct tensile
load test per ASTM standard [27]. The coupons were made by cutting the flat faces of
rectangular steel tubes. Table 1 summarizes the physical properties of these specimens
obtained from the coupons’ tensile test. The material possessed a 200 GPa modulus of
elasticity, a 250 MPa yield strength, and a 400 MPa ultimate strength.
 100
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 90 5 of 21

80
100 70

Passing, %
90 60
80 50
70 40

Passing, %
60
30
50
40 20
30 10
20 0
10 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0 Diameter, mm
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Diameter, mm
Fine Agg. Sawdust Coarse Agg.
Fine Agg. Sawdust Coarse Agg.
Figure 2. Sieve analysis of the used fine aggregates (sawdust).
Figure 2. Sieve analysis of the used fine aggregates (sawdust).
Figure 2. Sieve analysis of the used fine aggregates (sawdust).

Figure 3. Used waste wood from sustainable sources.

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23

3.1.2. Steel
Figure
Figure Tubes
3. 3. Used
Used waste
waste woodwood from sustainable
from sustainable sources. sources.
Mild steel hot tubes were employed to examine the geometrical properties of the steel
tube sections, as shown in Figure 4. Three coupons were tested through a direct tensile
3.1.2. Steel Tubes
load test per ASTM standard [27]. The coupons were made by cutting the flat faces of
Mild
rectangular steel
steel hotTable
tubes. tubes were employed
1 summarizes to examine
the physical the geometrical
properties properties of
of these specimens
tube sections, as shown in Figure 4. Three coupons were tested through
obtained from the coupons’ tensile test. The material possessed a 200 GPa modulus of a direc
elasticity,
load test a 250per
MPaASTM
yield strength,
standard and [27].
a 400 MPa
The ultimate
coupons strength.
were made by cutting the flat
rectangular steel tubes. Table 1 summarizes the physical properties of these sp
obtained from the coupons’ tensile test. The material possessed a 200 GPa mod
elasticity, a 250 MPa yield strength, and a 400 MPa ultimate strength.

Figure 4. Used mild steel tubes.

Figure 4. Used mild steel tubes.

Table 1. Coupon test on the rectangular steel tubes.

Tensile Requirements Per ASTM

Standa Standa
Average [28]
Specimen 𝒇𝒚 Average 𝒇𝒚 rd 𝒇𝒖 rd
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒇𝒖 𝒇𝒚 𝒇𝒖
 Figure 4. Used mild steel tubes.

Table 1. Coupon test on the rectangular steel tubes.

Tensile Requirements Per A

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 Standa Standa 6 of 21
Average [28]
Specimen 𝒇𝒚 Average 𝒇𝒚 rd 𝒇𝒖 rd
𝒇𝒖 𝒇𝒚 𝒇𝒖
Designation (𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) (𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) Deviati (𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎𝟐 ) Deviati
Table 1. Coupon test on the rectangular steel 𝒎𝒎𝟐 )
(𝑵⁄tubes. (min, 𝑵⁄𝒎𝒎 )𝟐 (min, 𝑵⁄
on on
Grade A Grade B Grade A G
Tensile Requirements Per ASTM [28]
ST1 250.7 Average 399.8Average fy fu
Specimen fy fy Standard fu fu Standard
ST2 Designation 251.3
(N/mm 2) 250.7Deviation0.61(N/mm399.7
2)
(N/mm2 )
400
Deviation 0.59N/mm2 ) 250
(min, (min,345
N/mm2 ) 400
(N/mm2 )
ST3 250.1 400.4 Grade A Grade B Grade A Grade B
ST1 250.7 399.8
ST2 251.3 250.7 0.61 399.7 400 0.59 250 345 400 483
ST3 250.1 3.2. Concrete Mixtures
400.4

In order to manufacture lightweight concrete, various proportions of sawd

3.2.
fineConcrete Mixtures
aggregate were added to consecutive concrete combinations in addition to the
In order
concrete to manufacture
(NC) mixture. Inlightweight concrete,concrete
the lightweight various proportions
mixtures, of sawdust
5%, and 35%,
15%, 25%,
fine aggregate were added to consecutive concrete combinations in addition to the normal
of the fine aggregate volume were replaced with sawdust. All concrete composit
concrete (NC) mixture. In the lightweight concrete mixtures, 5%, 15%, 25%, 35%, and
lized
45% a water/cement
of the ratio of
fine aggregate volume 0.4.replaced
were Figurewith
5 depicts
sawdust.theAlldesignation of the CFST be
concrete compositions
lized in
utilized the present study.
a water/cement ratio of Table 2 reports
0.4. Figure thethe
5 depicts concrete proportions
designation of the CFSTfor the adopte
beams
utilized in the present study. Table 2 reports the concrete proportions for the
as well as an illustrative calculation for replacing a fine aggregate with sawdust.adopted mixes
as well as an illustrative calculation for replacing a fine aggregate with sawdust. For each
concrete mixture, three concrete cylinders, 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in
concrete mixture, three concrete cylinders, 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in height, were
werecured,
made, made,and cured, and investigated
investigated per ASTM
per ASTM C39/C39M [28].C39/C39M [28].

CFST 45
Sawdust (0, 5, 15, 25, 35, and 45) %
CFST0= Control Beam (0% of sawdust)
CFST (Concrete Filled Steel Tube)
Figure
Figure Specimens’
5. 5. designation
Specimens’ system.system.
designation
Table 2. Variable concrete mixture proportions.

Fine Aggregate Sawdust Coarse Aggregate Cement Water

Designation
(kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 ) (kg/m3 )
CFST0 * 890 0 1080 356 141
CFST5 846 45 1080 356 141
CFST15 757 134 1080 356 141
CFST25 668 223 1080 356 141
CFST35 579 312 1080 356 141
CFST45 490 401 1080 356 141
* Reference specimen with 0% sawdust.

