INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
- This Act shall govern:
LESSON 1. THE CONCEPT OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is defined the entire body of knowledge regarding crimes as a
social phenomenon. From a wider perspective, any criminological study
would ideally include the context in which the criminal behavior has
taken place. This interpretation involves the criminal as wrongdoer,
sometimes even as victim, the identified victim, the determinant
elements of the social circumstances in which the crime has been
committed, and the deciding role of the law. In this criminology of
process, the crime is the result of a conflict and the criminal is the
subject, or actor, caught in a web of social circumstances and legal
definitions that are required to identify the act as criminal. No act could
be defined as a crime without the social and legal identification that
places the actor within a conflict with the group that, eventually,
qualifies the act as infraction deserving of sanctions
CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology is the science that studies crime, forms of criminal behavior, the
causes of crime, the definition of criminality, and the societal reaction to
criminal activity. Related areas of inquiry may include juvenile delinquency,
victimology, theories of prevention, policing, and corrections.
RA 11131
Section 1. Title. - This Act shall be known as "The Philippine Criminology
Profession Act of 2018".
Section 2. Statement of Policy. – The State recognizes the importance of
the criminology profession in national security, public safety, peace and
order, and nation-building and development. Hence, it shall develop and
nurture competent, virtuous, productive, and well-rounded criminologists
whose standards of professional practice and service shall be excellent,
qualitative, world-class, and globally competitive through sacred, honest,
effective, and credible licensure examinations, coupled with programs and
activities that would promote professional growth and development.
Section 3. Objectives.
● The examination, registration, and licensure for criminologists;
● The supervision, control, and regulation of the practice of criminology;
● The standardization and regulation of criminology education;
● The development of the professional competence of criminologists
through Continuing Professional Development (CPD); and
● The integration of all criminology professional groups, and
membership of all registered criminologists to the accredited
professional organization.
Section 5. Scope of Practice. – The practice of criminology shall include, but
shall not be limited to, acts or activities performed:
In line with the practice of profession or occupation as a law
enforcement administrator, executive, adviser, consultant, officer,
investigator, agent or employee in any private or government agencies
performing law enforcement and quasi-police functions at the Philippine
National Police (PNP), the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), the
Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), the Bureau of Fire Protection
(BFP), the Bureau of Jail Management and Penology (BJMP), the Provincial
Jail, the Bureau of Corrections (BUCOR), the Probation and Parole
Administration (PPA), the Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR), the Bureau of
Customs (BoC), the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), other government and
private banks, the Philippine Postal Corporation (PPC), the Sea and Air
Marshalls, the VIP Security, Airport and Seaport Police, the National
Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA), the Intelligence Service of the
Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP), and other intelligence service or
agencies of the government exercising similar functions;
The Board, in consultation with the APO and the academe, subject to the
approval of the Commission, may revise, exclude from or add to the above-
enumerated acts or activities as the need arises to conform with the latest
trends in the practice of criminology in the country.
 Any examinee who failed three (3) or more board subjects shall be deemed to
have failed the board examination.

Section 17. Rating in the Licensure Examination. – To pass the licensure

examination for criminologists, a candidate must obtain a weighted average
rating of seventy-five percent (75%) with no grade less than sixty percent
(60%) in any given subject. In case the examinee obtains a weighted average
rating of seventy-five percent (75%) but, has a grade below sixty percent
(60%) in any of the subjects, the result of the examinee shall be deferred, and
be required to retake that particular subject/s. The deferred examinee shall
only be allowed to retake once within two (2) years from the date of the
examination, and shall be required to obtain a grade not lower than eighty
percent (80%) on the subject, to be considered to have passed the licensure
examination. If the examinee failed to retake after the lapse of two (2) years
or failed to get the passing mark of eighty percent (80%), the examinee shall
retake all the board subjects.
ABSTRACTION
CRIMINOLOGY PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology - acc. to EDWIN H. SUTHERLAND, Criminology is the entire 1. ETIOLOGY OF CRIMES – the scientific analysis of the causes of crimes and
body of knowledge regarding crimes as a social phenomenon. It includes the criminal behavior.
within its scope the process of making of laws, of breaking of laws and the
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – refers to the investigation of the nature of criminal
society’s reaction towards the breaking of laws.
law and its administration. how the laws evolve
- Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding crimes, criminals and
3. PENOLOGY – the study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of
the efforts of society to prevent and repress them.
offender.
- The scientific study of the causes of crime in relation to man and
society who set and define rules and regulations for himself and
others to govern. Is Criminology a Science?
