Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Reports
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/egyr

Review article
Advances in electric two-wheeler technologies
∗
Anish K. Nayak a,b , Babu Ganguli c , , Pulickel M. Ajayan c
a
Institute of Chemical Technology- IndianOil Odisha Campus, Mouza-Samantapuri, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 751013, India
b
Kalinga Renewable Energy Manufacturers Pvt Ltd, Atala, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, 752101, India
c
Department of Materials Science and Nano-engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, United States

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cost effective modes of transport keeping in conjunction with sustainable outlooks for the future
Received 12 April 2022 have ensured new technologies and initiatives being taken across the globe. Lighter electric vehicles
Received in revised form 11 December 2022 including two-wheelers or scooters have risen in popularity, with both government and private backed
Accepted 4 February 2023
industries investing heavily in green energy. Various state of the art energy systems has been discussed,
Available online xxxx
along with unique approaches to ensure optimum efficiency and lifetime, such as preventing thermal
Keywords: runway reactions, and minimal degradation of electrodes. Supercapacitors, and hybrid fuel cells show
Electric two-wheelers potential to be adapted on large scale. New materials and approaches to synthesising the former
Energy storage have also been addressed, with emphasis on the powering of the next generation vehicles. Hybrid
Sustainable development motor and engine setups developed over the last several years show great improvement and consume
Hybrid motor/engine
minimal quantity of energy. Clever braking technologies further showcase regenerative techniques
Market analysis
and improve mileage. Fuel cost comparisons and recycling methodologies are seen to be researched
extensively, while multiple challenges have been addressed. Major problems such as reducing carbon
footprints and minimising several particulate pollutions present in the atmosphere are demonstrated
to be overcome by implementation of electric two wheelers with regions like Europe and Asia showing
the most promise in current times. This review will aim to integrate the individual functions and piece
the whole system together. Analysis of future opportunities will allow for a comprehensive overview
as well.
© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3509
2. Electrical energy systems .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3510
2.1. Traditional batteries .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 3510
2.1.1. Nickel-metal hydrides........................................................................................................................................................................ 3510
2.1.2. Lead–acid batteries ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3510
2.1.3. Lithium-ion batteries ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3510
2.2. Fuel cells ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3510
2.3. Integration of fuel cells and batteries in one system .................................................................................................................................. 3511
2.4. New battery (solid-state) chemistries............................................................................................................................................................ 3512
2.4.1. Lithium titanates ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3512
2.4.2. Supercapacitors................................................................................................................................................................................... 3514
2.5. Charging mechanisms and potential energy sources .................................................................................................................................... 3514
3. Motor and transmissions technology........................................................................................................................................................................... 3515
3.1. AC motors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3515
3.2. DC motors ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3515
3.3. Other designs and overall integration of motors........................................................................................................................................... 3517
4. Braking technology......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3518
5. Chassis and design ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3518
6. Mileages and fuel cost ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3519
7. Market size & incentives taken .................................................................................................................................................................................... 3520
8. Challenges........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3524

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: babu.ganguli84@gmail.com (B. Ganguli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.02.008
2352-4847/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

9. Opportunities .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3524

10. Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3525
Declaration of competing interest................................................................................................................................................................................ 3526
Data availability .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3526
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 3526
References ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3526

List of Abbreviations Used: SEI Solid Electrolyte Interface

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
ABS Anti-lock braking system
SOC State-of-charge
AER All Electric Range
SMR Steam reforming of methane in gas
AFPM Axial flux permanent magnet motor
SRFC Single-reactant fuel cell
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
TCS Traction Control System
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
TES Taiwan E-Scooter Standard
BLDCM Brushless DC Motor
XRD X-ray Diffraction
CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate
ZEV Zero Emission Vehicle
CRS Controlled Random Search
CVRP Clean Vehicle Rebate Project
CVT Continuously Variable Transmission
E2W Electric Two-Wheeler 1. Introduction
E4W Electric Four-Wheeler
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectra Since the beginning of civilisation, efficient and economic
EM Electric Motor transportation has always been an important factor preceding de-
velopment. Two-wheelers and motorcycles have been an integral
EMF Electromagnetic Field
part of transporting people for over a hundred years.
EV Electric Vehicle
There are approximately 1.2 billion motor vehicles in circula-
FAME Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of tion globally, which is expected to surpass the 2 billion threshold
(Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles by 2035 (Green Car Congress, 2014). In the United States, over
FCEV Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 4 million miles are covered by Light Duty Vehicles, with less
FEA Finite Element Analysis than 2 million of them through railways, buses, and air travel
FTIR Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy combined (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2018). Contrary to
GHG Greenhouse Gases the sprawling distances required to be covered in the US, due to
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System the varying lifestyles, India possessed a strength of 187 million
HMDC Hanoi Motorcycle Driving Cycle two-wheelers in use. (2017) (CEIC Data, 2017)
Scooters have become more predominantly used due to being
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
cost-effective, easy operation and consumption of less petrol as
IDC Indian Driving Cycle compared to cars (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2018).
IM Induction Motor Fossil fuels are increasingly being viewed as a nuisance, dis-
IPM Interior Permanent Magnet rupting the natural ecosystem and the livelihood of millions
LCA Life-cycle Assessment through the consequences of climate change (The International
LIB Lithium-ion Battery Institute for Sustainable Development, 2003; Afjal Hossain et al.,
Li-ion Lithium-ion 2011). It has been noted that transportation reflects up to 49% of
Li-NMC Lithium–Nickel–Manganese–Cobalt– the world’s oil usage (Amjad et al., 2010). 70% of the petroleum
Oxide consumption in the United States is linked with the transporta-
tion sector, with vehicles and other conduits being dependent on
LTO Lithium Titanate
petroleum for more than 90% of their energy requirements (Bu-
MNRE Ministry of New & Renewable Energy reau of Transportation Statistics, 2018). The inevitable depletion
MRFC Mixed-reactant Fuel Cell of oil reserves beckons as well.
NHRWNN Novel Hybrid Recurrent Wavelet Neural The time is right for the industry to venture towards alter-
Network native sources of energy and utilising other forms of its storage.
Ni-MH Nickel Metal Hydride Electric vehicles using various battery chemistries have there-
NP Nanoparticle fore gained significant traction in the recent years, due to their
PCM Phase Change Material sustainability and immense untapped potential. Andersen et al.
PDOC Planetary Gearset and Dual One-way demonstrated that electric vehicles (EV) reduce up to 20% in
Clutch greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and further up to 40% if
the electricity is generated by renewable energies (Andersen
PEMFC Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell
et al., 2009). The development of high-efficiency vehicles has also
PFC Power Correction Factor
shown to adjust global CO2 levels to 2/3 of the value in 1990 by
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle 2050 (ENDO, 2007). Furthermore, investing in Electric Vehicles
PI Proportional–Integral is increasingly enticing, as the US Government is offering 2.5
PID Proportional–Integral–Derivative billion in funds and grants for a variety of EV related companies
PV Photovoltaic Materials and China has been aiming to implement policies pertaining EV
related economic and energy policies (Brown et al., 2010).
The concept of electric two wheelers go back as far as the
time when diesel guzzling motorcycles were still finding their
3509
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
place amongst the community. Patent applications for ‘‘elec-
tric’’/‘‘electrical’’ bicycles can be found as early as 1895 (Bolton,
1895; Libbey, 1897). One of the earliest commercial ventures
started out during World War II during the fuel rations imposition
in the United States, which later became to be known as ParCar
Corp (Columbia Parcar Corporation).
The two-wheeler market consisting of motorcycles, scooters,
and mopeds is expected to rise to 62.6 million units by 2025,
with a Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.7%. China and
India are the fastest growing regions in this sector, but the COVID
pandemic may end up skewing marketability in coming years (ET
Auto, 2020). The United States is also expected to increase its
electric two-wheeler (E2W) market by more than 50% in the next
decade (Grand View Research Inc., 2020).
Energy Storage systems such as Lead–acid, Nickel Metal Hy-
dride (NiMH) and Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have been ex-
tensively used, with the latter possessing minimal maintenance
and various hybrid mechanisms gaining popularity in recent
times (Buchmann, 2016). Ingenious methods of battery swapping
have been improvised to reduce charging times and setting up of
stations (Lombardi et al., 2010; Zheng et al., 2014). Various fuel
cells have been considered as well.
E2W cannot be approached from a single component, with
various aspects contributing to the popularity and utility. This
review will investigate the development of E2W over the last few
decades, with the evolution from using hybrid machinery of tra-
ditional engines and batteries to the marketability of the finished
product and its implications for the future. A more specific focus
will be given to the different mechanisms used to supply energy,
and the motors using them for mobility. A financial and envi-
ronmental analysis towards the end will consider the appeal to
consumers and governments alike, looking for smaller expenses
both monetarily and in terms of the carbon footprint involved.
Potential problems that can arise due to the integrated system
and overcoming them will furthermore be tackled.
2. Electrical energy systems
2.1. Traditional batteries
Battery chemistry has always been used for mobility and as
efficient sources of energy. With improving energy densities, they
have been introduced to both two, three and four wheelers alike.
Three of the primary battery technologies used in electric scooters
till date, are the NiMH, Lead–acid and Li-ion batteries.
2.1.1. Nickel-metal hydrides
Nickel-Metal Hydrides (Ni-MH) were viewed as a useful power
source a few decades back, but with the advances in fuel cells and
Li-ion batteries, they have shifted from the centre of attention
for a while now, especially due to their dwindling energy density
as compared to Li-ion. Companies such as Honda, Toyota, Nissan
and General Motors, had all released electric vehicles powered
by Ni-MH batteries in the past (Dhar et al., 1997). Basic cell
reaction is MH + NiOOH → M+ Ni(OH)2 where M represents
an intermetallic alloy able to undergo a metal hydride phase.
2.1.2. Lead–acid batteries
Lead–acid batteries have traditionally been used in electric
vehicles as well, with a focus on two wheelers due to dwindling
energy requirements at the time. The basic cell reaction is Pb(s)
+ PbO2 (s) + 2H2 SO4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l).
3510
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Table 1
Essential characteristics of the different traditional battery set ups (Khateeb
et al., 2004).
Lead–Acid NiMH Li-ion
Gravimetric energy density (Wh/kg) 30–50 60–120 220–230
Cycle life (up to 80% of initial capacity) 200–300 300–500 500–1000
Cell Voltage (nominal) 2 V 1.25 V 3.6 V
Self-Discharge (per month at room temp.) 5% 30% 10%
Overcharge tolerance High Low Very low
Commercial use 1970 1990 1991
2.1.3. Lithium-ion batteries
Lithium-ion batteries can be found in the automotive industry,
in the form of cylindrical cells in 2 and 4-wheelers. The typical
cell reactions are mentioned here, LiMO2 ↔ Li1−x MO2 + xLi+ +
xe− for the cathode and xLi+ + xe− + 6C ↔ Lix C6 for the anode,
where M is generally a transition metal (Sideris and Greenbaum,
2013).
While they have not been extensively used in two-wheelers,
limited studies of its application in smaller vehicles have been
explored and potential is seen. This should not come as a surprise
due to it being far lighter and requiring less maintenance than
other batteries (see Table 1 and Fig. 1).
One of the earlier works by Khateeb et al. (2006) discussed
the utility of a Phase Change Material (PCM) alongside a Li-ion
battery in an electric scooter (Khateeb et al., 2004). Simulations
were carried out with experimental data obtained for a Lead–Acid
battery. A ‘‘Zappy’’ Electric scooter was taken for the experiment
and simulations were conducted using Simulink (Matlab Version
12.1) deploying a passive PCM system. Computations assumed a
variety of factors such as a rider and the variables of the roads on
which it would travel, with current and voltage outputs plotted
against time dependent on the power demand from the motor.
The Li-ion battery chosen for this experiment was a Sony
18 650 (1.8 Ah) Li-ion cell which could discharge at C/1 rate (see
Fig. 2).
The simulation compared the performance of the Li-ion bat-
tery featured to the real-life performance of the Lead–acid battery
as shown in the figure (Khateeb et al., 2004). The average current
output differed with the Lead–acid getting higher currents rang-
ing from 18–24 A while the Li-ion battery averaged 15–18 A. This
was due to the higher voltage output and discharge capacity in
case of the Li-ion battery (24 Ah instead of 18 Ah). Voltage output
was shown to be 12.5 V with actual nominal voltage being 14.4
V. The simulation made sure that once the output voltage hit a
set value of 9 V, the vehicle would stop with discharge being cut
off.
While the Li-ion battery showed promising results, exper-
imental data affirming the application in various electric two
wheelers was scant at the time.
A variant of Li-ion batteries, i.e., Lithium titanate batteries
having the capability of charging faster than ordinary Li-ion cells
is being investigated as a viable alternative.
2.2. Fuel cells
Electric vehicles have commonly used fuel cells based on
proton exchange membranes (PEMFC) due to their performances
at low temperature, increased energy density as well as quick
startup.
Forysinski et al. (2019) also developed a novel model in which
they claim to have been the first to use mixed-reactant fuel cells
as a sole energy source to power a vehicle.
In traditional fuel cells, the fuel and oxidant are supplied
separately to the reactor, and are prevented from interacting with
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Fig. 1. (a,b,c). Charging and discharging methods of Lead–Acid, NiMH batteries
and Lithium Ion Batteries . (Redrawn from Figure 2 in Wang et al. (2016)), Figure
16.6 in Duraman et al. (2014), Figure 2 in ITACA.
each other by residing within each half-cell and by ion exchange
membranes which pass ionic current. This is necessary in order
to avoid thermochemical reactions between the fuel and oxidant
along with the prevention of their respective counter-electrodes
undergoing electrochemical reactions themselves.
The mixed-reactant fuel cell (MRFC) being an unconventional
technology, break from the original separate-reactant guideline
by combining the fuel and oxidant to pass through the fuel cell
in the same flow. This is controlled by chemical or physical
methods such as using selective electrocatalysts (chemical) or
3511
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
by suppressing the movement of the reactants to the opposite
electrode. While there has been an occurrence in the reduction in
the efficiency of the fuel cell, this can be adjusted in the cost, com-
plexity and size of the apparatus in overcoming the differences
between an MRFC and a single-reactant fuel cell (SRFC).
Alkali formate salts such as formic acid and it’s derivatives
have been used widely as electrochemical fuels in batteries and
fuel cells (Vielstich, 1970; Oloman, 2012) and suggestions have
also been made by the author to use alternatives such as hy-
drazine, hydrogen gas, ammonia among others.
Fig. 3 (c) from Forysinski et al. (2019) shows the principle of
MRFC utilised.
The electrode reactions which have been used have been
displayed in Table 2.
In the experimental set up the fuel cell was set up to power an
electric scooter with an adult passenger and other components
for about 15 min at a speed of 10 kilometres per hour. It was
linked to a 250 W electric motor. The MRBFCs used flat filter
presses and were of a cylindrical swiss roll model (Oloman, 2012;
Aziznia et al., 2012).
We can conclude from the above figures that the MRFBC has
a lot of untapped potential as a mobile/stationary power source.
The authors’ usage of a fuel/oxidant mixture of [2M K(Na)HCO2
+ 2MKOH](aq)/O2 (g) in both 10E−4 m2 single cells as well as
a 35E−4 m2 /cell 19 cell bipolar stacks (Operating conditions :
300 kPa (abs) and 80 degree Celsius) were successful. Volumetric
power densities of 950 and 400 kW m−3 were obtained and two
of the 19 cell 100 W MRFBC stacks were sufficient to move an
adult (load) on the scooter along a horizontal path.
2.3. Integration of fuel cells and batteries in one system
Hybrid mechanisms have also been used in efforts to over-
come any individual shortcomings found in the fuel cell or battery
in terms of performance.
Shih et al. (2013) demonstrated fuel cell driven two-wheelers
using a 2.3 kW PEMFC stack (FCgen-1020ACS) developed by Bal-
lard Power Systems, Canada.
Although the range they reached between recharging was only
63.5 km at the time, the top speed at the time obtained was
53.2 kmph implying that the increase in speed was facilitated by
reducing the load on the scooter.
Like all fuel cells this was based on a simple redox reaction
converting the hydrogen input as fuel into electricity, but at the
time the novelty was viewed in not requiring any humidification
as the fuel cell made use of dry hydrogen.
In a study by Amjad et al. (2011) a flow chart (Fig. 4 (b))
highlights the energy requirements of plug-in hybrid electric
(PHEV) two-wheeler.
According to the specifications given by the author, using an
Indian Driving Cycle (IDC) (EPA, 1996) for an all-electric range
(AER) of 25 km and a maximum speed of 95 kilometres per hour,
the lead–acid batteries will require 766 Wh of energy capacity
with Ni-MH needing 728 Wh. Li-ion proved to be the most energy
efficient due to its higher specific energy with a requirement of
691 Wh of battery capacity due to it being lighter and hence
wasting less energy
Robledo et al. (2019) designed a hydrogen fuel scooter in
which a FCES model 4.8 from APFCT is used with the Lithium–
Nickel–Manganese–Cobalt Oxide (Li-NMC) battery that is comple-
mented solely for peak power demand. The fuel cell acts as the
main energy supplier and charges the battery without requiring
any plug for external electric charging.
They found that upon testing the scooter in three modes:
to drive, to provide power to appliances (V2L) and to provide
power to the grid (V2G), V2L ended up degrading the fuel cell the
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 2. (a). Simulated current output in Zappy Electric Scooter for LIB (Adapted from figure 6 in Khateeb et al. (2006) (b) Simulated voltage output in Zappy Electric
Scooter for LIB (Adapted from figure 8 in Khateeb et al. (2006)) (c) Experimental test results using Lead–acid battery in Zappy electric scooter (Adapted from figure
7 in Khateeb et al. (2006)).

