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Yaron Friedman The Nuṣayrī-ʿAlawīs: An Introduction to the Religion, History

and Identity of the Leading Minority in Syria

Article in History of Religions · November 2015

DOI: 10.1086/683070

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History of Religions 225

Finally, I should note that Jamaica does not recognize the Rastafari as a “legiti-
mate” religion. Nevertheless, Jamaica benefits from the tourism generated by interest
in the Rastafari, though few Rastafari benefit from the bounty. If Jamaica does not
sanction Rastafari religiosity, why would Ethiopia?
In closing, I recommend Visions of Zion. It sets a baseline for grasping what repatri-
ation to Ethiopia means for Ethiopians and for the Rastafari. It will prepare us to probe
further into this emergent area of inquiry.

CHARLES PRICE
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
(
The Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s: An Introduction to the Religion, History and Identity of the Lead-
ing Minority in Syria. By YARON FRIEDMAN. Islamic History and Civilization, vol.
77. Leiden: Brill, 2010. Pp. xxiiþ325. $182.00.

This monograph by ( Yaron Friedman is the result of a dissertation and presents a

study of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, a secret religion that historically was(called Nuṣayrı̄yyah
by outsiders but became known early in the twentieth century as Alawı̄yyah, as was
used by its members. It is currently the most comprehensive study based on recently
published primary sources pertaining to their system of beliefs. In his monograph, (
Friedman has the ambition to counter the most common views on the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s
found in Western publications that tend to reiterate Orthodox Sunni perspectives by
depicting them as heretics, even though they would perceive themselves as true Mus-
lims. Analyzing all available historical
( sources, Friedman documents thoroughly the
religious tradition of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, who originated in Iraq during the ninth cen-
tury. Until today, they continue to inhabit the mountainous regions of the Jabal al
Ans
arı̄yah Mountains, which stretch from southern Turkey through western parts of
Syria into the( northern regions of Lebanon. Because of the secrecy and sensitivity of
the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ beliefs and writings, Friedman takes all necessary precautions by
explicating that the religious sources he used are accessible in public libraries and
printed books. He assures readers that an understanding of this kind of research, as
conducted
( in his study, can be limited only to that which is already accessible to non-
Alawı̄s. Aside from the introduction and conclusion, the( monograph consists of three
chapters covering the history( and belief of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s as well as their rela-
tionship to the Sunna and Shı̄ a.
In his introduction (1–4), Friedman stresses the relevance of the volumes that were
anonymously published in Lebanon in 2006 and pertain to the main historical ( sources.
These volumes, which entail the most important documents in the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ reli-
gion, serve as the foundational basis for this study and are analyzed for the first time in
this form. Despite the fact that they
( were published by an editor who displayed a criti-
cal attitude toward the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, Friedman concludes that these are authentic
and credible sources based on a comparison he conducted on the basis of other docu-
ments. Organized in three chapters, Friedman ( addresses, as the subtitle indicates, the
history, religion, and identity of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s.
The first chapter, “History of the Nuṣayrı̄s” (5–66), reconstructs the origins of the
Nuṣayrı̄ religion gathered from various sources shown on the Abbreviations list (xv–