-according to George Wilker, Criminology cannot become a science because
it has not yet acquired universal validity and acceptance. Edwin H. Sutherland,
CRIMINOLOGIST - any person who is a graduate of the degree of
the Dean of Modern Criminology, hoped that it will become a science in the
Criminology, who has passed the examination for Criminologist and is
future since the causes of crimes are almost the same which may be biological,
registered as much by the Board of Examiners of the Professional Regulation
environmental or combination of the two.
Commission. R.A. 6506)

THE EVOLUTION OF CRIMINOLOGY- The term criminology was derived

REPUBLIC ACT No. 11131
An act regulating the practice of criminology profession in the Philippines,
and appropriating funds therefor, repealing for the purpose republic act
no. 6506, otherwise known as "an act creating the board of examiners for
criminologists in the philippines"
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CRIMINOLOGY
-Etymologically, the term Criminology came from the Latin word “CRIMEN”
meaning crime and Greek word “LOGOS” which means to study.
- in 1885, Paul Topinard, French Anthropologist, used the term
criminology in French criminologie for the first time.
from the Italian term “criminologia” coined by Raffaelle Garafalo,an Italian
law professor, in 1885.- In 1887, Paul Topinard, a French anthropologist,
used the term “criminologie”
- An American criminologist in the person of Edwin Sutherland
introduced his own definition of the term “criminology”. According to him,
criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding crime as a social
phenomenon. It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of
breaking laws and of reacting towards the breaking of the laws.
NATURE OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. It is an applied science.
 2. It is a social science - Crime is a social creation and it exists in a
society being a social phenomenon.
3. It is dynamic - Criminology changes as a social condition changes.
It is concomitant with the advancement of other science that have
been applied to it.
4. It is nationalistic - The study of crimes must be in relation with the
existing criminal law within a territory or country. The question as
to whether an act is a crime is dependent on the criminal law of a
state.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. Study of the origin and development of criminal law
2. Study of the causes of crimes and development of criminals.
3. Study of different factors that enhance the development of criminal
behavior, such as:
a. Criminal demography - the study of the relationship
between criminality and population.
b. Criminal epidemiology– the study of the relationship
between environment and criminality.
c. Criminal ecology – the study of criminality in relation to
the spatial distribution in a community.
d. Criminal physical anthropology – the study of criminality
in relation to physical constitution of men.
e. Criminal psychology – the study of human behavior in
relation to criminality
f. Criminal psychiatry – the study of human mind in relation
to criminality.
g. Victimology – the study of the role of the victim in the
commission of crime
h. Criminal etiology - the study of the Cause or origin of
crime. It studies the primary reason for crime commission.
i. Sociology of law - attempt at scientific analysis of the
condition which the penal/criminal laws has developed as
a process of formal or social control.
j. Sociology - it is the study of human society, its origin,
structure, functions and direction.
k. Criminological research - study of the crime correlated to
with antecedent variables, state of crime trend
CRIMINOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
In the Philippines the first ever educational institution offering the
criminology course, is the Philippines College of Criminology, at Sta. Cruz,
Manila, formerly known as Plaridel College.
On January 15, 1983, the author organized and founded the Philippine
Educators Association for Criminology Education (PEACE), during the
National Conference of Criminology Deans and School Heads and Presidents,
held at the University of Negros Occidental-Recoletos, College of Criminology,
on January 13 to 15, 1983.
Definitions of Terms
1. Criminology – the science of crime rates, individual and group reasons
for committing crime, and community or societal reactions to crime.
2. Criminologist - a person who studies criminology; not to be confused
with a ‘criminalist’ who reconstructs a crime scene or works with
crime scene evidence for forensic purposes.
3. Applied criminology – the art of creating typologies, classifications,
predictions, and specially profiles of criminal offenders, their
personalities and behavior patterns.
4. Theory construction – an informed, creative endeavor which connects
something known with something unknown, usually in a measurable
way.
5. Theory building – efforts to come up with formal, systematic, logical,
and mathematical ways in which theories are constructed
6. Theoretical Integration – efforts to come up with grand, overarching
theories which apply to all types of crime and evidence.
7. Theoretical Specification – efforts to figure out the details of a theory,
how the variables work together, usually associated with a belief that
many, competing theories are better than integrated efforts.
 8. Theoretical Elaboration – efforts to figure out the implications of a
theory, what other variables might be added to the theory
9. Variables – the building blocks of theories; things that vary; things
that vary; things you can have more or less of; (ex. Crime rates, bein g
more or less criminality inclined
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND PERSONALITIES
Edwin Sutherland pointed out that a school of criminology connotes
“the system of thought which consists of an integrated theory of causation of
crime and of policies of control implied in the theory of causation”. Therefore,
a school of criminology implies the following three important points:
1. The adherents of each school try to explain the causation of crime and
criminal behavior in their own way relying on the theory propounded by the
exponent of that particular school.