Table 2
Stoichiometry in the alkaline formate/oxygen MRFBFC (Forysinski et al., 2019).
Reactions Stoichiometry E0 , 298 K, pH = 14 V SHE dE0 /dT V K−1
− − 2− −
1 Anode HCO3 + H2 O ← 2e HCO + 2OH −0.82 −2E−4
2 Cathode 1/2 O + H O + 2e− → 2OH− +0.40 −1E−3
2 2
3 Overall HCO2− + 1/2 O2 → HCO3 − +1.22 −5E−4
4 Overall HCO2− + 2OH− + 1/2 O2 → CO3 2− + H2 O +1.33 (excess OH− ) −8E−4

most due to the lower operating power and increased operating
voltage. However, providing the power to the grid ended up being
the most efficient mode using the fuel cell, as it was operating at
almost full power.
2.4. New battery (solid-state) chemistries
2.4.1. Lithium titanates
Over the last couple of years, the lithium-titanate battery has
been suggested to be the successor to older Li-ion based batteries
due to its extremely quick charging time and having a longer
charging life cycle AA Portable Power Corporation, Borghols et al.
(2009). Expresso (Burrows) was the first scooter and vehicle using
a Lithium Titanium Oxide (LTO) non-flammable battery technol-
ogy to be marketed in the US (Huang et al., 2015). The technology
created by Altairnano (Altair Nanotechnologies Inc.) is capable
of undergoing 25,000 charges which amounts to over 70 years’
worth of charging days (Kane, 2015).
LTO has displayed reduced expansion and contraction dur-
ing the charging and discharge phases of the battery (Nakahara
et al., 2003). Lithium titanate spinels (Li4 Ti5 O12 ) has been used
extensively as insertion electrodes as rechargeable Li-ion cells
and semiconducting materials (Brousse et al., 1997).
3512
The above combination of LTO has been generated by taking
stoichiometric amounts of TiO2 and LiOH which undergoes heat-
ing at 800–1000 degrees Celsius for approximately 12–24 h in a
solid-state reaction (Brousse et al., 1997; Ferg et al., 1994; Ohzuku
et al., 1995; Harrison et al., 1985; Pyun et al., 1999; Scharner et al.,
1999; Zaghib et al., 1999, 1998; Takai, 1999). Li was found to be
accommodated with a theoretical capacity of 175 mAh per gram
(considering the original material’s starting mass).
Along with spinel structure, spherical LTO was synthesised
with necessary porosity as well though a drawback involves
reduction in capacity due to disorganisation in structure and
composition under extensive heating (Wen et al., 2005).
Shenouda and Murali (2008) synthesised 5 samples of sub-
stituted titanates (Li4−x Mgx Ti5−x Vx O12 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1) and studied
them as anode materials in rechargeable lithium batteries. The
samples were heated at 900 degrees Celsius for 10 h in the air
and cooled in a tube furnace to room temperature.
XRD (X-ray Diffraction), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope)
and FTIR (Fourier Transforming Infrared Ray) were used to char-
acterise the structural properties of the synthesised materials. The
cubic structure of Li4 Ti5 O12 was described in spinel notation as
Li8a [Ti5/3 Li1/3 ]16d O4 in which Li is inserted in a two-phase reaction
at a constant potential of approximately 1.5 V into the spinel
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic on the working of a simple fuel cell, with A & B showing oxygen ion and proton conducting electrolytes respectively. (Redrawn from figure
24.1, Mahaptra and Singh (2014)) Fig. 3(b) Component analysis of electric scooter (Adapted from Figure 4 of Forysinski et al. (2019)) Fig. 3(c) A rough sectional view
of an MRFC, (Adapted from figure 1 of Forysinski et al. (2019)).

structure vs Li/Li2+ (Pyun et al., 1999). It has also been observed
Li4 Ti5 O12 can be implemented as a negative electrode of 2 V in
Li-ion batteries (Ferg et al., 1994)
Samples with a higher value of ‘x’ (as seen in sample S4 with
x = 0.75) in the compound ratio were suggested due to exhibi-
tion of higher electrical conductivity, allowing for the presence
of extra Mg and V ions (Teng et al., 2007). Its conductivity was
found to be 2.452 * 10−4 S cm−1 .
3513
The corresponding electrochemical process Li4 Ti5 O12 + 3Li+
+ 3e− → Li7 Ti5 O12 is based on a Ti4+ /Ti3+ redox couple, a
reversible reaction with E = 1.5 V. Other scientists have verified
this upon observing similar results (Pasquier et al., 2004; Hao
et al., 2005, 2006). Shenouda et al. have also suggested that the
specific discharge capacity is enhanced by improving the mobility
of Li+ ions. The cyclic performance for S4 shows specific discharge
capacity to be 198 mAh per gram for the initial test and reducing
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram for utilising a hybrid of LIB and PEMFC in electric
scooter. (Redrawn from Fig. 1(e) (Shih et al., 2013)) Fig. 4 (b) Schematic covering
the energy flow in an converted PHEV two-wheeler. (Adapted from figure 1
in Amjad et al. (2011)) Fig. 4(c) Layout of hybrid power system used with
connections to a programmable road and description of components used in
the hydrogen fuel cell system [Adapted from Fig. 1(b) in Robledo et al. (2019)].
to 187 mAh per gram, yet for the rest of the samples stayed fairly
constant across 60 cycles. They concluded that the S4 cell showed
the highest electrical conductivity, specific discharge capacity and
cycle life amongst all the other samples taken due to a higher
ratio of the c/a unit cell parameter. It is believed this encouraged
further insertion and de-insertion of the Li ions within the crystal
lattice.
A similar study was carried out by Tian et al. (2010), however
in this case using Niobium doped LTO as an anode material for
Li-ion battery. (Li4 Ti4.95 Nb0.05 O12 ). This composite has shown a
reversible capacity of 135 mAh per gram at 10 C with 127 maH
3514
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
per gram at 20 C and 80 mAh per gram even when the thermome-
ter touches 40 C. Higher electrical conductivity along with further
efficient lithium ion diffusivity characterised by electrochemical
impedance spectra (EIS) and resistance measurement highlights
the potential of Niobium doped LTO as an important material to
be used as a successful anode for the Lithium ion batteries in the
future.
In recent times (Wang et al., 2017a) there have also been
designs of lithium titanate hydrates that purport to be capable
of undergoing 10,000 cycles with a capacity of a fade of just
0.001%. In fact, they have proven to be more successful at higher
temperatures, with a specific capacity of 135 mAh per gram at 35
C.
A new study by Odziomek et al. (2017) shows that even
without doping LTO, improvements can be made by going even
smaller to the nanoscale, by synthesising hierarchically struc-
tured Li4 Ti5 O12 by proceeding through a glycothermal approach
in which metal organic compounds placed in 1,4-BD (butanediol)
generate oxide nanoparticles (NPs) under autoclaved conditions.
This significantly improved the ionic and electrical conductivities
as well. In this structure, the primary, nanosized crystallites form
porous agglomerates resulting in ideal electrochemical character-
istics. This is due to the obtaining of a high volumetric density,
instead of the ‘‘low tap’’ density of nanostructured particles (Zhao,
2015).
Upon undergoing 1000 cycles at 50 C rate, the half cells dis-
played a capacity of 170 mAh per gram staying fairly constant. In
fact after 10 cycles, a capacity of 190 mAh per gram was exhibited
with the value of 170 coming up from 300 cycles onwards, with
no sign of any depleted reserves until going beyond the thousand
cycles range. It is suggested by the authors the intrinsic properties
and morphology of synthesised materials are key reasons due
to which the performance of this design is commendable (see
Table 3).
Other works regarding nanostructures of LTO have been re-
ported as nanoparticles (Ge et al., 2016), nanoflakes (Chou et al.,
2011), nanowires (Kim and Cho, 2007), nanoflowers (Zhang et al.,
2013), nanosheets (Han et al., 2012), nanorods (Song et al., 2014)
and nanotubes (Lee et al., 2009; Khateeb et al., 2004; Phenix,
2014).
2.4.2. Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors have also been briefly used (Haerri et al.,
2008) as shown in a study by Haerri et al. However a major
issue was the modified electric scooter struggled to turn on if the
supercapacitor was not fully charged in its initial state.
2.5. Charging mechanisms and potential energy sources
A popular method of charging Li-ion batteries is by using ordi-
nary wall outlets which some companies claiming that the vehicle
can be charged within 4 h and can travel 55 kilometres per
charge (Hero Electric, 2020). Battery swapping, hybrid technology
(using an internal combustion) and fuel cells have been explored
in the industries to make charging more efficient (Lidicker et al.,
2011; Chau and Wong, 2002; Lin, 2000). A recent report published
by NITI Aayog with the assistance of several Indian agencies
showed that abundance of charging stations coupled with re-
duced battery costs would incentivise more consumers to invest
in electric two wheelers (Srivastava et al., 2022).
Another work (Srivastava et al., 2022) shows wireless charg-
ing as a source of improvement in electric scooters. They use
wireless power transfer (WPT) along with the hybrid energy
storage system (HESS) wherein a battery bank combined with
a supercapacitor focusses on improving the lifetime and poten-
tial of the electric scooter. The proposed plan is suggested for
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Table 3
Comparison of various cycling data from previous literature (Odziomek et al., 2017).
Standard electrochemical measurements
Capacity 50C (mAh g−1 )
Nanograins coated by carbon (Wang et al., 2017b) 128,8
N-doped 2D wavelike with carbon joints (Liu et al., 2015) 151
Assembly on nanowires (Wang et al., 2014) – –
N-doped, carbon-coated nanocomposite (Li et al., 2014) Approx. 110
Core–shell LTO/C (Nugroho et al., 2012) 101
NPs (Feckl et al., 2012) – –
NanoLTO—carbon nanotubes composite (Naoi et al., 2013) Approx. 130
commercial 48 V electric scooters. A WPT setup with a simple
charger had been proposed for light EV in Hu et al. (2018). This
is demonstrated for a 0.8 kW electric scooter, which can only go
about 30 km in a single charge, but methods such as rapid, normal
and smart charging are showcased to highlight the efficiency
boost provided. In this setup a regulator utilises the input energy
from WPT, followed by manipulation of energy which is being
distributed to the battery and supercapacitor. In order to improve
the battery life, a short period of negative current is supplied by
a procedure to prevent any damage or exploitation done to the
battery. The overall system efficiency covering the dc source as
well as the supercapacitor and battery was found to be 86.4%.
An interesting source of energy for these batteries can be
solar energy which has been implemented in auto rickshaw
three wheelers (Li et al., 2017) and could be adapted in case of
two wheelers as well. Photovoltaic materials (PV) such as CdTe
and a-Si:H are known for being lightweight and flexible respec-
tively (Mulhall et al., 2010; Lewis, 2016; National Renewable
Energy Laboratory) and therefore can be easily integrated into an
electric scooter. This enables consumers to generate electricity as
they travel and provides an alternative to plug-in vehicles. Solar
fuels, i.e. fuels that can be produced from sunlight can be another
option promoting a sustainable ecosystem for largescale energy
supply for electric vehicles globally (Green et al., 2018).
It could be concluded from the study carried out by Kha-
teeb et al. (2004) that the demand for an electric scooter for
a long driving range was not large 10–15 years ago. The range
of the scooter was approximately 8 miles with the max speed
reaching 11–13 mph. The goal in the future is to perhaps reach
speeds of up to 40 to 50 mph with a strong energy source and
stay cost-effective as well. There have been electric motorcycles
with ranges up to 124 miles and have reached speeds up to 62
mph (Phenix, 2014) however their cost is close to 30,000 USD.
[Johammer J1]
3. Motor and transmissions technology
A traditional electric scooter uses a traction motor and a set
of reduction gears. Motors can be broadly classified as AC and DC
motors. While AC Motors are cheaper and capable of drawing in
much greater current resulting in enhanced torques, DC motors
are known to be more efficient and useful in scenarios requiring
precision. Costs of electric vehicles are quite high as most com-
panies prefer to use DC motors although the use of AC motors in
E2W has been studied.
3.1. AC motors
Synchronous (AC motor at steady state) interior permanent
magnet (IPM) motor drives have been designed and commer-
cialised for two-wheelers in the past (Lewis et al., 2005). 3-phase
IPM synchronous motors aiming for minimal weight, maximum
power potential and effective results for a wide-constant power
region have been subject to simulations (Bianchi et al., 2001)
carrying out finite element analysis (FEA). This algorithm is based
3515
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Non-Standard electrode preparation
Cycles–fading Capacity 50C (mAh g−1 ) Cycles–fading
500-7.4% (10C) – –
150-6.5% – –
125 (60C) 5000%–17% (20C)
300%–5% (10C) – –
250%–11% (1C) – –
175 1000%–11% (100C)
– – –
on a controlled random search (CRS), which uses a global and
local search phase (Parasiliti et al., 2012).
Novel rotor designs were used for a double barrier four pole
motor in order to reduce harmonic iron losses at high rotational
speeds due to the control of field weakening. This study happened
to incorporate an onboard battery charger improving the power
factor correction (PFC) for E2W (Liuzzi et al., 2003).
Pellegrino et al. (2010) have further improved on the perfor-
mance of AC motors and in particular, the PMSM used in electric
scooters by designing a novel hybrid recurrent wavelet neural
network (NHRWNN) with the control system made up of:
1. Supervised control
2. Recurrent wavelet neural network (RWNN)
3. Compensated control with adaptive law
It was shown to perform better than the Proportional–Integral
(PI) and Proportional–Integral–Derivative (PID) controllers found
in electric scooters due to its fast learning properties and effective
generalisation capacity (see Fig. 5).
3.2. DC motors
DC brushless electric motors are used on a regular basis in
EVs and steps taken to improve the overall technology depend on
the various transmission setups used to improve torque output.
Hybrid electric motor transmission utilising a mechanical type
rubber V-belt and continuously variable transmission (CVT) have
been studied (Lin et al., 2014) using a gasoline engine and an
electric motor in tandem, designing 4 different modes to reduce
emissions and reach its full potential.
Low duty electric vehicles were introduced keeping in mind
the above but failed to gain traction in Taiwan (Sheu and Hsu,
2006; Chiu and Tzeng, 1999; Tso, 2003; Chau et al., 1999). Com-
panies such as Honda and AVL designed various hybrid sys-
tems (Chau and Wong, 2001) apart from Matsuto and Wachi-
gai (Laimböck et al., 1999). The usage of the mechanical-type
rubber CVT had its benefits on its own but struggled in the instant
of speed ratio change with frequent stops (Matsuto et al., 2000;
Lee and Sung, 1997). However when combined with chain drives,
it performs with the power from both the gasoline engine and
electric motor with the latter benefitting during start up and
slow speeds and at greater speeds depending on the distribution
of engine power to the rubber CVT, limiting emissions in urban
areas.
Variations of the traditional rubber V-belt CVTs in order to
create an efficient coupling between the motor and transmission
have been researched. Chen et al. (1998) studied the use of
a power split electronic-continuously variable transmission (e-
CVT) in a hybrid electric motorcycle, given that they have been
implemented in HEVs in the past. This technology was devel-
oped earlier however, Chung and Hung (2014) with the Toyota
Hybrid System having commercially established a benchmark in
the automotive industry (Gelb et al., 1971; Yamaguchi, 2004). The
Power split e-CVT has two major configurations in the industry,
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 5. The functioning of the brake control is shown here.