Preparation of the Specimens

Mild steel tubes were employed to examine the geometrical properties of the steel tube
sections, as shown in Figure 6. Three coupons were tested through a direct tensile load test
per ASTM standard [27]. The coupons were made by cutting the flat faces of rectangular
steel tubes. Table 1 summarizes the physical properties of these specimens obtained
from the coupons’ tensile test. The material possessed a 200 GPa modulus of elasticity,
a 250 MPa yield strength, and a 400 MPa ultimate strength.
 Preparation of the Specimens
Mild steel tubes were employed to examine the geometrical properties of the steel
tube sections, as shown in Figure 6. Three coupons were tested through a direct tensile
load test per ASTM standard [27]. The coupons were made by cutting the flat faces of
rectangular steel tubes. Table 1 summarizes the physical properties of these specimens
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 7 of 21
obtained from the coupons’ tensile test. The material possessed a 200 GPa modulus of
elasticity, a 250 MPa yield strength, and a 400 MPa ultimate strength.

3 mm
thick.

160 mm

80 mm

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Properties
Properties of
of the
the tested
tested CFST
CFST geometrical
geometrical section.
section.

3.3.
3.3. Instrumentation
Instrumentation and and Test
Test Setup
Setup
The
The constructed
constructed CFSTCFST specimens
specimens werewere investigated
investigated using
using aa general
general hydraulic
hydraulic testing
testing
instrument system)with
instrument (MFL system) withaa250250tonton capacity
capacity under
under four-point
four-point static
static loading.
loading. At
At each
each load increment, the mid-span deflection was measured with two
load increment, the mid-span deflection was measured with two dial gauges with a pre- dial gauges with a
precision of 0.01, placed at the bottom level of the CFST sample.
cision of 0.01, placed at the bottom level of the CFST sample. The gauges The gauges were used to
to
measure
measure the
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW the deflection.
deflection. AtAt approximately
approximately 55 kN/min
kN/min ofof loading,
loading, it
it took
took every
every specimen
specimen aa
8 of 23
time
timeininthe
therange
range of of
20 20
minmin
to fail. The The
to fail. configuration of theofspecimen
configuration testingtesting
the specimen setup issetup
shown is
in Figure
shown in7.Figure 7.
Load

CFST Specimen

60 mm
60 mm

460 mm 460 mm 460 mm

1500 mm
(a) (b)
Figure 7.7. Test
Figure Test setup
setup for
for the
the tested
tested specimens.
specimens. (a)
(a) Layout
Layout of
of the
the sample
sample testing
testing setup,
setup, (b)
(b) sample
sample
layout and loading position.
layout and loading position.

4. Analysis
4. Analysis and
and Discussions
Discussions
4.1.
4.1. Compressive
Compressive Strength
Strength
In
In the
theprocess
processofofdesigning
designingreinforced
reinforcedconcrete
concretecomponents,
components, thethe
concrete compressive
concrete compres-
strength is one of the most essential and influential characteristics that is utilized.
sive strength is one of the most essential and influential characteristics that is utilized. Concrete’s
tensile strength,
Concrete’s elasticity
tensile modulus,
strength, elasticityand other mechanical
modulus, properties have
and other mechanical an impact
properties haveonan
this parameter. In addition, the compressive strength of concrete has a substantial
impact on this parameter. In addition, the compressive strength of concrete has a substan- influence
on
tialthe capacityonofthe
influence elements and
capacity ofstructures to sustain
elements and damage
structures or decay
to sustain as a result
damage of harsh
or decay as a
environmental situations, which
result of harsh environmental could reduce
situations, which the service
could reducelife
theand the loading
service thatload-
life and the can
be
ingsustained
that can be bysustained
the structure.
by theAstructure.
test for concrete’s compressive
A test for concrete’s strength after
compressive 28 days
strength after
28 days demonstrated that the reference mix specimen (CFST0) had a compressive
strength of 32.47 MPa. The lowest value of compressive strength (22.85 MPa) was deter-
mined for the CFST45 (45% sawdust component) mixture, which is shown in Figure 8.
This Figure displays the compressive strength of concrete and the rate of decrease for the
 sive strength is one of the most essential and influential characteristics that is utilized.
Concrete’s tensile strength, elasticity modulus, and other mechanical properties have an
impact on this parameter. In addition, the compressive strength of concrete has a substan-
tial influence on the capacity of elements and structures to sustain damage or decay as a
result of harsh environmental situations, which could reduce the service life and the load-
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 8 of 21
ing that can be sustained by the structure. A test for concrete’s compressive strength after 9 of 23
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
28 days demonstrated that the reference mix specimen (CFST0) had a compressive
strength of 32.47 MPa. The lowest value of compressive strength (22.85 MPa) was deter-
demonstrated
mined that the
for the CFST45 reference
(45% sawdust mix specimen (CFST0)
component) mixture, had
whicha compressive
is shown in strength
Figure 8. of
32.47
Figure MPa. The lowest value of compressive strength (22.85 MPa) was
This Figure displays the compressive strength of concrete and the rate of decreasethe
8. Concrete compressive strength and reduction in compressive determined
strength of thefor sam-
fortested
the
ples. CFST45 (45% sawdust component) mixture, which is shown in Figure
indicated mixtures. In conclusion, Figure 8 demonstrates that, over the interval from 8. This Figure
displays
7.27% the compressive
to 29.63%, strength
the compressive of concrete
strength and the rate
was reduced of decrease
as the sawdust for the indicated
percentage in-
4.2.mixtures. In conclusion,
Load–Deflection Figure
Profiles 8 demonstrates that, over the interval from 7.27% to 29.63%,
creased.
the compressive strength was reduced as the sawdust percentage increased.
In Figure 9, the six experimental CFST beams’ typical mid-span deflection vs. applied
load curves
40 are displayed. First, when examining how the specimens 35 behaved with and
Concrete compressive strength, MPa