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226 Book Reviews

xix). Acknowledging that formerly only fragments were available, Friedman gives the
first coherent synthesis of the sect’s founders by reviewing their main scriptures. His
history
( of the Nuṣayrı̄s starts with a detailed description of the life and work of Abu
Shu ayb Muḥammad ibn Nuṣayr, his excommunication, and his creation of a mystical
community in Basra, Iraq, supplemented by the traditions and scriptures that suc-
ceeded him.
Friedman then introduces al-Ḥusayn ibn Ḥamd
an al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ as the main founder of
the sect, who developed the most important theological doctrines for the Nuṣayrı̄s. He
discusses the leadership of al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ in the context of his notion of mystical guidance
before he accounts for the appointment of al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ as Imam and his founding of reli-
gious centers in Syria and Iraq. Subsequently, Friedman covers developments leading
to the formation of the Nuṣayrı̄ doctrines of secrecy, ascribed to al-Jisrı̄ and al-Jillı̄,
who were successors of al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ in Baghdad. Friedman then addresses the work of
Maym
un al-Ṭabar
anı̄( and his book of holidays, which outlines the main festivals as
observed by Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s. After discussing al-Ṭabar
anı̄ and his leadership in times
of persecution, Friedman examines the two emerging rival groups, the Isḥ
aqı̄s and
Druzes. Addressing troubles experienced in Baghdad and Harran at the end of the
twelfth century, Friedman describes how the Nuṣayrı̄s were divided during the time of
the Crusades with a Christian dominance in the west and Muslim rule in the east.
Then, Friedman reconstructs the more widely known theological work of al-Makz
un
al-Sinj
arı̄, who primarily shaped the current outlook of the Nuṣayrı̄ religion. Because of
his religious doctrine and poetry, the work of al-Makz
un is evaluated as having initiated
a short revival of the Nuṣayrı̄ religion in the thirteenth century. Friedman( concludes his
historical account with a description of the oppression of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s by the
Maml

( uks and the Fatw
a of Ibn Taymiyya. The overview of the history of the Nuṣayrı̄-
Alawı̄s is supplemented with a chronological table of historical events.
The second chapter, “The Nuṣayrı̄ Religion” (67–173), is dedicated to the discus-
sion
( of religious doctrines. Considering such doctrines, Friedman views the Nuṣayrı̄-
Alawı̄ religious system as an advanced stage of syncretism. Starting with a brief over-
view of Western research on the Nuṣayrı̄ religion, he explores in nine sections the
Nuṣayrı̄ religion in terms of its theology, cosmology, and anthropology. He discusses
the nature( of the divinity in its triad hierarchy, as represented through the abstract
terms “ma ( na” (meaning), “ism” (name), and “b
ab” (gate) that are at the center of the
Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ doctrine, before elaborating on the five emanations and the various
personifications of the divinity revealed through the prophets of Islam. Friedman fur-
ther describes the emanating structure of the Nuṣayrı̄ cosmos and the creation of the
world through letters and the Nuṣayrı̄ traditions in the interpretation of the original sin
before he discusses the doctrine of God’s revelation in three appearances.
In considering the Nuṣayrı̄ anthropology, he includes the transmigration of souls and
their various levels of reincarnation as central religious doctrine, stressing a rather
cyclical view of time and history. Subsequently, Friedman addresses the demonology
and personification of the devil as he reconstructs the hierarchy of the evil and demonic
nicknames, and then he dedicates a whole chapter to( the story about the “Prince of the
Bees,” which is a unique Nuṣayrı̄ tradition of Qur anic interpretation related to the
Nuṣayrı̄ notions of Docetism, martyrdom, and religious secrecy. The remaining
( part of
this chapter is dedicated to the allegorical interpretation of the shari a (Islamic law),

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History of Religions 227

also practiced among the Nuṣayrı̄s. Friedman covers the Nuṣayrı̄ interpretation of the
five pillars of Islam, namely, the declaration of faith, the ritual prayer, the fast during
Ramadan, almsgiving, and the pilgrimage to Mecca, before he addresses the duty of
taqiyya (concealment), the spiritual jihad (struggle), and the importance of the esoteric
commandments and prohibitions for the Nuṣayrı̄s.
In the final section of the second chapter, Friedman gives a detailed account of the
Nuṣayrı̄ calendar and its holidays. After reviewing the celebration of Christian and
Islamic festivals, which is common to the Nuṣayrı̄s, including those (on or around
Christmas and Easter ( as well as the fast (ṣwam) of Ramaḍ
an with the Īd al-Fitr and
the ḥajj with the Īd al-Adh
a, Friedman accounts for the celebration of the Persian
Nawr
uz, the spring equinox, and the Mihraj
an, the autumn equinox.( He completes his
accounts with the main Nuṣayrı̄ festivals,( which include the Īd al-Ghadı̄r celebrating