Source: Redrawn from figure 2 of Lin and Lin (2013).

Fig. 6. (a) Operational statistics for the used prototype. (Adapted from figure 8 of Lin et al. (2014)). Fig. 6(b) The prototype’s mechanical efficiency has been observed
under different conditions (Adapted from figure 9 of Lin et al. (2014)).

being of the planetary type (THS, Ford Hybrid System) and the
dual planetary type (GM-Allison Advanced Hybrid System) This
has been implemented in buses and cars, but rarely on two
wheelers. A Planetary gearset and Dual one-way clutch (PDOC)
has been considered.
As before, there are two modes, namely electric vehicle mode
and hybrid mode, but the hybrid mode further consists of an
engine-driven mode used when changing from EV mode at 15–20
kmph and a power-split e-CVT mode which serves as the primary
operating strategy in hybrid mode particularly at higher speeds
due to its ability to maintain the highest efficiency possible. The
engine-driven mode makes use of the conventional rubber-belt
CVT.
Reducing unnecessary battery discharge and improvement in
fuel economy by up to 32% under high duress suggests that this
can be looked at with renewed interest.
Sasaki (1998) covered the use of an inverse differential gear
power splitter and power control in a DC brushless motor, design-
ing three different power modes capable of shifting between each
3516
other effectively. Upon being tested by a chassis power gauge, the
HEM was found to consume 41.1% less fuel and released 58.6%
less exhaust emissions than a traditional ICE. It’s acceleration time
for 0–100 m was far less than the Taiwan E-Scooter Standard
(TES) (Chen et al., 2019) and its highest speed clocked at more
than double the TES.
Efforts have also been made to make pre-existing Brushless
DC Motors (BLDCM) more cost-effective as demonstrated by Min-
istry of Economic Affairs where they implement a sensor-less
control system (Karnavas et al., 2019; Lee and Sul, 2004) which
improves its functionality at higher temperatures and in dusty
conditions (Damodharan and Vasudevan, 2010; Gieras, 2002) (see
Fig. 7).
Gupta et al. (2012) have also applied a PM brushless DC motor
in two different electric propulsion systems due to their superior
efficiency, higher torque density and lower cost of the control
system and electromagnetic structure of the motor (Bertoluzzo
and Buja, 2011). A city scooter was made up of a Li-Cobalt battery
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 7. Schematic of BLDCM controller stages.

Source: Redrawn from figure 3 of Ministry of
Economic Affairs.

Fig. 8. (a) Fitting of the motor within the wheel (Adapted from figure 1 of Versele et al. (2009)) Fig. 8(b) Initial configurations of the in-wheel motor (Adapted from
figure 2 of Versele et al. (2009)).

pack and wheel motor, while a fuel cell powered bicycle was Table 4
assisted further by a supercapacitor bank. Comparison of performances at rated speed (Versele et al., 2009).
Contents FEA TEST UNIT

3.3. Other designs and overall integration of motors EMF at 1000 rpm 34.2 34.0 V (rms)
Phase resistance 0.02 0.02 Ohm
Torque 31.5 30.0 N m
There have been further studies covering the use of a wheel Output power 2342.1 2196.0 W
motor (directly-driven motors, hub motors, inside-wheel motors) Torque constant 0.98 0.86 N m/A
with scientists studying the optimal power split between an Torque ripple 2.53 – %
internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor (EM) (Bose, Phase current 32 35 A (rms)
Current density 6.08 6.65 A/mm2
1986). Using a control algorithm, there was a change of about 36%
Efficiency 86.2 85.8 %
(upwards) in the state of charge (SOC).
Cogging torque 0.06 0.4 Nm
These wheel motors, which are set up within the wheel with- (peak-to-peak) 0.2 1.33 %
out any differentials and reduction gears have an extra unsprung
mass which can prove to be an issue in generating a higher
torque. Chen et al. (2011) have also suggested designs using an
axial flux permanent magnet motor (AFPM) which can improve is demonstrated in scooters. A DC motor has been used, but the
the mechanism of heat transfer as well. Companies such as EVO authors say that it can be superposed in AC powered scooters as
Electric, Ashwoods and YASA Motors make AFPM but commercial well. Here a bidirectional DC/DC converter-fed is provided in or-
production for e-scooters had not been scaled accordingly at the der to power the PM DC scooter motor enhancing proper driving
time of research (Yang and Hung, 2013). and regenerative braking control capacities. Mode transition has
There have been further designs of in-wheel motors, as seen been smoothened with the help of the human interface interlock
in the case of Versele et al. (2009) who consider the economical mechanism. Smartphones and various mobile apparatus could be
production wherein ‘direct-driven outer rotor type’ is joined to charged and a PV system implemented on the house roof can
the rear wheel of the scooter without any gear. A brushless PM charge the battery as well.
motor was utilised with the commercial e-scooter of GMT taken Hsu et al. (2018) have carried out case studies for Bangkok and
for tests (Lee et al., 2017). The authors conclude with the help of Hanoi utilising various driving cycles such as HMDC, BDC, ECE15,
FEA and other computations that the output characteristics of the WMTC part 1 (Tuan et al., 2020; André, 2004; United Nations
motor have been improved due to the implementation of a stator Economics and Social Council, 2004; Tamsanya et al., 2009) and
form which supports automatic winding (see Table 4). found that using their specified electric scooter, Induction Motor
Furthermore, utilising electric scooters in energy harvesting (IM) proved to be more efficient than switched reluctance motors
techniques has been considered (GreenMobility). G2V/V2H/ (SRM) by about 10 km using HMDC (Hanoi Motorcycle Driving
V2G (grid to vehicle/vehicle to home/vehicle to grid) capability Cycle).
3517
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Table 5
Comparison ABS vs. regenerative braking (de Santiago et al., 2012).
Surface Control
Time (s)
High Adhesion Distance (m)
Mean deceleration (m/s2 )
Time (s)
Low Adhesion Distance (m)
Mean deceleration (m/s2 )
Larger electric vehicles such as four-wheelers (E4W) have
popularly resorted to hybrid mechanisms having both the electric
motor and internal combustion engine working alongside each
other to the transmission. Series, parallel and a mix of those
arrangements are popularly used in heavier hybrid electric ve-
hicles (le Anh et al., 2012). Investing in E4W is only wide-spread
amongst higher income groups, and companies have shifted from
DC to AC motors in an attempt to improve the range on the en-
ergy drawn from the existing battery technology. Other suggested
motor topologies are the induction motor (IM), reluctance motor
(RM), synchronous PM, and synchronous brushed motor (Yong
et al., 2015). We can therefore assume that AC motors will con-
tinue to dominate in the more luxury conscious sector, with
E2W slowly adapting the technology as costs go down. Various
computational methods to improve regain energy and cut down
on losses are also expected to be focussed upon, with a few
techniques discussed in the next section as well.
4. Braking technology
Safety in electric scooters has been covered extensively by
implementing pre-existing braking methods with different con-
figurations according to requirements. A study by Lin and Lin
(2013) focusses on a non-mechanical anti-lock braking system
(ABS) in order to be able to steer during emergent braking. It
takes into consideration regenerative, kinetic, and short circuit
braking techniques. ABS can be seen as an analogue to the brak-
ing systems found in gas-engine vehicles through regulating the
vehicle’s electronic braking torque. Here the short circuit brake
creates a loading effect to the motor by generating induced cur-
rent from the motor back electromagnetic fields (EMF), with the
help of a full bridge inverter leading to the control of input and
output current direction. The regenerative brake mode takes the
back EMF and recharges the battery by linking the motor to the
battery. Finally, the kinetic motor ensures energy dissipation by
connecting a high power low resistance resistor with the motor,
thereby reflecting the braking system in gas powered engines by
adjusting the resistor value of a dummy band.
They found that the implementation was successful with no
significant difference in speeds between the two wheels, allowing
for an efficient slowing down of the vehicle to occur.
A study by de Santiago et al. (2012) claims to improve on the
ABS strategy by utilising fuzzy logic and algorithms to calculate
the parameters and control required to improve the regenera-
tion in two wheelers. Brakes typically work on ABS or Traction
Control System (TCS), and have been studied in tandem with
fuzzy logic (Castillo Aguilar et al., 2017; Cabrera et al., 2015),
sliding control (Lin and Song, 2011; Choi and Cho, 2001; Harifi
et al., 2008), control by artificial neural networks (Habibi and
Yazdizadeh, 2010; Topalov et al., 2011), or by non-linear con-
trol (Ćirović et al., 2012; Gerard et al., 2012). These are the most
used control methods under given circumstances. Many studies
have focussed on the regeneration capability in the past, with
Tanelli et al. (2008) designing a control procedure that regener-
ates the braking energy from the rear wheel to the battery system
by applying a braking torque to the latter. The fuzzy control
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
ABS Regenerative REG. MAX = 50% Regenerative REG. MAX = 80%
1.39 1.42 1.40
19.54 20.24 20.85
11.95 11.71 11.86
3.90 3.76 3.80
53.51 52.19 52.62
4.27 4.44 4.38
approximates the road adhesion and determines the optimum
regenerative braking torque without the wheel slipping. This
overcomes both the need to use a traditional rear friction brake
which was dependent on road characteristics due to the high
braking torque which can be achieved by the motor, and the fixed
level of regeneration set for safety or battery capacity concerns.
Regeneration is ordinarily set between 5%–10% of motor power
in order to limit the charge current in the battery. The possibility
of the locking of the rear wheel in any adhesion condition is also
reduced. If this ever occurred, ABS was required. The fuzzy control
however ensures that the operation of the vehicle always takes
place in the vicinity of the optimal slip with the current intensity
only limited when there would be a risk to the integrity of the
battery and regeneration. Simulations also show that this method
is more successful than maintaining a fixed regeneration rate (see
Table 5).
Robinson and Singh (2013) designed a bi-directional energy
conversion system in which they considered a supercapacitor
(stores chemical energy via physical means in an electric field)
to drive an electric scooter which allows the recovery of energy
obtained from braking on demand. Here the fact that superca-
pacitors have more uses than battery under high duress as there
is less aging and significant improvement in heat loss leading
to a longer effective life cycle has been considered. It has been
seen that terminal voltage is directly proportional to the state
of charge (SOC) in supercapacitors. They were able to obtain this
using a current-mirror topology combined with modular DC–DC
converters.
Coupled with the necessary torque mode test rig allows the
system to operate in most conditions. The more interesting aspect
of the path of power flow is the regenerative braking subsystem
with input and output variables displayed systematically in three
representative cases.
The highest efficiency of such systems are set under certain
conditions such that braking level is maximised as far as energy
return is concerned, however certain disadvantages and sacrifices
are made by the driver in order to ensure effective recovery.
5. Chassis and design
Electric scooters in structure are quite similar to normal two
wheelers and the same goes for motorcycles which can also
be hybrid. In 1996, the government of Taiwan funded research
into electric scooters in order to reduce air pollution and was
marketed as a Zero Emission Scooter (ZES) (Sun and Zhang, 2015).
The chassis was found to be heavier than typical ICE motorcycles
of the same size, at 105 kg in order to store four batteries, with
the motor, driver and transmission kept separate but capable of
forming a single unit. The batteries were kept below the foot-
board with the onboard charge located at the rear end in a metal
box. However the majority of the designs covered are the ones
that were commercially produced and marketed by companies on
a global scale (see Fig. 10 and Table 6).
3518
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Fig. 9. (a) Mechanism of shifting into different brake modes. (Redrawn from figure 6 of Lin and Lin (2013)) Fig. 9(b) Calculating the optimum slip on the basis of
studying the nature of road type (Adapted from figure 8 of de Santiago et al. (2012)).
6. Mileages and fuel cost
One of the biggest barriers to large scale adoption of electric
vehicles in the past, especially electric two wheelers, is the lack
of the range enjoyed by gasoline fuelled vehicles. Models such
as the Peugeot Scoot’Elec and the Yamaha Passol could go for
about 25 miles and 20 miles on a single charge, respectively (Liu
et al., 1996; Peugeot, 2009; Evoke Motorcycles). The Yamaha EC-
02 (ZEV), Ather 450 (Lane Motor Museum), and Zero MX (Johnson,
2009) had mileages of about 40 miles with the Zero S surpassing
it with a 60 mile range (Ather Energy). But it is to be noted that
while the three models (following Scoot’Elec) had a price range
of about USD 2000, the others following easily hovered close to
USD 10,000 (using links above). The Piaggio MP3 (2009) has a
far higher mileage but it must be noted that it is based on an
ICE as well as an electric motor, and utilises fuel (Yamaha Motor
Co. L., 2006). In recent times a Vietnamese based company called
VinGroup has marketed VinFast Klara (2018) with a range of 50
miles and a price of Rs. 1.1 lakh (Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd, 2005).
The Brammo Empulse (2012) costing about USD 17 000 (Sulthoni,
2013) and the Evoke Urban S worth about $9400 (Serafim, 2013)
both have achieved ranges of slightly greater than 120 miles. The
Harley-Davidson 2020 LiveWire motorcycle costing about GDP
29 000 has a range of 158 km (minimum) (Siler, 2009), with
India’s Bajaj Chetak getting a range of about 95 km and costing
about Rs 1 Lakh, making it one of the more cost-effective and
decent range scooters in the market (Harley-Davidson, 0000). The
ZEV LRC X (2017) claims to reach 300 km on a single charge,
making it if not the best, one of the foremost competitors in the
mileage competition (Bajaj Auto Ltd.).
3519
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
About a decade ago, the argument being that the practi-
cal energy density of gasoline for automotive uses in the US
being 1700 Wh/L, there was no expectation that Li-ion would
ever surpass that, staying within 100–200 Wh/L (VinFast Klara;
Girishkumar et al., 2010). However with recent research break-
throughs (Richter et al., 2008), there are promising signs that
all solid state lithium-sulphur batteries will be able to boast of
energy densities up to 2500 Wh/L, leading to more cost-effective
and long range electric scooters.
As far as fuel costs and comparisons are concerned there are
no issues. Beyond rider anxiety (Kim et al., 2019) of running out
of charge before reaching the destination, the additional costs
are much easier on the wallet. In a personal experience written
in the WIRED (Kim et al., 2019) the author utilising a Zero DS
electric two wheeler covered 1700 miles over 3 months and only
averaged about $30 for charging the batteries, while riding a
2012 BMW F 650 GS cost him about the same by travelling a
little over 400 miles in a span of 2 days. Ampere vehicles are
marketed (Lavrinc, 2013) as costing Rs 0.15 per km for charging,
giving an owner potentially savings of several thousands of ru-
pees by switching a fuel powered scooter to an electric one. A
study by Ampere Vehicles also shows how the total costs of a
plug-in electric scooter are smaller than an ICE scooter among
others.
A case study in Cox and Mutel (2018) by Bishop et al. showed
that the operating costs even in 2011 for a trial scooter were
found to be 5 times and 2 times cheaper respectively than the
Ford Focus 2008 (car) and Honda PS 125 (motorcycle).
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Table 6
Various models of electric scooters marketed around the world.
Manufacturer Model name Year released Design features
Peugeot Scoot’elec 1996 – Double cradle design; low centre of gravity
– Batteries held below rider’s feet
– Electronic controller and onboard charger enclosed beneath the seat (Liu et al., 1996).
Yamaha Passol 2002 – 44 kg and sleek scaled down frame
– Portable charger weighing 2 kg
– 30% of body part is aluminium (Peugeot, 2009; Tokyo (AFP), 2002)
Yamaha Passol L 2005 – Larger battery
Yamaha EC-02 2005 – Glow in the dark, round headlight, banana seat for 2
– Chromed teardrop front & rear turn
– Batteries enclosed in large central tank; total weight 47 kg (Yamaha Motor Co. L., 2002).
Passol and EC-02 recalled due to battery issues (Levenstein)
Piaggio MP3 2007 – Only PHEV in list (rest are BEV)
– 199 kg, three wheels, high strength tubular steel twin cradle as frame
– Stainless steel discs/brakes
– Front suspension uses parallelogram of 4 aluminium arms and cantilever suspension system
– Rear suspension strengthened by double acting hydraulic shocks
(Yamaha Motor Co. L., 2006)
Brammo Enertia 2009 – Monocoque construction with loads supported through object’s external skin
– Aluminium main body chassis
– New and recycled plastics make up body panels
– Onboard charger with basic layout for controls
– Mild rise handlebar, vinyl seats, 285 lb (1 lb = 0.454 kg) (Kodack, 2007; McDermon, 2009;
Miles, 2010)
Zero Motorcycles MX 2009 – 151 lb, aluminium chassis (Johnson, 2009)
Zero Motorcycles MX (Updated) 2013 – Modular power packs, standalone chargers
– Aircraft grade aluminium makes up entire frame
– Anodised for resistance to corrosion
– Weighs in between 101–120 kg (Squatriglia, 2009).
Brammo Empulse 2012–13 – Plastic chassis, semi adjustable front and rear suspension
– Carbon fibres make up headlight shroud, fenders, top panel and rear light housing
– Water cooling employed
– 200 kg (Sulthoni, 2013)
BMW C Evolution 2014 – Traditional main frame does not exist
– Central component features battery casing made of diecast aluminium
– Steel tubing for swing arm, steering hard support as well as rear frame (Sulthoni, 2012).
Evoke Urban S – In-hub motor (Serafim, 2013)