Compressive strength Reduction , %

without 35 sawdust,
32.47 there was no noticeable variation in flexural stiffness, which followed
30
the same pattern for both types 28.62
30.11 of concrete. All specimens exhibited a similar response for
30
moderate loading values, pre- or post-cracking. 25.86 According
24.06
to the experiment
25 results, re-
25 22.85
placing fine aggregate with sawdust reduced the final capacity in comparison 20 to that of
the control
20 specimen (CFST0).
After that, the curves behaved linearly until the first crack appeared, 15 and it can be
15
seen that the control specimen had relatively higher stiffness than 10 the other specimens.
10
The load–deflection relation, nevertheless, exhibited a curved path performance from the
5 load to the ultimate load phase. Following that, the resistance 5
yielding to the external load
decreased0 gradually and smoothly in all of the tested specimens, indicating 0 a semi-ductile
behavior of the 0 specimens.5 Since15sawdust25waste materials 35 45
were introduced, the appear-
ance of the WS beams investigated Sawdust,
in this%study seemed to be more brittle.
The CFST0 and CFST5 specimens exhibited a similar flexural stiffness behavior. This
Mean compressive strength (MPa) Compressive strength reduction %
was most likely due to the fact that the CFST beams’ performance was unaffected by the
8. Concrete
Figureamount
modest ofcompressive strength
sawdust (5%). andexperimental
The reduction in compressive
findingsstrength
for allofexamined
the tested samples.
specimens,
as 4.2.
shown in Figures 9 and
Load–Deflection Profiles 10, demonstrated that the ultimate loads sustained by speci-
mens made of sawdust concrete were lower than those sustained by control beams. Like-
In Figure 9, the six experimental CFST beams’ typical mid-span deflection vs. applied
wise,
loadbecause
curves are of displayed.
the increasing
First,brittleness
when examiningof thehowsawdust–concrete CFST specimens,
the specimens behaved with and the
deflection of the WSthere
without sawdust, beamswaswas less than that
no noticeable of theincontrol
variation flexuralspecimen. As shown
stiffness, which in Figure
followed
10,the
thesame
experimental test findings indicated a decrease in the ultimate
pattern for both types of concrete. All specimens exhibited a similar response loads sustainable
byfor
themoderate
investigatedloadingsamples
values, by
pre-a or
value in the range
post-cracking. from 6.43%
According to 30.71% for
to the experiment sawdust
results,
replacing
levels from fine
5% to aggregate
45%. with sawdust reduced the final capacity in comparison to that of
the control specimen (CFST0).

160
140
120
100
Load, kN

80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection, mm

CFST0 CFST5 CFST15 CFST25 CFST35 CFST45

Figure 9. Mid-span displacement versus load for specimens with different sawdust percentages.
Figure 9. Mid-span displacement versus load for specimens with different sawdust percentages.
 J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 9 of 21

After that, the curves behaved linearly until the first crack appeared, and it can be
seen that the control specimen had relatively higher stiffness than the other specimens.
The load–deflection relation, nevertheless, exhibited a curved path performance from the
yielding load to the ultimate load phase. Following that, the resistance to the external load
decreased gradually and smoothly in all of the tested specimens, indicating a semi-ductile
behavior of the specimens. Since sawdust waste materials were introduced, the appearance
of the WS beams investigated in this study seemed to be more brittle.
The CFST0 and CFST5 specimens exhibited a similar flexural stiffness behavior. This
was most likely due to the fact that the CFST beams’ performance was unaffected by the
modest amount of sawdust (5%). The experimental findings for all examined specimens, as
shown in Figures 9 and 10, demonstrated that the ultimate loads sustained by specimens
made of sawdust concrete were lower than those sustained by control beams. Likewise,
because of the increasing brittleness of the sawdust–concrete CFST specimens, the deflection
ompos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEWof the WS beams was less than that of the control specimen. As shown in Figure 10, the 10 of
experimental test findings indicated a decrease in the ultimate loads sustainable by the
investigated samples by a value in the range from 6.43% to 30.71% for sawdust levels from
5% to 45%.
160 35.00
140
131

Reduction in Ultimate Load%

140 30.00
121
111 105
120
Ultimate Load, kN

25.00
97
100
20.00
80
15.00
60
10.00
40

20 5.00

0 0.00
CFST0 CFST5 CFST15 CFST25 CFST35 CFST45
Sample ID

Ultimate Load Reduction in Ultimate Load%

Figure 10. Maximum load and decrease in the maximum load sustainable by the evaluated samples.
Figure 10. Maximum load and decrease in the maximum load sustainable by the evaluated sam-
ples. 4.3. Moment Capacity
As illustrated in Figure 11, all examined samples generally displayed elastic and then
inelastic behavior during the loading phases until they reached their maximum moment
4.3. Moment Capacity
capacity (Mu). The moment–deflection curve for the tested CFST samples displayed a
As illustrated
linear in Figure
response (elastic 11,inall
stage) theexamined
preliminarysamples generally
loading phase (O–A),displayed elastic and th
and this response
persisted
inelastic until around
behavior during 50 the
to 60% of their phases
loading Mu valueuntil
was attained (see Figure
they reached 11).maximum
their Once point mome
A was reached, buckling occurred in the steel tubes at the loading and support positions,
capacity (Mu). The moment–deflection curve for the tested CFST samples displayed a l
the loading curve displayed an elastic–plastic response (A–B), which continued till the
ear response (elastic stage)
upper half-flange showedin the of
signs preliminary loading
buckling at about phase
70–80% of (O–A), and this
their ultimate response p
moment
sistedvalues
until(as
around
seen in50 to 60%
point ofloading
B). The their Mu value
curve was attained
displayed (see Figure
plastic behavior 11). Once point
when additional
tube buckling failure occurred, and this tendency persisted until
was reached, buckling occurred in the steel tubes at the loading and support the Mu value was reached
positions, t
at point C. The post-ultimate loading stage (C–D) was eventually
loading curve displayed an elastic–plastic response (A–B), which continued till reached whenever thethe upp
loading curve started to drop as a result of severe tube buckling damage.
half-flange showed signs of buckling at about 70–80% of their ultimate moment values
seen in point B). The loading curve displayed plastic behavior when additional tube buc
ling failure occurred, and this tendency persisted until the Mu value was reached at po
C. The post-ultimate loading stage (C–D) was eventually reached whenever the loadi
curve started to drop as a result of severe tube buckling damage.
The bending moments versus mid-span deflection of the studied CFST beams a
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 10 of 21