ur on the tenth of Muḥarram com-
the declaration of Ali’s divinity and the Īd al-Ash

memorating the massacre of the followers of Ali in Kerbela. (
The third chapter, “Identity( between Sunna and Shı̄ a” (175–222), deals with the
unique relation
( of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s to other interpretations
( of Islam, namely, Sunni
and Shı̄ a. In discussing their attitudes toward the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, Friedman accounts (
for different historical and geographical contexts. He first presents
( two different Shı̄ a
positions, namely
( an exclusive one, which views Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s as members of the
Extreme (Shı̄ a, or the Ghul
at, and an inclusive one, which is more ( tolerant of the
Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s. Then, he explores the Sunni stance on the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s and goes
into some detail about the Fatw
a of Ibn Taymiyya against them. After revealing their
historical misconceptions( and systemic inconsistencies, Friedman concludes by recon-
structing the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ identity through the Dı̄w
(an al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ , one of the most
important manuscripts, which identifies the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s in the context of their
own views of different Islamic groups.
( Here, Friedman recognizes the initiation pro-
cesses as central to the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ identity and closes with a brief statement on
the Nuṣayrı̄ brotherhood as part of their religious identity.
In his conclusion (223–38), Friedman ( revisits the question of external influences and
explains the strength of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s to resist persecutions in the current era. In
addressing the external influences, he accounts for influences of Greek philosophy and
Judaism regarding the formation of their religious beliefs. Here he revisits the question
of Christian influences, which he perceives as nominal and being overestimated in past
research due to a Christian bias of researchers and missionaries cultivated since the
nineteenth century. Friedman once more stresses the Zoroastrian influences ( on the for-
mation of Nuṣayrı̄ doctrines. Overall, he emphasizes the changes the Alawı̄s have
undergone, starting with their strategic orientation toward the Muslim world and the
ways in which they currently relate to political and religious issues in the Middle East.
Eight significant appendices supplement the main text. In these appendices, Fried-
man provides( sources and documents that are of high relevance for further research on
the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s. Most important, appendix 1, “Primary Nuṣayrı̄ Sources” (241–
76), lists as many as sixty documents, which were used throughout the text, and com-
ments on their authorship and themes. Appendix 2 lists the titles of all missing sources
and mentions the places in which they are cited. Friedman also lists the ciphers, a table
of ranks, and the names of the Nuṣayrı̄ imams and their prophets. Appendix 6 gives a
summary of the Dı̄w
an al-Khaṣı̄bı̄ , which contains the major poems of the Nuṣayrı̄s,