A study by Chang et al. (2016) highlights the future costs
of motorcycles and how electric versions can improve and have
changed from 1990 to 2030.
7. Market size & incentives taken
Electric scooters still have plenty of untapped potential despite
efforts made around the world to make them mainstream stays.
There have been many government initiatives with the focus
coming on environmental pollution in the 21st century. China
has been the world leader in this sector of the market and has
started incentives over the last several years. China has also been
very efficient with their swift policy implementations leading to
500 million electric two wheelers found on the streets today and
in 2013 sold more than 75% of all E2W in that year (Bishop
et al., 2011). Their electric 2 W market far surpasses that of
their IC (Internal Combustion) 2 W market, something that India
can potentially look into in the future (Darwin, 2014). Table 7
looks into various incentives taken by countries in order to attract
investments into EVs.
India has one of the best chances to surpass China in this
field with the Ministry of New and Renewable Energies (MNRE)
providing Rs. 950 million for EV subsidies which ended in 2012,
requiring that 30% of components be locally sourced (Interna-
tional Council on Clean Transportation, 2017; Mukherjee, 2014).
In recent times, Okinawa became the first company whose elec-
tric scooters received benefits from the Faster Adoption and Man-
ufacturing of (Hybrid) & Electric Vehicles (FAME)-II scheme. Two
of Okinawa’s scooters namely the 1-Praise and Ridge based on
3520
Li-ion batteries, in 2019 were part of a push for the Make in
India movement with the requirement being in this at least
50% of components being locally sourced with the vehicle capa-
ble of exceeding speeds of 40 kmph and having a range of 80
km (Silviana and Suroyo, 2019). India is believed to have close
to 150,000 electric two-wheelers with companies such as Ather
Energy, Okinawa, Ampere and Ultraviolette taking up the lion’s
share. In 2018, the number of sales (54,000) doubled that of the
previous year (BBC News, 2019). According to a report by PwC,
by the fiscal year 2019 0.76 million electric vehicles were present
in the country, with two-wheelers taking up about 16% with the
three-wheelers (rickshaw, etc.) covering 83% (Kapoor, 2019). A
report by DataLabs from Inc42 (PwC, 2019) showed that Indian
Electric Vehicle start-ups have been successful in generating USD
601 million, with the goal to cover 70% of vehicles in the market
by 2030 in the commercial and consumer sector. More than
18 million gasoline powered two wheelers are sold every year
in India bolstered with a 7.33% CAGR and sales touching 24.89
million in 2024, from 21.19 million in 2019 (BBC News, 2019;
PwC, 2019). With no requirement for a license to buy or ride
it (BBC News, 2019) consumer interest is bound to grow. Li-ion
costs prove to be the issue for India with it equating to about
30% or more in overall production costs (Bhattacharya, 2014).
Currently over 95% of EV on the road have speeds less than 25
kmph and are powered by Lead–acid batteries in order to keep
the expenses minimal. The government itself aims to cover 30%
of the commercial market with electric vehicles and the goal is to
only have electric two-wheelers on the road by 2025 (Siddiqui,
2019).
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 10. (a), (b) Graphical comparison between both the range, and costs of various E2W market across the globe over the years.
Source: Graphs generated using data from Liu et al. (1996), Peugeot (2009), Evoke Motorcycles, Lane Motor Museum, Johnson (2009),
Ather Energy, Yamaha Motor Co. L. (2006), Harley-Davidson (0000), Sulthoni (2013), Serafim (2013), Siler (2009), Harley-Davidson
(0000) and Bajaj Auto Ltd..

While plenty of incentives have been on offer in the US, stark
comparisons can be seen between the 25 million e-bikes found in
China and the 100,000 found in the US in 2011. In the last couple
of years however, a growth of up to 16.4% has been observed,
primarily due to concerted research and development (R&D) in-
vestments, followed by regulatory support for products with the
Obama administration in 2016 ensuring that a project will be un-
derway for installing 48 National EV corridors covering 35 states
at an interval of 25,000 miles each on the highways (George,
2012).
3521
Technavio found that the United Kingdom will see 28,123
electric motorcycles pushing themselves through the market in
the 2020–24 interval (DataLabs by Inc42).
Technavio also accumulated data showing the production of
electric scooters in Taiwan jumping from 1280 units to 20,026 in
a decade from 2005 to 2016, heavily backed by a start-up Gogoro
pushing the sales 2015 onwards.
Wang and Seidle (2020) found that if Thailand plans to move
forward to reach its target of reducing energy consumption of
motorcycles by 2791 (kt oil-eq) (Kerdlap and Gheewala, 2016) it
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 11. (a) Comparison of life cycle costs of various two-wheelers. (Adapted from figure 9 of Ampere Vehicles) Fig. 11(b). Total ownership costs for motorcycles,
taking into consideration the average European electricity consumption (Adapted from figure 5 of Chang et al. (2016)).

Table 7
Public and private initiatives taken to standardise the use of EVs around the world.
Countries Incentives taken
China – 60,000 yuan incentives for purchasing BEV in 2010 and 50,000 yuan for vehicles less than 400 km in 2018 (Research and Markets, 2020b;
Doggett, 2010).
India – Ministry of New and Renewable Energies (MNRE) provides Rs. 950 million for EV subsidies (till 2012)—30% of components to be locally
sourced (International Council on Clean Transportation, 2017; Mukherjee, 2014)
– Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid) & Electric Vehicles (FAME)-I and II scheme, with the latter pushing for 90% of 2 W market to
be based on electric by 2025 (Bhattacharya, 2014) (Rs. 600 crores for 2 W with speeds greater than 25 kmph)
– Rs. 14 millions in subsidies by government of India from 2019 onwards to initiate purchase of 1 million E2 W and GST cut to 5% (MCD
Team, 2020b; Bahree, 2019)
– Aim to have 30% of all commercial vehicles on road be electric powered (Siddiqui, 2019)
– No license requirement to purchase and drive E2 W as of now (BBC News, 2019),
Japan – Purchase subsidies up to 50% (1996–2003) (Naik, 2020)
South Korea –Setting up 30,000 slow charging stations at 4000 apartment complexes throughout the country starting in 2016 (reach target around 2020)
(Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association)
Italy – EVs are not subject to annual ownership taxes for a period of 5 years from the moment they are registered (European Green Cars Initiative).
Australia – Relatively not as active as other countries
– Federal luxury car tax on fuel-efficient cars from $75,375 and above (Australian Dollars) (Armenian Energy Agency, 2019; Green Vehicle
Guide-An Australian Government Initiative)
United States – Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP) and ARB (California’s EPA Air Resources Board) pushed from Zero-Emission Vehicles (ZEV) through
millions of dollars of funding which was expected to push through 2015 (Vic Roads; Center for Sustainable Energy California, 2013).
– Also pushed for tax credit benefits of $2500 for electric bikes and electric motorcycles in order to promote homegrown companies such as
BRD and Zero (Tellem).
– 48 National EV corridors covering 35 states at an interval of 25,000 miles each on the highways to be installed (since 2016) (George, 2012)
– Regulatory support for products and concerted R&D investments
Canada – In Quebec, governmental efforts made to provide $500 to electric scooter buyers and $2000 for purchases of electric motorcycles (Bhutani).
Indonesia – Aim to have 20% of the vehicles on the road electricity powered by 2025
– Incentives given to manufacturers, infrastructure developers, buyers, and transportation companies with 80% of local sourcing being done for
electric motorcycles by 2026.
– The finance minister of Indonesia has also announced the removal of the luxury tax for EVs.
– Companies such as Toyota Motors Co. and Hyundai Motors have invested $2 Billion and $880 million respectively, with Japan’s Softbank
group planning to look into the investments regarding the sectors and what benefits can be gained by the consumers (Gouvernement du
Québec).