C D 1 elastic stage
Mu 2 elasto-plastic stage
B

Moment, kN.m
3 4 3 plastic stage
A 2 4 post-ultimate stage

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW

1 11 of 23

O δy δu
Curvature (1/m)
11. Common
Figure 11.
Figure Commonrelation
relationbetween
betweenmoment
momentand and
midspan displacement for the investigated CFST
samples. Noting that O,O,
A,A,
B, B,
C, C,
and
CD represent Dmidspan
the initial
1 displacement
and end
elastic stage for the investigated CFST
points for eachfor
phase.
samples.
Mu Noting that and D represent the initial and end points each phase.
2 elasto-plastic stage
B
Moment, kN.m

The bending moments3versus mid-span 4 deflection of the studied

3 plastic stageCFST beams are
16 highlighted in Figure 2 12. It was found that the tested samples with additional sawdust
A
attained a loading
4 post-ultimate stage
performance comparable to that of the conventional concrete specimen
14 but with lower moment values due to their reduced concrete strength capacity. The sample
CFST0 attained a Mu value of 15.23 kN.m, which was decreased by 6.4% (14.37 kN.m) when
1
lightweight concrete containing 5% sawdust (sample CFST5) was utilized. The capacity of
12
the specimen CCFST0 was then significantly decreased by 13.57%, 20.71%, 25%, and 30.71%
O δy δu
Moment, kN.m

10 when the specimens CFST15, CFST25, CFST35, and CFST45, respectively, were filled with
15%, 25%, 35%, and 45% of sawdust.
Curvature (1/m) The newly constructed CFST specimens’ flexural
8 performance showed a normal response that was quite comparable to those of the reference
Figure
CFST11. Commonfilled
specimens relation between
with moment
ordinary and The
concrete. midspan displacement
specimens for the
were filled investigated
with CFST
lightweight
6 samples.
concreteNoting
madethat O, A,
of fine B, C, and
sawdust as D represent
a partial the initial and
replacement for end points for each phase.
sand.

164

142

120
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Moment, kN.m

10 Curvature (1/m)
8 CFST45 CFST35 CFST25 CFST15 CFST5 CFST0

6 Figure 12. Comparison of the moment vs. the midspan deflection of samples with varying amounts
of sawdust.
4

2 4.4. Energy Absorption

One method for determining a structure’s loading capability is based on the energy
0 absorption ability of a structure [29,30]. The key challenge is figuring out how to measure
0 0.05 0.1
a structure’s ability to absorb0.15energy. It was 0.2possible to 0.25
determine the 0.3energy absorption
Curvature (1/m)
(EA) strength of the tested CFST beams with the use of the area underneath the stress–
CFST45 strainCFST35
or loading–displacement
CFST25 curves (Figure 13).
CFST15 CFST5 CFST0
It was found that when structural systems are exposed to both environmental and
unusual
Figure loads, taking
12. Comparison their
of the ductility
moment into
vs. the account
midspan is insufficient
deflection of samplestowith
assure their
varying safety. EA
amounts
Figure 12. Comparison of the moment vs. the midspan deflection of samples with varying amounts
ofmay be interpreted as the structural integrity of a system when it is exposed to unexpected
sawdust.
of sawdust.
loadings. Different complex processes, including crack formation, crack growth, and elas-
4.4.
tic Energy Absorption
and plastic conformational changes, are involved in the energy absorption of reinforced
One method
concrete components for determining a structure’s
under the concept loading
of fracture capability[31–33].
mechanics is basedAdditionally,
on the energywhile
absorption abilityhave
several studies of a structure
looked at [29,30]. The key
the energy challenge is
absorption figuring
ability out how to CFST
of composite measure
beams,
a structure’s ability to absorb energy. It was possible to determine the energy absorption
 Numerous previous investigations demonstrated that CFST beams are more effective
at dissipating energy than hollow steel tube beams [34]. The load–deflection curve area,
as depicted in Figure 14, might be utilized to calculate the EA capacity. Recent investiga-
tions [34–36] revealed that typical CFST beams had the capability to absorb energy under
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 a wide range of loading conditions. As a result, this section assessed and described the EA
11 of 21
indices of the described CFST specimens produced with sawdust concrete.
As shown in Figure 15, the sample CFST0 had a greater EA capability as compared
to all other Absorption
4.4. Energy push-out-tested beam specimens. The results indicated that the CFST0 sample
had the highest EA, at 2596 kN·mm, while the WS45 sample had the smallest EA among
One method for determining a structure’s loading capability is based on the energy
all CFST samples, at 1129 kN·mm. Compared to the CFST0 sample, the specimens with
absorption ability of a structure [29,30]. The key challenge is figuring out how to measure
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 23 a
added sawdust showed a decreased enhancement ratio of 43.22–56.52% due to the in-
structure’s ability to absorb energy. It was possible to determine the energy absorption (EA)
creased
strengthimpact strength,
of the tested CFSTwhich manifested
beams with the itself
use ofasthe
a wider area under the
area underneath theload–deflection
stress–strain or
curve.
loading–displacement curves (Figure 13).
there not much research has been conducted to examine the energy absorption of CFST
beams made of different types of concrete core materials.
Numerous previous investigations demonstrated that CFST beams are more effective
at dissipating energy than hollow steel tube beams [34]. The load–deflection curve area,
as depicted in Figure 14, might be utilized to calculate the EA capacity. Recent investiga-
tions [34–36] revealed that typical CFST beams had the capability to absorb energy under
a wide range of loading conditions. As a result, this section assessed and described the EA
indices of the described CFST specimens produced with sawdust concrete.
As shown in Figure 15, the sample CFST0 had a greater EA capability as compared
to all other push-out-tested beam specimens. The results Δ indicated that the CFST0 sample
had the highest EA, at 2596 kN·mm, while the WS45 sample had the smallest EA among
all CFST samples, at 1129 kN·mm. Compared to the CFST0 sample, the specimens with
added sawdust showed a decreased enhancement ratio of 43.22–56.52% due to the in-
creased
Figureimpact strength, which
13. Interpretation manifested
of the energy itselfindicator
absorption as a wider area
with theunder the load–deflection
profile.
load profile.
curve.
It3500
was found that when structural systems are exposed to both environmental 100 and
unusual loads, taking their ductility into account is insufficient to assure their safety. EA