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228 Book Reviews
(
while appendix 7 gives a synopsis of the Kit
ab al-Majm
u , a book most likely used for
the initiates since the nineteenth century. The last appendix provides the full English
translation of the Fatw
a of Ibn Taymiyya (299–309). The book is supplemented by a
select bibliography and an index.
In the tradition of best scholarship, Friedman maintains a high level of sophistica-
tion throughout his monograph, pays meticulous attention to detail, engages in critical
discussions of prior research, and suggests subtle revisions and ( original insights. In
doing so, Friedman is able to place the religion of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s based on origi-
nal sources into a broader historical perspective. As it stands, Friedman ( presents the
first comprehensive account of the history and belief of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ religion.
The style of presenting this account is engaging, and, because of its transparency,
( also
comprehensible for readers who are not specialists on the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s. These
merits of historical scholarship notwithstanding, some theoretical and methodological
weaknesses become apparent under further scrutiny.
Although the three chapters are vaguely connected, the thematic and historic corre-
lations they build upon could have been more clearly explicated. Presented without an
overarching line of argument, these chapters stand as independent essays side-by-side
with various repetitions, but without a clear framework set up at the beginning of the
monograph. Additionally, a more refined introduction (and conclusion) would have
been helpful to put the most valuable insights into an overarching research context.
Although( the last chapter bridges in numerous ways more recent developments of the
Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, some of these themes are repeated in the conclusion; ( however,
Friedman does not address the recent religious political history of the Alawı̄s in Syria,
which the subtitle of this volume seems to suggest. Friedman obviously aimed to
include all fragments available
( through written sources to initiate further directions of
research on the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄s, as he gives a comprehensive list of the manuscripts
and documents currently available, but it would have been more desirable and taken
the same amount of effort to list all the academic scholarship discussed in the text, as
some of the references are missing, incomplete, or as in few instances, duplicated.
Besides, the rationale for presenting only a select bibliography is not clear and deserves
some justification.
Due to the lack of a more theoretically sound and methodologically refined frame-
work, some of the main points of this research remain unnoticed. The lack of historical
sources can only in part explain this discrepancy. As ( it stands, the work first and fore-
most gives a documentary account of the Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ religion without presenting
anything else that goes beyond a simple matter-of-fact treatment. The first chapter pri-
marily gives
( an account of the life and work of the main leaders recognized in the
Nuṣayrı̄- Alawı̄ religion, whereas the second chapter gives a rather decontextualized
account of their main religious doctrines without offering any specific details about
their historical formation or their relevance for the religious practice. Although the
subtitle indicates that this monograph deals with “the Leading Minority in Syria,” it is
unfortunate that almost none of the chapters directly addresses the political
( situation
in Syria and the historical conditions that led to the leadership of the Alawı̄ minority
in Syria. Even( though the third chapter presents some of the aspects of the identity pol-
(itics of the Alawı̄s, it falls short when it comes to considering dimensions of the
Alawı̄ identity that are not defined on religious or theological terms.

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 History of Religions 229

As helpful as the ( information that Friedman provides might be for reconstructing

the (religion of the Alawı̄s, his monograph does not introduce an emic perspective of
the Alawı̄ religion through which the different components of that religion would ( be
integrated into a more holistic view. In order to gain a better insight into the Alawı̄
religion that is not merely based on textual sources, but also includes the present inter-
pretation of their history
( and beliefs, it would have been helpful if the information of
living and practicing
( Alawı̄s would have also been consulted. Furthermore, the con-
sideration of Alawı̄s would have allowed Friedman to gain not only a better under-
standing from the insider’s( point of view but also a better understanding of the affilia-
tion and attachment of the Alawı̄s with the leading regime in Syria.
This criticism aside, Friedman’s research is the first of its kind to use these sources
along with other previously published documents. For his groundbreaking work, and
considering sources that were not accessible to prior scholarship, one can congratulate
Friedman for an outstanding piece of historical scholarship that promises to be useful
for future research on this unique community.

JENS KREINATH
Wichita State University

Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence: Religious Violence across Culture and History. By
JACK DAVID ELLER. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2010. Pp. 451. $28.00.

In Cruel Creeds, Virtuous Violence, Jack David Eller analyzes an array of phenom-
ena that typically fall under the label of religion and violence. The book’s overall
arrangement is right on point, with introductory chapters on understanding violence
and understanding religion, followed by a chapter each on sacrifice, self-injury, perse-
cution, ethnoreligious conflict, war, homicide and abuse, and finally religion and non-
violence. At the beginning, theory is primary, supported by illustrations from the his-
tory of religions. In later chapters—the one on ethnoreligious conflict, for instance—
summaries of conflicts dominate and theory is secondary. Presumably Eller’s book is
written for undergraduate readers, who will find the historical summaries riveting.
Overall, the book succeeds in introducing readers to a range of issues associated with
the topic. In the hands of a professor with critical command of the subject and supple-
mented by outside readings, Eller’s book would be stimulating for first-time students
of religion and violence.
Of course, all projects of such an enormous scope suffer from shortcomings. Con-
spicuous by its absence is the kind of literary-historical analysis one would expect of
an expert in any particular tradition of religion and violence. That is, there is insuffi-
cient attention to the way that religious imagination and violence intertwine com-
plexly in historical circumstance, as in biblical accounts of herem (255),1 or in

1
For the sacrificial innuendos, see Susan Niditch, War in the Hebrew Bible (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993).

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