is to bring in 13.6 million electric motorcycles into commission.
This seems like a goal the government wishes to stick to, allowing
further adoption of battery operated vehicles.
Europe altogether was found to be netting in an annual pur-
chase of 19,000 purchases at the European level (EU28) which is
about 1.2% of the total number of two wheelers in circulation on
the continent, in 2012. While pioneer brands took the brunt in the
beginning, the next phase centred on quality, with the previous
players struggling to keep up. In the current generation of elec-
tric scooters, companies such as Niu, SuperSoco, companies who
have traditionally done well in China along with new competitor
Gogoro have sold about 61,629 units, in 2019. Zero is said to have
sold about 1950 motorcycles in the continent in the past year
itself. Niu, Silence, Askoll, SuperSoco, Govecs have taken up about
44.5% of the market (EPPO (Energy Policy and Planning Office),
2011). Some studies say that this will dramatically be altered in
a positive way with the COVID outbreak, though only time will
tell.
3522
It can be concluded, with the research conducted and market
analysis, that the Electric scooter market is centred on China,
Europe and the United States, with India coming up extremely
quickly with several other Asian countries just behind them. In
2017, the global market of electric scooters was valued at USD
15.5 billion, with a 5% CAGR throughout 2018–2024 (EPPO (En-
ergy Policy and Planning Office), 2011). Some studies predict the
global market to be worth USD 30 billion by 2025, with immense
stimulus given by the government (MCD Team, 2020a). More
conservative estimates size up the value to be USD 22 billion by
2024. But it is clear that it is an upswing, with overall product
shipments increasing by 10% and improved usage of Li-ion by
11% in the next 6 years trying to overcome the 85% coverage
enjoyed by the Lead–Acid batteries used in scooters. There is
a good chance that other technologies being designed will also
come to the fore as well (see Fig. 13).
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530

Fig. 12. (a) Increase in sale of 2 W units in India is observed at a CAGR of 7.33%. (Graph generated using data from BBC News (2019) and PwC (2019)) Fig. 12(b)
E2W Market when considered on a global scale, continues to rise at a CAGR of 5%, approximately being worth as USD 23 Billion in 2025 (Graph generated using
data from EPPO (Energy Policy and Planning Office) (2011)).