Energy Absorption Reduction %

90
Energy Absorption (EA), kN.m

may be interpreted
3000 2596 as the structural integrity of a system when it is exposed to unexpected
80
loadings. Different complex processes, including crack formation, crack growth, and elastic
2500 70 of reinforced
and plastic conformational changes, are involved in the energy absorption
concrete components under
2000 the concept
1343 60
1474of fracture mechanics [31–33]. Additionally, while
several studies have looked at the energy absorption ability of composite 50 CFST beams,
1500much research has been conducted to1245 1129
there not examine1337the energy absorption
40 of CFST
beams made of different types of concrete core materials. 30
1000
Numerous previous investigations demonstrated Δ that CFST beams are 20
more effective
at dissipating
500 energy than hollow steel tube beams [34]. The load–deflection curve area,
10
as depicted in Figure 14, might be utilized to calculate the EA capacity. Recent investiga-
tions [34–36] revealed that typical CFST beams had the capability to absorb0 energy under a
0
CB WS5 WS15 WS25 WS35 WS45
wide13.range
Figure of loading
Interpretation conditions.
of the As a result,
energy absorption this section
indicator with theassessed and described the EA
load profile.
Specimen ID
indices of the described CFST specimens produced with sawdust concrete.
3500 EA EA decreasing% 100
Energy Absorption Reduction %

90
Energy Absorption (EA), kN.m

3000 2596
80
Figure 14. Energy absorption capacity of CFST beams with diverse sawdust–concrete core compo-
2500
sitions. 70

2000 1343 1474 60

50
1500 1245 1129
1337 40
1000 30
20
500
10
0 0
CB WS5 WS15 WS25 WS35 WS45
Specimen ID

EA EA decreasing%

Figure 14. Energy absorption capacity of CFST beams with diverse sawdust–concrete core compositions.
Figure 14. Energy absorption capacity of CFST beams with diverse sawdust–concrete core compo-
sitions.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 12 of 21

As shown in Figure 15, the sample CFST0 had a greater EA capability as compared to
all other push-out-tested beam specimens. The results indicated that the CFST0 sample
had the highest EA, at 2596 kN·mm, while the WS45 sample had the smallest EA among all
CFST samples, at 1129 kN·mm. Compared to the CFST0 sample, the specimens with added
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
sawdust showed a decreased enhancement ratio of 43.22–56.52% due to the increased
impact strength, which manifested itself as a wider area under the load–deflection curve.

Buckling at load
(a)
Buckling at load Steel Tube

N. A. Compression Zone

Tension Zone Infill concrete cracks

(b)
Figure 15. (a) A typical failure mechanism for the samples that were investigated (beyond their ul-
Figure 15. (a) A typical failure mechanism for the samples that were investigated (beyond their ultimate
timate capacity), (b) mode of failure of the tested samples depicted in a common diagrammatic form.
capacity), (b) mode of failure of the tested samples depicted in a common diagrammatic form.
4.5.Failure
4.5. FailureModes
Modes
Thissection
This sectiondescribes
describes
andand explains
explains thethe various
various failure
failure modesmodesthatthat
werewere observed
observed in thein
the tested specimens. In order to examine extreme failure behaviors, the
tested specimens. In order to examine extreme failure behaviors, the testing was continued testing was con-
tinued
after theafter the specimens’
specimens’ maximum maximum
strength strength
had beenhadreached.
been reached. Therefore,
Therefore, even even
thoughthough
the
the specimens
specimens had attained
had attained their their
maximummaximumtensiletensile capacity,
capacity, thewere
the tests testscontinued.
were continued.
FigureFig-
16
ure 16 illustrates
illustrates the common
the common modes of modes
failureoffor
failure for the produced
the produced tested specimens,
tested (CFST) (CFST) specimens,
where
M where M represents
represents the ultimate
the ultimate moment moment capacity.
capacity. The steel
The steel tubes’ tubes’
upper upper flanges
flanges started
started to
to significantly
significantly flex outward
flex outward at theatmid-span
the mid-span
distancedistance
once the once the force
testing testing force achieved
achieved around
aroundof75–85%
75–85% of the
the tested tested specimens’
specimens’ ultimate capacities.
ultimate capacities. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, all samples allbuckled
samples
more
bucklednoticeably at the twoatloading
more noticeably the twolocations, specifically,
loading locations, the upperthe
specifically, flange
upperandflange
the side
and
the side wall of the tubes. This is because buckling was more prominent in the areas where
the load and the upper part of the samples came in contact. By applying a uniform load
to the specimens at the specified loading conditions, the observed failure (at the two-point
loads) could be avoided.
 process of the samples that were investigated. This helps to explain both the tube buckle
failures that occurred on the compression side and the cracks that appeared in the infill
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256
concrete in the tensile zone. For all specimens, the deflection curves were similar to a13half-
of 21
sine wave throughout the loading processes, as shown in Figure 16a–f. This smooth de-
flection was be seen in all of the tested samples. The steel tubular beams made of sawdust
concrete performed comparably to those containing ordinary concrete as a filler material,
wall of the tubes.
as reported This isdiscussion
in the above because buckling was more
on the failure prominent
modes. in the areas
So, to rephrase, where
the same the
failure
load and the upper part of the samples came in contact. By applying a uniform load to the
mechanism occurred in all CFST samples filled with varied sawdust–concrete proportions
specimens at the specified loading conditions, the observed failure (at the two-point loads)
as well as in specimens cast with normal concrete.
could be avoided.
1.0 M 0.9 M
1.0 M 0.9 M
0.75 M 0.5 M 0.75 M 0.5 M
0 0
-5 -5
Deflection, mm

Deflection, mm
-10 -10
-15 -15
-20 -20
-25 -25
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Length, mm Length, mm
(a) (b)