3523
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Fig. 13. Schematic of various problems faced in E2Ws.
8. Challenges
Considering that electric scooters keep on improving with
each passing year, it is clear there is a lot of issues to be worked
on in varied fields. Three major problems are efficiency, cost-
effectiveness and implementation of new features. These are all
linked to each other, with each issue being discussed here leading
to more than one of the problems mentioned above. One of
the biggest issues is with battery life. Considering the weight
factor which is continuously being revisited, the heavier the
vehicle, the larger the load and hence the greater is the power
consumption. This results in shorter range, which was briefly
discussed in previous sections, which may lead electric scooters
to be not as dependable as motorcycles for a long journey. In
comparison with the still predominant usage of Lead–acid bat-
teries in two-wheelers, this component takes up a measurable
percentage of the total load of the vehicle, passengers notwith-
standing. Furthermore, the reinforcement of chassis (Sun and
Zhang, 2015) is showcased in order to keep the batteries in place
which results in further increase of weight. Lithium ion batteries
are suggested to be used in place of Lead–acid batteries due to
their greater energy density but with the pricier tag attached
to it, Research and Markets (2020a) and Goodenough and Kim
(2011) many companies are unwilling to shift or add more cells
of Li-ion resulting in lesser consumer demand due to lack of
cost-effectiveness. Reduced battery life can also be tackled from
a consumer perspective by adapting fast charging technologies,
which save time overall. In a study by Vishwanathan and Sripad
(2019), a survey/questionnaire carried out in Taiwan found that
the leading cause of consumers not willing to use an electric two
wheeler was due to vehicle price, with the 3rd leading cause
being performance. Future models will have to work on balancing
these two requirements, which currently appear to be inversely
proportional to each other.
The next big issue is thermal management especially in batter-
ies, even more than in motors. Lots of power losses can occur in
motors due to localised heating in motors but with studies such
as carried out by Ministry of Economic Affairs ensure low cost
designs that take care of it, although they can still become smaller
and lighter. Localised heating can be overcome by using various
cost-effective coolants as well. Forced convection may be slightly
bulky but when implemented will show decent performance.
Thermal management is even a bigger issue in batteries, with a
pinpoint on Li-ion batteries and the safety of the passengers and
those surrounding them. A review by Huang (2019) found that
the SEI film (Solid Electrolyte Interface) upon reaching temper-
atures of 90–120 degrees Celsius can result in it decomposing
exothermically. Among other components, (including the State
of Charge (SOC)) such thermal runaway reactions can occur with
temperatures reaching such heights with quite ease (within the
cell) leading to catastrophic damage, especially in higher quan-
tities. Lithium Titanate batteries are also subject to the same
deficiencies (Huang et al., 2015).
One of the major known incidents was with the Samsung
Galaxy Note 7 models combusting (Ma et al., 2018).
3524
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Road safety is a major concern although one may concede
that in general, two wheelers are less safe on roads compared
to three or four wheelers with 48,746 two-wheeler riders casu-
alties, much higher than car/jeep/taxi users at 26,869 in India in
2017 (Mullen and Kwon, 2016). In case of electric scooters, assis-
tive technology (Rampal, 2019) may help in reducing casualties,
with the expectation that more and more of two-wheelers are
being battery powered. Pedestrians are also at harm, with there
being a 40% increase in chance of pedestrians being hit by EVs in
the UK (Mukherjee, 2017). There are also limited research articles
implementing Anti-Lock Braking Strategy (ABS) in electric scoot-
ers, and this is something that while has shown improvement,
can be studied for more powerful electric scooters in the future.
Lack of charging stations is another big issue as well, with one
study showing with the advent of 5 million EVs globally in 2018,
only 632,000 public charging outlets were available (Crayton,
2017).
Overall, the market while it seems to inevitably progress with
a positive growth, is not progressing as quickly as it should.
Government incentives and stimulus is required on a larger scale
around the world in order to push electric vehicles with a focus
on electric scooters especially in areas where consumers find it
convenient to move around with ease in mobility, such as India,
China and other high density areas. Encouragement is required
for local production of materials and sourcing of resources, with
Lithium reserves being found in India (Eckhouse et al.). Due to
lack of certain resources in areas along with price differences
across the global market, it is increasingly becoming difficult
to adjust prices for more sensitive markets such as in ASEAN
(Association of South East Asian Nations) regions, especially cov-
ering battery costs (Goodenough and Kim, 2011). A case in point,
a Honda Activa (Krishnan, 2020), a fuel powered scooter costs
about Rs 68,000 with the Chetak (Harley-Davidson, 0000) going
above Rs 100,000 in India. It is highly unlikely that the average
consumer will be interested in paying more than 50% extra where
the smartphone market is dominated by cheap and mid-range
models, arguably viewed as an essential product as transportation
in today’s world.
With the hope of introducing new technologies into the elec-
tric two wheelers market, existing controller technologies should
be improved as well.
9. Opportunities
The UN-Habitat states that currently, cities produce about 70%
of the world’s global GDP, consume about 60% of energy, and
produce 70% of the waste as well (Honda). The energy usage will
increase to 75% by 2030 (Habitat, 2019).
Fig. 15 from Cox and Mutel’s study (Chang et al., 2016) show
the potential emissions of ICEV (Internal Combustion), BEV (Bat-
tery), FCEV (Fuel-cell) motorcycles and how use of renewable
sources can benefit the environment upon applying life cycle
assessments (LCA). They found that utilising BEV and FCEV two
wheelers can lead to a reduction of up to 60%–80% of Climate
Change (CC) Impacts, of which, a majority comes from tailpipe
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Fig. 14. (a). Different ways of heat generation in LIBs. (Redrawn from figure 3 of Bandhauer et al. (2011)) Fig. 14(b) Thermal runway mechanism upon heating LIB
(Redrawn from figure 11 of Huang et al. (2015)).
Fig. 15. Impact of motorcycles utilising various energy sources and it’s changes across an interval of time, with FCEV being dependent on steam reforming of methane
in gas (SMR) case for the hydrogen, and electrolysis being used for all other cases. This has been studied using the life cycle impact assessment for climate change.
Source: Adapted from figure 7 of Chang et al. (2016).
CO2 emissions. Considering the world predominantly utilises coal
to this date for their energy consumption, this is an excellent
way to start converting to renewable sources of energy, espe-
cially using wind or hydro energy, which were the parameters
for the above results. Pushing more of the transportation sector
into increased sustainable practices will help in reducing the
14% it contributes to the Global Greenhouse Gases Emissions
(GHG) (IEA, 2010). In China, it can be seen that from 1995 to 2018,
there has been an increase from about 5% to 8.6% in the emissions
released by the transportation sector (IPCC, 2014; Sovacool et al.,
2019) with the division in Taiwan contributing to about 14% of
the CO2 emissions in 2013 (IEA Statistics, 2018). Caution should
be taken however with the fact that with a change to electric two-
wheelers, a mode-shift behaviour may result in increased energy
usage by ignoring public transports and bicycles (IEA; Weiss
et al., 2015). This is particularly problematic when sources for
electricity include coal, as in the cases of India and China, Cherry
(2007), Cherry et al. (2009), ADB (2009) and del Duce (2011) and
while they may still result in less waste and emissions with the
mode-shift behaviour discussed previously, unforeseen results
could occur. But this is to be taken with a grain of salt as efforts
are being made to look into environmentally friendly sources and
pathways in order to preserve our global ecosystem. Different
recycling methodologies ought to be analysed, ensuring minimal
waste generation and reduction in operating costs. This will allow
for a multi-faceted reduction of the carbon footprint. Further pro-
duction of electric two-wheelers will also create jobs and reduce
other modes of pollution such as noise in large metropolitan
3525
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
cities, but with a compulsory minimum of noise requirement so
that the audible visibility will not be hampered (Doucette and
McCulloch, 2011). Companies like Volkswagen are making strides
in this, with the implementation to be spread across China, and
the rest of the world (Haworth, 2012; Moskvitch, 2019).
10. Summary
As they say, there is a silver lining in every dark cloud. All of
the above challenges have potentials to become the key reason
for electric two wheelers being sold. Government incentives as
discussed earlier can be a bit of a wildcard, with some efforts
being made and in other places going contrary to the benefits of
EVs. Due to the market barely threaded, there are huge opportu-
nities for local companies and start-ups to make as big an impact
as heavyweight automotive makers. Energy requirements can be
reduced, with implementation of the newer battery technologies
discussed and if cost-effective synthesis routes can be discovered,
it will be a huge win for the electrical dependent industries
as well. Electric scooters have made significant strides over the
last few decades, but more breakthroughs in its component’s
capabilities have to be carried out. Piece by piece, integrating the
different constituents will lead to the design of a vehicle that will
sell in several markets at high rates. However, with the onset
of the coronavirus outbreak, it is uncertain how consumers will
respond. Steps taken by companies and the public sector may be
adjusted. Environmentally, there is little to complain, but looking
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
through previous studies, it is paramount that the world shifts to
a more sustainable source of energy with a eco-friendly pathway
which will distribute the energy. New battery technology and
ways of reusing energy will improve the electric two-wheelers
range and new designs will facilitate efficient movement with
lightened loads and cheaper models will benefit billions who are
looking for profitable investments.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by Kalinga Renewable Energy Man-
ufacturers Private Limited.
References
AA Portable Power Corporation, AA Portable Power Corporation, Category: LTO
Batteries. Https://Www.Batteryspace.Com/Lithium-Titanate-Battery.Aspx n.d.
ADB, 2009. Electric Two-Wheelers in India and Viet Nam – Market Analysis and
Environmental Impacts. Manila.
Afjal Hossain, M., Imran Reza, M., Rahman, S., Kayes, I., 2011. Climate Change and
its Impacts on the Livelihoods of the Vulnerable People in the Southwestern
Coastal Zone in Bangladesh. Climate Change and the Sustainable Use of
Water Resources. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 237–259.
Altair Nanotechnologies Inc., Form 10-K. https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/
data/1016546/000101968707000697/altair_10k-123106.htm n.d.
Amjad, S., Neelakrishnan, S., Rudramoorthy, R., 2010. Review of design con-
siderations and technological challenges for successful development and
deployment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
14, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.11.001.
Amjad, S., Rudramoorthy, R., Neelakrishnan, S., Sri Raja Varman, K., Arjunan, T.V.,
2011. Evaluation of energy requirements for all-electric range of plug-in
hybrid electric two-wheeler. Energy 36, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.
2010.12.069.
Ampere Vehicles, FAQs. https://amperevehicles.com/faq/. n.d.
Andersen, P.H., Mathews, J.A., Rask, M., 2009. Integrating private transport into
renewable energy policy: The strategy of creating intelligent recharging grids
for electric vehicles. Energy Policy 37, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.
03.032.
André, M., 2004. The ARTEMIS European driving cycles for measuring car
pollutant emissions. Sci. Total Environ. 334–335, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.scitotenv.2004.04.070.
Armenian Energy Agency, 2019. Electric vehicle imports will become
VAT-exempt. https://energyagency.am/en/category/noroutyounner-ev-
mijocaroumner/elektromobilneri-nermoutsoumy-kazatvi-aah.
Ather Energy, Ather 450. https://www.atherenergy.com/450. n.d.
Aziznia, A., Oloman, C.W., Gyenge, E.L., 2012. A Swiss-roll liquid–gas mixed-
reactant fuel cell. J. Power Sources 212, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
2012.03.047.
Bahree, M., 2019. India offers $1.4 billion in subsidies to support the domestic
electric vehicle industry. https://www.forbes.com/sites/meghabahree/
2019/03/09/india-offers-1-4-billion-in-subsidies-to-support-the-domestic-
electric-vehicle-industry/#3af3fdf6610a.
Bajaj Auto Ltd., Chetak – A Brand new electric scooter | The Future of Mobility.
https://www.chetak.com. n.d.
Bandhauer, T.M., Garimella, S., Fuller, T.F., 2011. A critical review of thermal
issues in lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1149/1.3515880.
BBC News, 2019. India turns to electric vehicles to beat pollution. https://www.
bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-48961525.
Bertoluzzo, M., Buja, G., 2011. Development of electric propulsion systems for
light electric vehicles. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 7, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
TII.2011.2158840.
Bhattacharya, R., 2014. Boost for electric and hybrid cars with rs 1.5
lakh subsidy. https://indianexpress.com/article/business/companies/boost-
for-electric-and-hybrid-cars-with-rs-1-5-lakh-subsidy/.
3526
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Bhutani, A., Electric motorcycles & scooters market size by product (motorcy-
cles, scooters), by battery (SLA, Li-ion, NiMH), by voltage (24V, 36V, 48V)
industry analysis report, regional outlook, growth potential, price trends,
competitive market share & forecast. https://www.gminsights.com/industry-
analysis/electric-motorcycles-and-scooters-market. n.d.
Bianchi, N., Bolognani, S., Zigliotto, M., 2001. High-performance PM synchronous
motor drive for an electrical scooter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 37, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1109/28.952510.
Bishop, J.D.K., Doucette, R.T., Robinson, D., Mills, B., McCulloch, M.D., 2011.
Investigating the technical, economic and environmental performance of
electric vehicles in the real-world: A case study using electric scooters. J.
Power Sources 196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.08.021.
Bolton, O., 1895. Electrical bicycle. 552271A.
Borghols, W.J.H., Wagemaker, M., Lafont, U., Kelder, E.M., Mulder, F.M., 2009.
Size effects in the Li4+x Ti5 O12 spinel. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1021/ja902423e.
Bose, B.K., 1986. Power Electronics and AC Drives. Englewood Cliffs.
Brousse, T., Fragnaud, P., Marchand, R., Schleich, D.M., Bohnke, O., West, K.,
1997. All oxide solid-state lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources 68, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(97)02521-4.
Brown, S., Pyke, D., Steenhof, P., 2010. Electric vehicles: The role and importance
of standards in an emerging market. Energy Policy 38, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.enpol.2010.02.059.
Buchmann, I., 2016. Discharge Methods. Batteries in Portable World. Battery
University.
Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2018. Transportation Statistics Annual Report
2018. US Department of Transportation, Washington D.C..
Burrows, D., Expresso Electric Scooter. https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/
expresso-electric-scooter--3#/ n.d.
Cabrera, J.A., Castillo, J.J., Carabias, E., Ortiz, A., 2015. Evolutionary optimization
of a motorcycle traction control system based on fuzzy logic. IEEE Trans.
Fuzzy Syst. 23, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TFUZZ.2014.2370681.
Castillo Aguilar, J., Pérez Fernández, J., Velasco García, J., Cabrera Carrillo, J.,
2017. Regenerative intelligent brake control for electric motorcycles. Energies
(Basel) 10, http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10101648.
CEIC Data, 2017. India registered motor vehicles: Two wheelers. https://www.
ceicdata.com/en/india/number-of-registered-motor-vehicles/registered-
motor-vehicles-two-wheelers.
Center for Sustainable Energy California, 2013. CVRP eligible vehicles.
https://web.archive.org/web/20130729184130/http:/energycenter.org/index.
php/incentive-programs/clean-vehicle-rebate-project/cvrp-eligible-vehicles.
Chang, C.-C., Wu, F.-L., Lai, W.-H., Lai, M.-P., 2016. A cost–benefit analysis of the
carbon footprint with hydrogen scooters and electric scooters. Int. J. Hydrog.
Energy 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.168.
Chau, K.T., Wong, Y.S., 2001. Hybridization of energy sources in electric vehi-
cles. Energy Convers. Manage. 42, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0196-8904(00)
00128-X.
Chau, K.T., Wong, Y.S., 2002. Overview of power management in hybrid elec-
tric vehicles. Energy Convers. Manage. 43, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0196-
8904(01)00148-0.
Chau, K.T., Wong, Y.S., Chan, C.C., 1999. An overview of energy sources for
electric vehicles. Energy Convers. Manage. 40, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0196-8904(99)00021-7.
Chen, T.F., Lee, D.W., Sung, C.K., 1998. An experimental study on transmission
efficiency of a rubber V-belt CVT. Mech. Mach. Theory 33, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/S0094-114X(97)00049-9.
Chen, P.-T., Shen, D.-J., Yang, C.-J., Huang, K.D., 2019. Development of a hybrid
electric motorcycle that accords energy efficiency and controllability via an
inverse differential gear and power mode switching control. Appl. Sci. 9,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9091787.
Chen, B.-C., Wu, Y.-Y., Wu, Y.-L., Lin, C.-C., 2011. Adaptive power split control
for a hybrid electric scooter. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 60, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1109/TVT.2011.2132155.
Cherry, C.R., 2007. (Miscellaneous).
Cherry, C.R., Weinert, J.X., Xinmiao, Y., 2009. Comparative environmental impacts
of electric bikes in China. Transp. Res. D 14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.
2008.11.003.
Chiu, Y.-C., Tzeng, G.-H., 1999. The market acceptance of electric motorcycles in
Taiwan experience through a stated preference analysis. Transp. Res. D 4,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1361-9209(99)00001-2.
Choi, S., Cho, D.-W., 2001. Design of nonlinear sliding mode controller with pulse
width modulation for vehicular slip ratio control. Veh. Syst. Dyn. 36, 57–72.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1076/vesd.36.1.57.3566.
Chou, S.-L., Wang, J.-Z., Liu, H.-K., Dou, S.-X., 2011. Rapid synthesis of Li4 Ti5
O12 microspheres as anode materials and its binder effect for lithium-ion
battery. J. Phys. Chem. C 115, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp2039256.
Chung, C.-T., Hung, Y.-H., 2014. Energy improvement and performance evaluation
of a novel full hybrid electric motorcycle with power split e-CVT. Energy
Convers. Manage. 86, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2014.04.043.
Ćirović, V., Aleksendrić, D., Mladenović, D., 2012. Braking torque control using
recurrent neural networks. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. D 226, 754–766.
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Columbia Parcar Corporation, The First Manufacturer of Industrial and Commer-
cial Electric Vehicles. https://web.archive.org/web/20040225165208/http:
/www.parcar.com/legend/history.htm n.d.
Cox, B.L., Mutel, C.L., 2018. The environmental and cost performance of cur-
rent and future motorcycles. Appl. Energy 212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2017.12.100.
Crayton, E., 2017. Silent and deadly? The electric car debate. https://www.rnib.
org.uk/rnibconnect/silent-deadly-electric-hybrid-vehicles-sight-loss.
Damodharan, P., Vasudevan, K., 2010. Sensorless brushless DC motor drive based
on the zero-crossing detection of back electromotive force (EMF) from the
line voltage difference. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 25, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1109/TEC.2010.2041781.
Darwin, J.P., 2014. The electric scooter market. http://cleanrider.com/electric-
scooter-market/.
DataLabs by Inc42, Electric vehicle market outlook report 2020.
https://datalabs.inc42.com/product/electric-vehicle-market-outlook-
report-2020/?itm_medium=website&itm_source=ev-report-launch-
article&itm_campaign=datalabs-reports&itm_content=ev-report. n.d.
de Santiago, J., Bernhoff, H., Ekergård, B., Eriksson, S., Ferhatovic, S., Waters, R.,
et al., 2012. Electrical motor drivelines in commercial all-electric vehicles:
A review. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 61, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2011.
2177873.
del Duce, A., 2011. Life Cycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Bicycles.
Eurobike, Friedrichshafen.
Dhar, S.K., Ovshínsky, S.R., Gifford, P.R., Corrigan, D.A., Fetcenko, M.A., Venkate-
san, S., 1997. Nickel/metal hydride technology for consumer and electric
vehicle batteries—a review and up-date. J. Power Sources 65, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/S0378-7753(96)02599-2.
Doggett, S., 2010. China announces plan to subsidize EVs and plug-in hybrids
in five major cities. https://web.archive.org/web/20100605040731/http:
/blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2010/06/china-announces-plan-to-
subsidize-evs-and-plug-in-hybrids-in-five-major-cities.html.
Doucette, R.T., McCulloch, M.D., 2011. Modeling the CO2 emissions from battery
electric vehicles given the power generation mixes of different countries.
Energy Policy 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.10.054.
Duraman, N., Lim, K., Chan, S.L.I., 2014. Batteries for remote area power (RAP)
supply systems. In: Advances in Batteries for Medium and Large-Scale Energy
Storage. In: Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy, pp. 563–586.
Eckhouse, B., Stringer, D., Hodges, J., The World Still Doesn’t Have Enough Places
to Plug In Cars, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-02-14/the-
world-still-doesn-t-have-enough-places-to-plug-in-cars.
ENDO, E., 2007. Market penetration analysis of fuel cell vehicles in Japan by
using the energy system model MARKAL. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 32, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2006.10.015.
EPA, 1996. EPA notification: GSR 176 (E).
EPPO (Energy Policy and Planning Office), 2011. Thailand 20-year energy
efficiency development plan (2011–2030). http://www.eppo.go.th/images/
POLICY/ENG/EEDP_Eng.pdf.
ET Auto, 2020. Global Two-Wheeler Market to Grow to 62.6 Million by
2025: Report. https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/two-
wheelers/motorcycles/global-two-wheeler-market-to-grow-to-62-6-
million-by-2025-report/74968396.
European Green Cars Initiative, PPP European green cars initiative. http://www.
green-cars-initiative.eu. n.d.
Evoke Motorcycles, The Evoke Urban S. https://web.archive.org/web/
20170410214447/, https://evokemotorcycles.com/urban-s/. n.d.
Feckl, J.M., Fominykh, K., Döblinger, M., Fattakhova-Rohlfing, D., Bein, T.,
2012. Nanoscale porous framework of lithium titanate for ultrafast
lithium insertion. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/anie.
201201463.
Ferg, E., Gummow, R.J., de Kock, A., Thackeray, M.M., 1994. Spinel anodes for
lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 141, http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.
2059324.
Forysinski, P., Oloman, C., Kazemi, S., Nickchi, T., Usgaocar, A., 2019. Development
and use of a mixed-reactant fuel cell. J. Power Sources 414, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.12.081.
Ge, H., Hao, T., Zhang, B., Chen, L., Cui, L., Song, X.-M., 2016. Nanoparticles-
constructed spinel Li4Ti5O12 with extra surface lithium storage capability
towards advanced lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta 211, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.06.046.
Gelb, G.H., Richardson, N.A., Wang, T.C., Berman, B., 1971. An electromechanical
transmission for hybrid vehicle power trains - Design and dynamometer
testing. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/710235.
George, A., 2012. $2, 500 Tax break for electric bicycles, motorcycles approved
by feds. https://www.wired.com/2012/08/ev-motorcycle-tax-break/.
Gerard, M., Pasillas-Lépine, W., de Vries, E., Verhaegen, M., 2012. Improvements
to a five-phase ABS algorithm for experimental validation. Veh. Syst. Dyn.
50, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00423114.2012.693188.
Gieras, J.F., 2002. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications.
CRC Press.
3527
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Girishkumar, G., McCloskey, B., Luntz, A.C., Swanson, S., Wilcke, W., 2010.
Lithium-air battery: Promise and challenges. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1. http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz1005384.
Goodenough, J.B., Kim, Y., 2011. Challenges for rechargeable batteries. J. Power
Sources 196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.074.
Gouvernement du Québec, New vehicle rebate. https://vehiculeselectriques.gouv.
qc.ca/english/rabais/ve-neuf/programme-rabais-vehicule-neuf.asp.
Grand View Research Inc., 2020. Electric Scooters Market Size, Share & Trends
Analysis Report by Product (Retro, Standing/Self-Balancing, Folding), by
Battery (Sealed Lead Acid, NiMH, Li-Ion), by Voltage, and Segment Forecasts,
2020-2030. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/electric-
scooters-market.
Green, M.A., Hishikawa, Y., Dunlop, E.D., Levi, D.H., Hohl-Ebinger, J., Ho-
Baillie, A.W.Y., 2018. Solar cell efficiency tables (version 51). Prog. Photovolt.,
Res. Appl. 26, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pip.2978.
Green Car Congress, 2014. Navigant forecasts plug-in and fuel cell vehicles to
be 2.5% of all vehicles in use in 2035; global parc of >2B vehicles. https:
//www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/electric-scooters-market.
Green Vehicle Guide-An Australian Government Initiative, Electrical
vehicle information. https://web.archive.org/web/20150115080951/http:
/www.greenvehicleguide.gov.au/GVGPublicUI/Information.aspx?type=
ElectricVehicleInformation. n.d.
GreenMobility, Website. http://www.greenmobility.kr/html/comm/main.asp. n.d.
Gupta, N., Mohan, M., Pandey, A.K., 2012. A review: Sensorless control of
brushless DC motor. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 1, 1–6.
Habibi, M., Yazdizadeh, A., 2010. A novel fuzzy-sliding mode controller for
antilock braking system. In: 2010 2nd International Conference on Advanced
Computer Control. IEEE, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICACC.2010.5486929.
Habitat, U.N., 2019. UN habitat. http://open.unhabitat.org/.
Haerri, V.v., Madawala, U.K., Zabkar, D., 2008. An electric micro-scooter with
a super-capacitor energy buffer. In: 2008 IEEE International Conference on
Sustainable Energy Technologies. IEEE, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ICSET.2008.
4747158.
Han, S.-Y., Young Kim, I., Hwang, S.-J., 2012. Synthesis and electrochemical
characterization of 2D nanostructured Li4Ti5O12 with lithium electrode
functionality. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 73, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpcs.2011.
10.044.
Hao, Y.-J., Lai, Q.-Y., Lu, J.-Z., Wang, H.-L., Chen, Y.-D., Ji, X.-Y., 2006. Synthesis and
characterization of spinel Li4Ti5O12 anode material by oxalic acid-assisted
sol–gel method. J. Power Sources 158, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.
2005.09.063.
Hao, Y., Lai, Q., Xu, Z., Liu, X., Ji, X., 2005. Synthesis by TEA sol–gel method and
electrochemical properties of LiTiO anode material for lithium-ion battery.
Solid State Ion 176, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssi.2005.02.010.
Harifi, A., Aghagolzadeh, A., Alizadeh, G., Sadeghi, M., 2008. Designing a sliding
mode controller for slip control of antilock brake systems. Transp. Res. C 16,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2008.02.003.
Harley-Davidson, U.K., SPECS & PRICING 2020 LIVEWIRETM . Https://WwwHarley-
DavidsonCom/Gb/En/Motorcycles/Livewire/Detailed-Specs-and-PricingHtml.
n.d.
Harrison, M.R., Edwards, P.P., Goodenough, J.B., 1985. The superconductor-
semiconductor transition in the Li1+x Ti2−x O4 spinel system. Philos. Mag. B
52, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13642818508240629.
Haworth, N., 2012. Powered two wheelers in a changing world—Challenges and
opportunities. Accid. Anal. Prev. 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2010.10.
031.
Hero Electric, 2020. Optima E5 APKA APNA optima. Https://Heroelectric.in/
Optima-1/.
Honda, Price | Activa 6G. https://www.honda2wheelersindia.com/activa6g/price.
n.d.
Hsu, Y.-C., Kao, S.-C., Ho, C.-Y., Jhou, P.-H., Lu, M.-Z., Liaw, C.-M., 2018. On an
electric scooter with G2V/V2H/V2G and energy harvesting functions. IEEE
Trans. Power Electron. 33, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2017.2758642.
Hu, J.-S., Lu, F., Zhu, C., Cheng, C.-Y., Chen, S.-L., Ren, T.-J., et al., 2018. Hybrid en-
ergy storage system of an electric scooter based on wireless power transfer.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 14, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TII.2018.2806917.
Huang, F.-H., 2019. Understanding users’ experiences of riding a two-wheeler
vehicle and their intentions of purchasing electric two-wheelers. Promet.
Traff. Transp. 31, 503–512.
Huang, P., Wang, Q., Li, K., Ping, P., Sun, J., 2015. The combustion behavior of
large scale lithium titanate battery. Sci. Rep. 5, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/
srep07788.
IEA, Data and statistics. https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics?country=
TAIPEI&fuel=CO2%2520emissions&indicator=CO2%2520emissions%2520by%
2520sector. n.d.
IEA, 2010. World Energy Outlook 2010. Paris.
IEA Statistics, 2018. CO2 emissions from transport (% of total fuel combustion).
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.CO2.TRAN.ZS?locations=CN.
International Council on Clean Transportation, 2017. Adjustment to subsi-
dies for new energy vehicles in China. https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/
publications/China-NEV_ICCT_policy-update_17052017_vF.pdf.
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
IPCC, 2014. Climate change 2014 synthesis report summary for policymakers.
ITACA, A guide to Lead-Acid Batteries. https://www.itacanet.org/a-guide-to-lead-
acid-battries/part-1-how-lead-acid-batteries-work/ n.d.
Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association, Fact sheet japanese government
incentives for the purchase of environmentally friendly vehicles. https://web.
archive.org/web/20101226222150/, https://www.jama.org/pdf/FactSheet10-
2009-09-24.pdf. n.d.
Johnson, L.D., 2009. Worldwide debut of brammo enertia electric motorcycle.
https://www.fastcompany.com/1292663/worldwide-debut-brammo-enertia-
electric-motorcycle.
Kane, M., 2015. XALT energy to sell LTO batteries for EV buses to HK group in
China. https://insideevs.com/news/326065/xalt-energy-to-sell-lto-batteries-
for-ev-buses-to-hk-group-in-china/.
Kapoor, R., 2019. Okinawa first electric scooter to get FAME-II incentives:
Big savings on offer!. https://www.financialexpress.com/auto/bike-
news/okinawa-first-electric-scooter-to-get-fame-ii-incentives-big-savings-
on-offer/1564496/.
Karnavas, Y.L., Topalidis, A.S., Drakaki, M., 2019. Development and implemen-
tation of a low cost µc- based brushless DC motor sensorless controller: A
practical analysis of hardware and software aspects. Electronics (Basel) 8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics8121456.
Kerdlap, P., Gheewala, S.H., 2016. Electric motorcycles in Thailand: A life cycle
perspective. J. Ind. Ecol. 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12406.
Khateeb, S.A., Farid, M.M., Selman, J.R., Al-Hallaj, S., 2004. Design and simulation
of a lithium-ion battery with a phase change material thermal management
system for an electric scooter. J. Power Sources 128, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.jpowsour.2003.09.070.
Khateeb, S.A., Farid, M.M., Selman, J.R., Al-Hallaj, S., 2006. Mechanical–
electrochemical modeling of Li-ion battery designed for an electric scooter.
J. Power Sources 158, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.09.059.
Kim, J., Cho, J., 2007. Spinel Li[sub 4]Ti[sub 5]O[sub 12] nanowires for high-
rate li-ion intercalation electrode. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 10, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2431242.
Kim, S., Oguchi, H., Toyama, N., Sato, T., Takagi, S., Otomo, T., et al., 2019. A
complex hydride lithium superionic conductor for high-energy-density all-
solid-state lithium metal batteries. Nature Commun. 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1038/s41467-019-09061-9.
Kodack, A., 2007. 2007 PIAGGIO MP3. https://www.topspeed.com/motorcycles/
motorcycle-reviews/piaggio/2007-piaggio-mp3-ar25886.html.
Krishnan, R., 2020. Rare good news from a rare metal: Reserves of
lithium, critical for EV batteries, found near bengaluru. https:
//economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/auto/auto-news/rare-good-news-
from-a-rare-metal-reserves-of-lithium-critical-for-ev-batteries-found-
near-bengaluru/articleshow/74183975.cms?from=mdr.
Laimböck, F.J., Trigg, R.v., Kirchberger, R.S., Meister, G.F., Dorfstätter, M.J.,
Brasseur, G., 1999. HYC - A hybrid concept with small lean burn engine, elec-
trically heated catalyst and asynchronous motor for enhanced performance
and ULEV level emissions. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/1999-01-1330.
Lane Motor Museum, Peugeot Scoot’elect electric scooter (white)-1998.
https://www.lanemotormuseum.org/collection/motorcycles/item/peugeot-
scoot-elect-electric-scooter-white-1998. n.d.
Lavrinc, D., 2013. Lessons learned: Why I cheated on my 6-month plan to ride
only an electric bike. https://www.wired.com/2013/10/a-current-affair-104/.
le Anh, T., Pham, M., The Truc, N., VD, N., 2012. Measurements of emission factors
and fuel consumption for motorcycles on a chassis dynamometer based on
a localized driving cycle.
Lee, S.C., Lee, S.M., Lee, J.W., Lee, J.B., Lee, S.M., Han, S.S., et al., 2009. Spinel
Li4 Ti5 O12 nanotubes for energy storage materials. J. Phys. Chem. C 113,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jp905114c.
Lee, Wook-Jin, Sul, Seung-Ki, 2004. A new starting method of BLDC motors
without position sensor. In: Conference Record of the 2004 IEEE Industry
Applications Conference, 2004. 39th IAS Annual Meeting. IEEE, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1109/IAS.2004.1348811.
Lee, D.W., Sung, C.K., 1997. On the efficiency analysis and improved design of a
rubber V–belt CVT. Int. J. Veh. Des. 18, 119–131.
Lee, J.-Y., Woo, B.-C., Kim, J.-M., Oh, H.-S., 2017. In-wheel motor design for an
electric scooter. J. Electr. Eng. Technol. 12, 2307–2316.
Levenstein, S., Glow In The Dark Electric Bike Features Built-in iPod Dock.
http://inventorspot.com/articles/glow_dark_electric_bike_features_6308 n.d.
Lewis, N.S., 2016. Research opportunities to advance solar energy utilization.
Science (1979) 351, http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aad1920.
Lewis, N.S., Crabtree, G., Nozik, A.J., Wasielewski, M.R., Alivisatos, P., Kung, H.,
et al., 2005. Basic research needs for solar energy utilization. In: Report of
the Basic Energy Sciences Workshop on Solar Energy Utilization, April 18-21.
2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/899136.
Li, H., Shen, L., Wang, J., Ding, B., Nie, P., Xu, G., et al., 2014. Design of a nitrogen-
doped, carbon-coated Li4 Ti5 O12 nanocomposite with a core-shell structure
and its application for high-rate lithium-ion batteries. Chempluschem 79,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cplu.201300316.
3528
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Li, Z., Zhu, C., Jiang, J., Song, K., Wei, G., 2017. A 3-kW wireless power transfer
system for sightseeing car supercapacitor charge. IEEE Trans. Power Electron.
32, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2016.2584701.
Libbey, H.W., 1897. Electric bicycle. 596272.
Lidicker, J., Lipman, T., Williams, B., 2011. Business model for subscription service
for electric vehicles including battery swapping, for san francisco bay area,
california. Transp. Res. Rec. 2252, 83–90.
Lin, B., 2000. Conceptual design and modeling of a fuel cell scooter for urban
Asia. J. Power Sources 86, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00480-2.
Lin, C.H., Lin, C.P., 2013. A novel hybrid recurrent wavelet neural network
control for a PMSM driven electric scooter. Appl. Mech. Mater. 284–287,
http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.284-287.2194.
Lin, W.-C., Lin, C.-L., Hsu, P.-M., Wu, M.-T., 2014. Realization of anti-lock braking
strategy for electric scooters. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 61, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1109/TIE.2013.2276775.
Lin, Hui, Song, Chuanxue, 2011. Design of a fuzzy logic controller for ABS
of Electric Vehicle based on AMESim and Simulink. In: Proceedings
2011 International Conference on Transportation, Mechanical, and Electrical
Engineering. TMEE, IEEE, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TMEE.2011.6199318.
Liu, C.T., Lin, B.M., Pan, J.S., 1996. Design and development of a zero-emission
scooter for Taiwan. J. Power Sources 59, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-
7753(95)02321-6.
Liu, J., Wei, X., Liu, X.-W., 2015. Two-dimensional wavelike spinel lithium titanate
for fast lithium storage. Sci. Rep. 5, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep09782.