1.0 M 0.9 M 1.0 M 0.9 M

0.75 M 0.5 M 0.75 M 0.5 M
0 0

-5
Deflection, mm

-5
Deflection, mm

-10 -10

-15 -15

-20 -20

-25 -25
0 250
500 750 1000 1250 1500 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
Length, mm Length, mm

(c) (d)
1.0 M 0.9 M 1.0 M 0.9 M
0.75 M 0.5 M 0.75 M 0.5 M
0 0
-5
Deflection, mm

-5
Deflection, mm

-10 -10

-15 -15

-20 -20

-25 -25
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Length, mm
Length, mm
(e) (f)
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Profiles
Profilesof
ofthe
thedeflection
deflectioncurves
curvesfor
forthe
thetest
testsamples
samplesin
invarious
variousloading
loadingstages.
stages.(a)
(a)CFST0,
CFST0,
(b) CFST5, (c) CFST15, (d) CFST25, (e) CFST35, (f) CFST45.
(b) CFST5, (c) CFST15, (d) CFST25, (e) CFST35, (f) CFST45.

5. Numerical Method
5.1. Finite Element (FE) Modeling
The flexural behavior of the CFST beams with sawdust as a partial substitute for fine
aggregate was further studied using additional FE models that were created and analyzed
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 14 of 21

Additionally, a similar mode of failure was identified for all of the CFST samples that
were filled with sawdust waste materials, as well as for the reference specimen (CFST0) that
was filled with ordinary concrete. Figure 15 displays the typical schematic failure process
of the samples that were investigated. This helps to explain both the tube buckle failures
that occurred on the compression side and the cracks that appeared in the infill concrete in
the tensile zone. For all specimens, the deflection curves were similar to a half-sine wave
throughout the loading processes, as shown in Figure 16a–f. This smooth deflection was
be seen in all of the tested samples. The steel tubular beams made of sawdust concrete
performed comparably to those containing ordinary concrete as a filler material, as reported
in the above discussion on the failure modes. So, to rephrase, the same failure mechanism
occurred in all CFST samples filled with varied sawdust–concrete proportions as well as in
specimens cast with normal concrete.

5. Numerical Method
5.1. Finite Element (FE) Modeling
The flexural behavior of the CFST beams with sawdust as a partial substitute for fine
aggregate was further studied using additional FE models that were created and analyzed
utilizing the ABAQUS nonlinear program. In general, the current work used FE modeling
principles that were similar to those adopted in previous similar numerical studies [37–39].
Figure 17 depicts the common three-dimensional CFST beam (a quarter of the sample)
modeling and boundary conditions developed for this scenario. Additionally, the benefits
of a portion symmetry selection were utilized in the FE models to save processing time,
leading to the adoption of only a quarter of the full-sized model (Figure 17). This method
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23
speeds up the numerical analysis and accurately captures the performance of full-sized
models [31,33].

Figure 17. Typical quarter of the 3D FE model (CFST0 and CFST45).

Figure 17. Typical quarter of the 3D FE model (CFST0 and CFST45).
The points along the support line were subjected to full restriction with respect to
The CFST FE model’s major elements are steel and concrete. The concrete filling ma-
their vertical and horizontal movement but were allowed free rotation around the x-axis
terial was created using the solid element C3D8R, with an eight-node linear brick integra-
to simulate the behavior of the actual (rolled) support. The actual vertical loading (at the
tion and six degrees of freedom. The steel tube material, meanwhile, was constructed us-
loading locations) was implemented using an incremental downward displacement, and
ingresultant
the the shell force
element (S4R)
at the with nodes
support four nodes. In general,
was used numerous
to determine parameters,
the load including
value [38,40].
the cross section dimension and shape, the characteristics of the filling materials, and the
loading condition, have an impact on the value of the chosen roughness (friction) factor at
the contacted surfaces between the steel tubing section and the infilled concrete [39] Ac-
cording to preliminary FE model investigations, the friction factor needed to simulate the
mechanical contact response between the contacted surfaces of the concrete and the steel
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 15 of 21

The CFST FE model’s major elements are steel and concrete. The concrete filling
material was created using the solid element C3D8R, with an eight-node linear brick
integration and six degrees of freedom. The steel tube material, meanwhile, was constructed
using the shell element (S4R) with four nodes. In general, numerous parameters, including
the cross section dimension and shape, the characteristics of the filling materials, and the
loading condition, have an impact on the value of the chosen roughness (friction) factor
at the contacted surfaces between the steel tubing section and the infilled concrete [39]
According to preliminary FE model investigations, the friction factor needed to simulate
the mechanical contact response between the contacted surfaces of the concrete and the
steel tube was determined to be 0.75.

5.2. Constitutive Models of CFST Components

The required FE models were created using the same material parameters as those of
the experimentally investigated specimens. Since steel is typically considered an isotropic
material, the mechanical characteristics related to the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s
ratio were revealed in the elastic isotropic portion of the ABAQUS software. The yielding
strength and related strain values were provided for the steel’s mechanical performance
in the plastic–isotropic portion. Whereas concrete is a homogeneous material that can
break/crush under compressive stresses and split/crack under tensile stresses, it can be
broken or split either way and is regarded as a brittle material. Because of this, both
the compressive and the tensile responses of a concrete component can be predicted
by selecting the “Concrete Damage Plasticity” option in the ABAQUS program, which
has shown reasonable results in similar studies [39–41]. As can be seen in Figure 18,
recently developed FE models used the same constitutive stress–strain relations for steel
and concrete as those used by [39]. In order to obtain the most trustworthy FE analysis
of the generated models, a convergence inquiry was performed utilizing the existing
numerical approach by providing the necessary elements’ sizes and numbers, as shown in
Figure 19 for the quarter FE model of CFST0 as an example. Three FE models with differing
element counts are compared in Figure 19. The final FE model used in this investigation had
6000 elements and a 10 mm mesh. This model was chosen since it reduced the measurement
inaccuracy, with an acceptable divergence between the observed and the predicted ultimate
loads. The compression and tension stresses of concrete are often expressed using the
following Equations:
p
Ec = 4700 f c0 (1)

f = f cu [2ε/ε o (1 − ε)/2ε o ] For 0 < ε < ε o (2)

f = f cu [1 − 0.15(ε − ε o )/(ε u − ε o )] For ε o < ε < ε u (3)

p
f cr = 0.31 f c0 (4)