Liuzzi, G., Lucidi, S., Parasiliti, F., Villani, M., 2003. Multiobjective optimization
techniques for the design of induction motors. IEEE Trans. Magn. 39, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1109/TMAG.2003.810193.
Lombardi, P., Heuer, M., Styczynski, Z., 2010. Battery switch station as storage
system in an autonomous power system: Optimization issue. In: IEEE PES
General Meeting. IEEE, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/PES.2010.5589914.
Ma, S., Jiang, M., Tao, P., Song, C., Wu, J., Wang, J., et al., 2018. Temperature
effect and thermal impact in lithium-ion batteries: A review. Prog. Nat. Sci.:
Mater. Int. 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2018.11.002.
Mahaptra, M.K., Singh, P., 2014. Fuel cells: Energy conversion technology. Future
Energy.
Matsuto, T., Wachigai, K., Honda Motor Co Ltd, 2000. Motorcycle with a hybrid
drive system. 6158543.
MCD Team, 2020a. Europe. Electric scooter & motorcycles market challenged by
the virus. Https://WwwMotorcyclesdataCom/2020/05/05/European-Electric-
Scooter-and-Motorcycles-Market/.
MCD Team, 2020b. Indian electric scooter and motorcycles market felt down 34%
in the 2019. https://www.motorcyclesdata.com/2020/01/15/indian-electric-
scooter-and-motorcycles-market/.
McDermon, D., 2009. A short ride on the brammo enertia electric mo-
torcycle. https://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/a-short-ride-on-the-
brammo-enertia-electric-motorcycle/?scp=1&sq=brammo&st=cse.
Miles, M., 2010. Brammo enertia wind in your face, lure of the open road. and
the hum of an electric motor. Cycle World (Magazine) 40–43.
Ministry of Economic Affairs, ROC, Taiwan E-Scooter Standard (TES). https:
//www.lev.org.tw/default.asp n.d.
Moskvitch, K., 2019. The problem with China’s electric scooter revolution? It’s
too quiet. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/why-electric-motor-scooters-are-
leading-electric-vehicle-revolution-in-asia.
Mukherjee, S., 2014. How India’s e-vehicle dream crashed into the subsidy
wall. https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/how-india-s-e-
vehicle-dream-crashed-into-the-subsidy-wall-114082600021_1.html.
Mukherjee, D., 2017. How assistive technology can reduce 2-wheeler fatalities
on Indian roads. https://auto.economictimes.indiatimes.com/autologue/how-
assistive-technology-can-reduce-2-wheeler-fatalities-on-indian-roads/2158.
Mulhall, P., Lukic, S.M., Wirasingha, S.G., Lee, Young-Joo, Emadi, A., 2010. Solar-
assisted electric auto rickshaw three-wheeler. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 59,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2010.2045138.
Mullen, J., Kwon, K.J., 2016. Samsung is recalling the galaxy note 7 world-
wide over battery problem. https://money.cnn.com/2016/09/02/technology/
samsung-galaxy-note-7-recall/index.html.
Naik, A.R., 2020. Powering the transition: India’s electric two-wheeler market
is coming of age. https://inc42.com/features/powering-the-transition-indias-
electric-two-wheeler-market-is-coming-of-age/.
Nakahara, K., Nakajima, R., Matsushima, T., Majima, H., 2003. Preparation of
particulate Li4Ti5O12 having excellent characteristics as an electrode active
material for power storage cells. J. Power Sources 117, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/S0378-7753(03)00169-1.
Naoi, K., Naoi, W., Aoyagi, S., Miyamoto, J., Kamino, T., 2013. New generation
nanohybrid supercapacitor. Acc. Chem. Res. 46, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/
ar200308h.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart.
https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html n.d.
Nugroho, A., Chang, W., Jin Kim, S., Yoon Chung, K., Kim, J., 2012. Superior high
rate performance of core–shell Li4Ti5O12/carbon nanocomposite synthesized
by a supercritical alcohol approach. RSC Adv. 2, http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/
c2ra21653a.
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Odziomek, M., Chaput, F., Rutkowska, A., Świerczek, K., Olszewska, D., Sitarz, M.,
et al., 2017. Hierarchically structured lithium titanate for ultrafast charging
in long-life high capacity batteries. Nature Commun. 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1038/ncomms15636.
Ohzuku, T., Ueda, A., Yamamoto, N., 1995. Zero-strain insertion material of Li [
Li1 / 3Ti5 / 3 ] O 4 for rechargeable lithium cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 142,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2048592.
Oloman, C., 2012. Mixed-reactant flow-by fuel cell. 2474202 B.
Parasiliti, F., Villani, M., Lucidi, S., Rinaldi, F., 2012. Finite-element-based mul-
tiobjective design optimization procedure of interior permanent magnet
synchronous motors for wide constant-power region operation. IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron. 59, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2011.2171174.
Pasquier, A.du., Laforgue, A., Simon, P., 2004. Li4Ti5O12/poly(methyl)thiophene
asymmetric hybrid electrochemical device. J. Power Sources 125, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.07.015.
Pellegrino, G., Armando, E., Guglielmi, P., 2010. An integral battery charger with
power factor correction for electric scooter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 25,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2009.2033187.
Peugeot, 2009. E-Vivacity or the eco-citizen scooter. https://web.archive.
org/web/20110716192047/http:/www.peugeot.com/en/news/2009/11/30/e-
vivacity-or-the-eco-citizen-scooter.aspx.
Phenix, M., 2014. The Johammer J1, Austria’s wild one. http://www.bbc.com/
autos/story/20140415-austrias-wild-one.
PwC, 2019. Towards emobility: Putting the consumer at the wheel. https:
//www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/industries/capital-projects-and-infrastructure-
publications/towards-emobility.pdf.
Pyun, S.-I., Kim, S.-W., Shin, H.-C., 1999. Lithium transport through Li1+ δ [Ti2-
yliy] O4 (y=0; 1/3) electrodes by analysing current transients upon large
potential steps. J. Power Sources 81, 248–254.
Rampal, N., 2019. 4 people die every hour in India because they do
not wear a helmet. https://www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/two-wheeler-death-
road-accidents-helmets-states-india-1602794-2019-09-24.
Research, Markets, 2020a. Electric scooter market global forecast by country,
product, battery type, company. Https://WwwResearchandmarketsCom/
Reports/4912095/Electric-Scooter-Market-Global-Forecast-by?Utm_source=
dynamic&utm_medium=BW&utm_code=bzj5fj&utm_campaign=1345910+-
+Global+Electric+Scooter+Market+is+Expected+to+be+More+Than+US+
%252430+Billion+by+2025&utm.
Research, Markets, 2020b. Electric two wheeler market in India by
2025: Emerging opportunity in inevitable transformation from IC
to EV in 2 W segment. Https://WwwGlobenewswireCom/News-
Release/2020/01/02/1965592/0/En/Electric-Two-Wheeler-Market-in-India-
by-2025-Emerging-Opportunity-in-Inevitable-Transformation-from-IC-to-
EV-in-2W-SegmentHtml.
Richter, B., Goldston, D., Crabtree, G., Glicksman, L., Goldstein, D., Greene, D.,
et al., 2008. How america can look within to achieve energy security and
reduce global warming. Rev. Modern Phys. 80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/
RevModPhys.80.S1.
Robinson, J., Singh, T., 2013. eABS: Regenerative anti-lock braking for electric
motorcycles. SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. 6, http://dx.doi.org/10.
4271/2013-01-2064.
Robledo, C.B., van Leeuwen, L.B., van Wijk, A.J.M., 2019. Hydrogen fuel cell
scooter with plug-out features for combined transport and residential power
generation. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 44, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.
2019.04.103.
Sasaki, S., 1998. Toyota’s newly developed hybrid powertrain. In: Proceedings
of the 10th International Symposium on Power Semiconductor Devices and
ICs. ISPSD’98 (IEEE Cat. No. 98CH36212). Inst. Electr. Eng., Japan, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1109/ISPSD.1998.702540.
Scharner, S., Weppner, W., Schmid-Beurmann, P., 1999. Evidence of two-phase
formation upon lithium insertion into the Li1.33Ti1.67 O 4 spinel. J.
Electrochem. Soc. 146, http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.1391692.
Serafim, 2013. 2014 BMW C evolution. https://www.topspeed.com/motorcycles/
motorcycle-reviews/bmw/2014-bmw-c-evolution-ar160362.html.
Shenouda, A.Y., Murali, K.R., 2008. Electrochemical properties of doped lithium
titanate compounds and their performance in lithium rechargeable batteries.
J. Power Sources 176, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.10.061.
Sheu, K.-B., Hsu, T.-H., 2006. Design and implementation of a novel hybrid-
electric-motorcycle transmission. Appl. Energy 83, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.apenergy.2005.10.004.
Shih, N.-C., Lin, C.-L., Chang, C.-C., Wang, D.-Y., 2013. Experimental tests of an
air-cooling hydrogen fuel cell hybrid electric scooter. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy
38, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.017.
Siddiqui, Z., 2019. India cuts tax rate on electric vehicles to boost
uptake. https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-india-autos-electric/india-cuts-tax-
rate-on-electric-vehicles-to-boost-uptake-idUKKCN1UM08R.
Sideris, P.J., Greenbaum, S.G., 2013. Lithium Ion Batteries, Electrochemical
Reactions. Batteries for Sustainability. Springer, New York, pp. 239–283.
Siler, W., 2009. 2009 Zero s test ride: Electric street bike hits 60 MPH and 60
miles per charge. https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/a4131/4312732/.
3529
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Silviana, C., Suroyo, G., 2019. Indonesia plans incentives to boost electric vehicle
industry. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-electric/indonesia-
plans-incentives-to-boost-electric-vehicle-industry-idUSKCN1UR4FE.
Song, K., Seo, D.-H., Jo, M.R., Kim, Y.-I., Kang, K., Kang, Y.-M., 2014. Tailored
oxygen framework of Li4 Ti5 O12 nanorods for high-power li ion battery. J.
Phys. Chem. Lett. 5, http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jz5002924.
Sovacool, B.K., Abrahamse, W., Zhang, L., Ren, J., 2019. Pleasure or profit?
Surveying the purchasing intentions of potential electric vehicle adopters
in China. Transp. Res. A 124. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2019.03.002.
Squatriglia, C., 2009. Zero builds an electric motocross machine. https://www.
wired.com/2009/06/zero-mx/.
Srivastava, P., Saraswat, V., Sardar, A., Singh, R., Goel, S.K., 2022. Forecasting
penetration of electric two-wheelers in India a bottom-up analysis.
Sulthoni, 2012. 2012 BRAMMO empulse. https://www.topspeed.com/
motorcycles/motorcycle-reviews/brammo/2012-brammo-empulse-
ar129701.html.
Sulthoni, 2013. 2013 ZERO MX zf2.8/ ZERO MX zf5.7. https://www.topspeed.
com/motorcycles/motorcycle-reviews/zero-motorcycles/2013-zero-mx-
zf28-zero-mx-zf57-ar150485.html.
Sun, L., Zhang, N., 2015. Design, implementation and characterization of a novel
bi-directional energy conversion system on DC motor drive using super-
capacitors. Appl. Energy 153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.
084.
Takai, S., 1999. Diffusion coefficient measurement of lithium ion in sintered
Li1.33Ti1.67O4 by means of neutron radiography. Solid State Ion 123, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0167-2738(99)00095-8.
Tamsanya, S., Chungpaibulpatana, S., Limmeechokchai, B., 2009. Development
of a driving cycle for the measurement of fuel consumption and exhaust
emissions of automobiles in Bangkok during peak periods. Int. J. Automot.
Technol. 10, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12239-009-0030-4.
Tanelli, M., Astolfi, A., Savaresi, S.M., 2008. Robust nonlinear output feedback
control for brake by wire control systems. Automatica 44, http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.automatica.2007.08.020.
Technavio, High-Performance Electric Motorcycle Market 2020–2024 —
Technological Advances in High-Performance Electric Motorcycles to
Boost Growth — Technavio, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/
20200225005806/en/High-Performance-Electric-Motorcycle-Market-2020-
2024-Technological-Advances.
Tellem, T., California issues 10, 000th rebate for zero-emissions incentive
program. https://wheels.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/28/california-issues-
10000th-rebate-for-zero-emissions-incentive-program/?ref=automobiles.
n.d.
Teng, T.-H., Yang, M.-R., Wu, S., Chiang, Y.-P., 2007. Electrochemical properties
of LiFe0.9Mg0.1PO4/ carbon cathode materials prepared by ultrasonic spray
pyrolysis. Solid State Commun. 142, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssc.2007.03.
010.
2003. Task Force on Climate Change VC and A. Livelihoods and Climate
Change. The International Institute for Sustainable Development, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada.
Tian, B., Xiang, H., Zhang, L., Li, Z., Wang, H., 2010. Niobium doped lithium
titanate as a high rate anode material for Li-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta
55, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2010.04.068.
Tokyo (AFP), 2002. Yamaha unveils its first no-emission electric scooter. https:
//global.yamaha-motor.com/news/2002/1009/passol.html.
Topalov, A.v., Oniz, Y., Kayacan, E., Kaynak, O., 2011. Neuro-fuzzy control of
antilock braking system using sliding mode incremental learning algorithm.
Neurocomputing 74, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neucom.2010.07.035.
Tso, C., 2003. A viable niche market—fuel cell scooters in Taiwan. Int. J. Hydrog.
Energy 28, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3199(02)00245-8.
Tuan, V.T., Kreuawan, S., Somsiri, P., Tungpimolrut, K., Huy, P.N., 2020. Switched
reluctance motor and induction machine for E-scooter based on driving
cycles design comparisons. IEEJ Trans. Electr. Electron. Eng. 15, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1002/tee.23136.
United Nations Economics and Social Council, 2004. Worldwide Harmonized
Motorcycle Emissions Certification Procedure. WMTC.
Versele, C., de Greve, Z., Vallee, F., Hanuise, R., Deblecker, O., Delhaye, M., et
al., 2009. Analytical design of an axial flux permanent magnet in-wheel
synchronous motor for electric vehicle. In: 2009 13th European Conference
on Power Electronics and Applications. IEEE, pp. 1–9.
Vic Roads, Vehicle fees. https://www.vicroads.vic.gov.au/registration/
registration-fees/vehicle-registration-fees. n.d.
Vielstich, W., 1970. Fuel Cells—Modern Processes of the Electrochemical
Production of Energy. Wiley-Interscience, pp. 275–280.
VinFast Klara, cleanscooter.in, https://cleanscooter.in/vinfast-klara/. n.d.
Vishwanathan, V., Sripad, S., 2019. The key to an electric scooter revolution in
India is getting the battery right. https://qz.com/india/1737200/an-electric-
scooter-revolution-in-india-needs-better-batteries/.
Wang, Q., Jiang, B., Li, B., Yan, Y., 2016. A critical review of thermal management
models and solutions of lithium-ion batteries for the development of pure
electric vehicles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 64, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2016.05.033.
A.K. Nayak, B. Ganguli and P.M. Ajayan
Wang, X., Liu, B., Hou, X., Wang, Q., Li, W., Chen, D., et al., 2014. Ultralong-
life and high-rate web-like Li4Ti5O12 anode for high-performance flexible
lithium-ion batteries. Nano Res. 7, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12274-014-
0470-7.
Wang, S., Quan, W., Zhu, Z., Yang, Y., Liu, Q., Ren, Y., et al., 2017a. Lithium
titanate hydrates with superfast and stable cycling in lithium ion batteries.
Nature Commun. 8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-00574-9.
Wang, I.K., Seidle, R., 2020. Ambition in innovation: Vicarious learning in the
nascent electric scooter market in Taiwan. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change
152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119886.
Wang, C., Wang, S., Tang, L., He, Y.-B., Gan, L., Li, J., et al., 2017b. A robust
strategy for crafting monodisperse Li4Ti5O12 nanospheres as superior rate
anode for lithium ion batteries. Nano Energy 21, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
nanoen.2016.01.005.
Weiss, M., Dekker, P., Moro, A., Scholz, H., Patel, M.K., 2015. On the electrification
of road transportation – a review of the environmental, economic, and social
performance of electric two-wheelers. Transp. Res. D 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.trd.2015.09.007.
Wen, Z., Gu, Z., Huang, S., Yang, J., Lin, Z., Yamamoto, O., 2005. Research on
spray-dried lithium titanate as electrode materials for lithium ion batteries.
J. Power Sources 146, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.03.065.
Yamaguchi, J., 2004. Project G21 to prius. In: SAE Automotive Engineering
International. pp. 42–44.
Yamaha Motor Co. L., 2002. Offering a new type of commuter vehicle for
the 21st century yamaha develops electric commuter passol product of
growth strategy promotion under ymc’s next 50 mid-term plan. Https:
//GlobalYamaha-MotorCom/News/2002/1009/PassolHtml.
Yamaha Motor Co. L., 2006. Ec-02 passol-l . Https:
//WwwYamaha-MotorCoJp/Recall/Mc/Recall/2006-10-05/.
Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd, 2005. Yamaha press information. https://global.yamaha-
motor.com/news/2005/1019/tms-06.html.
3530
Energy Reports 9 (2023) 3508–3530
Yang, Y.-P., Hung, P.-C., 2013. Multi-objective optimal design of an axial flux
permanent magnet wheel motor for electric scooters. In: 4th International
Conference on Power Engineering, Energy and Electrical Drives. IEEE, http:
//dx.doi.org/10.1109/PowerEng.2013.6635829.
Yong, J.Y., Ramachandaramurthy, V.K., Tan, K.M., Mithulananthan, N., 2015. A
review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicle, its impacts
and prospects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 49, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
rser.2015.04.130.
Zaghib, K., Armand, M., Gauthier, M., 1998. Electrochemistry of anodes in solid-
state li-ion polymer batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 145, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1149/1.1838776.
Zaghib, K., Simoneau, M., Armand, M., Gauthier, M., 1999. Electrochemical study
of Li4Ti5O12 as negative electrode for Li-ion polymer rechargeable batteries.
J. Power Sources 81–82, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(99)00209-8.
ZEV, The Performance and Value Leader In Electric Vehicles! ZEV LRC-X & LRC
To 15 Kw Continuous Output, 30 Kw peak THE WORLD’S LONGEST RANGE
AND FASTEST PRODUCTION ELECTRIC MOTOR SCOOTER! https://web.archive.
org/web/20171203103707/http://zelectricvehicle.com/22.html. n.d.
Zhang, Z., Li, G., Peng, H., Chen, K., 2013. Hierarchical hollow microspheres as-
sembled from N-doped carbon coated Li4Ti5O12 nanosheets with enhanced
lithium storage properties. J. Mater. Chem. A Mater. 1, http://dx.doi.org/10.
1039/c3ta13860g.
Zhao, H., 2015. Lithium titanate-based anode materials. http://dx.doi.org/10.
1007/978-3-319-15458-9_6.
Zheng, Y., Dong, Z.Y., Xu, Y., Meng, K., Zhao, J.H., Qiu, J., 2014. Electric vehicle
battery charging/swap stations in distribution systems: Comparison study
and optimal planning. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 29, http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/
TPWRS.2013.2278852.