ε cr = f cr /Ec (5)

f t = Ec ε t For ε t < ε cr (6)

f t = f cr (ε cr /ε t )0.8 For ε t > ε cr (7)

5.3. FE Model Validation

The FE model analysis was corroborated using the experimentally tested samples,
and the specimens CFST0 and CFST45 were selected for this purpose. The FE models of
CFST0 and CFST45 confirmed the ultimate load versus mid-span deflection relationships
for the tested samples, as shown in Figure 20. The principal failure mechanisms (top-flange
buckling) that happened for the investigated samples at mid-span in the CFST beam, as
illustrated in Figure 21, were also validated by the newly created FE model.
 𝑓𝑡 =𝑐𝑟 𝐸𝑐 𝜀𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐 𝜀𝑡 < 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (6)
𝜀 = 𝑓 ⁄𝐸 (5)
𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 (𝜀𝑐𝑟𝑐𝑟 ⁄𝜀𝑐𝑟
𝑡)
0.8𝑐
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑡 > 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (7)
𝑓𝑡 = 𝐸𝑐 𝜀𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑡 < 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (6)
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 16 of 21
𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐𝑟 (𝜀𝑐𝑟 ⁄𝜀𝑡 )0.8 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑡 > 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (7)

Figure 18. Materials’ stress–strain characteristics applied in the investigated finite element model
Figure
Figure 18.
(Redrawn, Materials’
modified
18. stress–strain
Materials’and cited from
stress–strain characteristics
[39]).
characteristics applied
applied in in
thethe investigated
investigated finite
finite element
element model
model
(Redrawn,
(Redrawn, modified andcited
modified and citedfrom
from[39]).
[39]).

350
350

300300
Ultimate load, kN
Ultimate load, kN

250250

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 200200 18 of 23

140.8
150 140.8
150
5.3. FE Model
100 Validation
The100 0
FE model 1000
analysis 2000 corroborated
was 3000 4000 5000experimentally
using the 6000 7000tested samples,
0
and the specimens 1000 and2000
CFST0 No.3000
CFST45 4000 for this
of elements
were selected 5000purpose.
6000The FE7000
models of
CFST0 and CFST45 confirmed the ultimate No. ofload versus mid-span deflection relationships
elements
Selected value
for the tested samples, as shown in Figure 20. The principal failure mechanisms (top-
flange buckling) that happened for the investigated
Selected value samples at mid-span in the CFST
beam,Figure 19. Convergence
as illustrated analysis
in Figure 21, for
werethe also
quarter finite element
validated model
by the of CFST0.
newly created FE model.
Figure 19. Convergence analysis for the quarter finite element model of CFST0.
Figure 19. Convergence analysis for the quarter finite element model of CFST0.
160

140

120

100
Load (kN)

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Displacement (mm)
CFST0 (FE) CFST45 (FE) CFST0 (EXP) CFST45 (EXP)

Figure 20. Testing of the experimental samples to validate the finite element model.
Figure 20. Testing of the experimental samples to validate the finite element model.
 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Displacement (mm)
CFST0 (FE) CFST45 (FE) CFST0 (EXP) CFST45 (EXP)
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 17 of 21

Figure 20. Testing of the experimental samples to validate the finite element model.

Figure 21. Typical mode of failure of the reference three-dimensional quarter FE model (CFST0).
Figure 21. Typical mode of failure of the reference three-dimensional quarter FE model (CFST0).

5.4. Impacts of Various Steel Tube Thicknesses

In previous related investigations [41–44], a number of factors including concrete’s
and steel’s properties, were studied for their effect on CFST beams’ flexural performance.
Accordingly, the present numerical analysis particularly examined how different steel tube
thicknesses affect the proposed CFST beams with a high contained percentage of sawdust
waste material (45%). Table 3 presents the specific models and the half w/t proportion
that relates to the efficient flat width of the upper steel tube flange exposed to compressive
stresses. A wide range of tubing thicknesses (1–5 mm) was applied, as presented in Table 3
and Figure 22. The remaining requirements, including the material’s characteristics and the
boundary condition, were held constant and corresponding to those of the experimental
sample CFST45. The studied FE models demonstrated that as the tube thickness increased
by over 2 mm, the top-flange buckling failure steadily decreased, as demonstrated in
Figure 22. Additionally, the increased tube thickness in the FE model greatly increased the
stiffness and flexural capacity of the tubes. The ultimate capacity is reported in Table 3,
which presents an overview of the FE analysis results. To calculate the development of the
Pu value, an equation was created for both CFST models examined in this study, and it
is displayed in Figure 23 together with the increase in performance of the Pu value with
respect to that of the half w/t proportion. As demonstrated in Figure 24, increasing the
steel tube thickness of the CFST models from 2.0 mm to 5 mm correspondingly improved
their Pu values by around 81.4% and 301%.

Table 3. Overview of the findings from the finite element study.

Model ID t (mm) W/t Ultimate Load (kN)

CFST45-t1 1 80 35.6
CFST45-t2 2 40 64.6
CFST45-t3 3 27 93.3
CFST45-t4 4 20 118.2
CFST45-t5 5 16 142.7
Where: W is the width of the CFST beam; t is CFST thickness.

J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256
FE model greatly increased the stiffness and flexural capacity of the tubes. The ultimate
capacity is reported in Table 3, which presents an overview of the FE analysis results. To
calculate the development of the 𝑃𝑢 value, an equation was created for both CFST models
examined in this study, and it is displayed in Figure 23 together with the increase in per-
formance of the Pu value with respect to that of the half w/t proportion. As demonstrated
in Figure 24, increasing the steel tube thickness of the CFST models from 2.0 mm to 18 of 21
5 mm
correspondingly improved their Pu values by around 81.4% and 301%.

J. Compos.
J. Compos.Sci.
Sci.2023,
2023,7,
7, xx FOR PEERREVIEW
FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23 20 of 23

Figure 22. Impacts of the thickness of steel tubes on the buckling failure of the CFST45 samples.
Figure 22. Impacts of the thickness of steel tubes on the buckling failure of the CFST45 samples.
Actual line
Table 3. Overview of the findings from Trend
the finite line study.
element
Actual line Trend line
160
160 Model ID t (mm) W/t Ultimate Load (kN)
CFST45-t1 140 y = −65.59ln(x)
1 + 315.04 80 35.6
140
CFST45-t2 = =−65.59ln(x)
2yR² 0.9629 + 315.04
40 64.6
120
Ultimate load, kN

R²= 0.9629
120 CFST45-t3 3 27 93.3
Ultimate load, kN

100
CFST45-t4 4 20 118.2
100
80 CFST45-t5 5 16 142.7
80
Where:
60 W is the width of the CFST beam; t is CFST thickness.
4060
2040
020
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 W/t
0 20 40 60 80 100
W/t
Figure 23. Ultimate capacity of the analyzed CFST models.
Figure 23. Ultimate capacity of the analyzed CFST models.
Figure 23. Ultimate capacity of the analyzed CFST models.
350
Improvement of ultimate load, %

300 301.0
350
250 232.3
Improvement of ultimate load, %

300 301.0
200
250 162.2
232.3
150
200 81.4
100 162.2
150
50
81.4
100
0
2 3 4 5
50 t, mm

0 Effects of the steel tube thickness on the improvement of the ultimate load value.
Figure 24.
Figure 24. Effects of the steel
2 tube thickness on3 the improvement of
4 the ultimate load value.
5
t, mm
6. Conclusions
This work examined the structural performance of CFST beams. These beams were
Figure 24. Effects
constructed of thetube
from steel steelsections
tube thickness on filled
that were the improvement of the
with a variety ultimate load value.
of sawdust–concrete
mixtures. The following is a description of the conclusions that can be drawn from the
6. Conclusions
findings of the analysis:
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 19 of 21

6. Conclusions
This work examined the structural performance of CFST beams. These beams were
constructed from steel tube sections that were filled with a variety of sawdust–concrete
mixtures. The following is a description of the conclusions that can be drawn from the
findings of the analysis:
- The CFST0 and CFST5 specimens showed typical flexural stiffness characteristics. This
was most likely due to the fact that a little amount of sawdust (5%) had no effect on
how well the CFST beams performed.
- The test findings for each sample under consideration revealed that the ultimate
strength of the samples containing sawdust mixed with concrete was reduced com-
pared to that of the control specimen.
- The maximum load capacity of the evaluated samples fell by a value from 6.43%
to 30.71% for sawdust contents ranging from 5% to 45%, as obtained from the
experimental testing.
- As the sawdust proportion increased, the compressive strength of the tested samples
fell between 7.27% and 29.63%.
- Due to their lowered concrete strength capacity, the evaluated samples containing
sawdust had a loading performance comparable to that of the standard concrete
specimen, but with lower moment values.
- It is found that when lightweight concrete containing 5% sawdust was utilized, the
moment value of the sample CFST0, which was 15.23 kN.m, was lowered by 6.4% (to
14.37 kN.m).
- It was shown that the newly constructed CFST specimens’ flexural behavior was
roughly equivalent to that of the conventional (with normal concrete as a filler)
CFST samples.
- The sample CFST0 had a greater EA capability as compared to all the push-out-tested
beam specimens.
- The samples with added sawdust exhibited a low level of improvement ratio of
(43.22–56.52%) compared to the CFST0, due to the increased impact strength, which
presented itself as a large area below the load–deflection curve.
- The developed and analyzed CFST model somewhat exceeded the bending capac-
ity of the matching experimented specimens, which confirmed the validity of the
recommended FE model.
- When the steel tube thickness of the CFST models rose from 2.0 mm to 5 mm, respective
improvements in their ultimate capacity values of approximately 81.4% and 301%
were observed.
- The created finite element CFST models, including the flexural performance and
failure modes, produced findings that were very similar to those of the experimentally
tested specimens. As a result, they can be seen as a foundation for additional numerical
research on the properties of the proposed CFST.
Based on the major findings of this study, more experimental and computational
studies on the bending behavior of the novel proposed CFST beams are required taking
into consideration a broad range of factors that were not addressed here, such as the impact
of steel tubes’ size and length, the behavior of sawdust–CFST beams with up to 100% of
sawdust waste as a substitute for fine aggregate, and various loading scenarios.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.N.H. and M.M.H.; Data curation, A.N.H., A.A.A., M.A.,
S.A. and E.S.F.; Formal analysis, A.N.H., M.M.H., A.A.K.S., M.A., S.A. and E.S.F.; Funding acquisition,
M.A., S.A. and E.S.F.; Investigation, A.N.H. and M.M.H.; Methodology, A.N.H., M.M.H., A.A.K.S.
and A.A.A.; Resources, A.A.K.S., A.A.A., M.A., S.A. and E.S.F.; Software, M.M.H., A.A.K.S. and M.A.;
Validation, A.A.K.S., A.A.A., M.A., S.A. and E.S.F.; Visualization, M.M.H., A.A.K.S., A.A.A., M.A., S.A.
and E.S.F.; Writing—original draft, A.N.H. and M.M.H.; Writing—review & editing, A.A.K.S., A.A.A.,
M.A., S.A. and E.S.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
J. Compos. Sci. 2023, 7, 256 20 of 21

Funding: Financial support was obtained from Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Usach, through
project N◦ 092218SF_POSTDOC, Dirección de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, Dicyt. E.I.S.F.
acknowledges funding from the Chilean National Research and Development Agency, ANID, research
project Fondecyt Regular 1211767. The authors gratefully acknowledge that: This study is supported
via funding from Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University project number (PSAU/2023/R/1444).
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors gladly acknowledge the help of the entire technical staff of Al-
Mustansiriyah University’s structural laboratory and the civil engineering department. The authors
also acknowledge University of Baghdad’s assistance.
Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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