2. Each school of criminology suggests punishment and preventive measures
to suit its ideology.
3. And, each of the school represents the social attitude of people towards
crime and criminal in a given time.
In an attempt to find a rational explanation of crime, a large number of
theories have been propounded. Various factors such as evil spirit, sin,
disease, heredity, economic maladjustment etc. have been put forward either
singly or together to explain criminality. With the advance of behavioral
sciences, monogenetic explanation of human conduct is no longer valid and
the modern trend is to adopt an eclectic view about the genesis of crime.
However, some criminologists still tend to lay greater emphasis on physical
traits in order to justify exclusive resort to correctional methods for the
treatment of offender.
ABSTRACTION
The Classical School of Criminology
This is the school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria whose
real name is Cesare Bonesana Marquis de Beccaria together with Jeremy
Bentham (1823) whose proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory,
which explains that a person always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure
and avoid pain.
In his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment”
presented his key ideas on the abolition of torture
as a legitimate means of extracting confessions.
The classical theory maintains that man is
essentially a moral creature with absolute free
will to choose between good and evil therefore
tress is placed upon the criminal himself; that
every man is responsible for his act. Freewill
(Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment
severe enough for people to choose, to avoid
criminal acts. It includes the believe that a certain
criminal act warrants a certain punishment
without any punishment without any variation.
Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people
choose pleasure and avoid pain.
Jeremy Bentham was an English jurist,
philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He best
known as an early advocate of utilitarianism and
fair treatment of animals that influenced the
development of liberalism.
He invented the panopticon, and other classical school’s philosophers argued
the following:
1. People have free will to choose how to act;
2. Deterrence is based upon the utilitarian ontological notion of the human
being a ‘hedonist’ who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a ‘rational
calculator’ weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each
action.
3. Punishment (of sufficient severity) can deter people from crime, because of
the following:
a. The cost (penalties) outweigh benefits.
b. The severity of punishment should be proportionate to the
crime.
4. The swifter and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in
deterring criminal behavior.
Neo-Classical Theory – the theory which contends that children and lunatics
cannot calculate pain and pleasure, therefore, they must have exempted from
incurring criminal liability.
ABSTRACTION
The Positivist/Italian School (1838-1909) – that criminal behavior
is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individuals control.
The positivist school introduced the scientific method of understanding
criminality and was applied to study human behavior. Italian School of
Criminology was founded at the end of 19th century by Cesare Lombroso
(1835-1909) and his two students, Enrico Ferri (1856-1929) and Rafaele
Garofalo (1851-1934).
Positivist School presumes that criminal behavior is caused by
internal and external factors outside of the individual’s control. The Positivist
introduced the scientific method of understanding criminality and was applies
to study human behavior. It rejected the classical school’s idea that all crime
resulted from choice that could potentially be made anyone. Though they did
not disagree with the Classical School that most crime could be explained
through “human nature,” they argued that the most serious crimes were
committed by individuals who were “primitive” or “atavistic” – that is, who
failed to evolve to fully human and civilized state. Crime therefore resulted
not from what criminals had in common with others in society, but from their
distinctive physical or mental defects.
Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)
The Italian criminologist and founder of the Italian
School of Positivist Criminology. And was criticized for
his methodology and his attention to the biological
characteristics of offenders, but his emphasis on the
need to study offenders scientifically earned him the
“father of modern criminology.”
Greatest Contributions of Lombroso:
a. He rejected the established Classical School, which held that
crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, he
used concept drawn from (physiognomy, early eugenics,
psychiatric, Social Darwinism)
b. Lombroso’s theory of anthropological criminology essentially
stated that criminality is: Inherited and that someone born
criminal could be identified by physical defects, w/c confirmed
a criminal as savage or atavistic.
c. Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting an empirical
evidence for studying crime
d. He founded criminal anthropology. He suggested that a
physiological trait is indicative of criminal tendencies such as
(measurement of check bones, hairline, cleft palate.
Classification of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals (Atavist) – there are born criminals according to
Lombroso, the belief that being criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities
or psychological disorders. They should be exempted from criminal
liability.
3. Criminaloid – a person who commits crime due to less physical
stamina/ self-control. Further categorize by Lombroso as ‘habitual
criminal’ who become contact with other criminals. This category
included:
a. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily
influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
b. Juridical Criminal – this criminal is one who violet the law by
accident.
4. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due to
insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a given occasion.
5. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.
Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)
Enrico Ferri, a student of Lombroso argued that criminal
behavior could be explained by studying the interaction
of a range of factors. His interest in socialism led him to
recognize time importance of social, economic, and
political determinants. He believed that criminals could
not be held morally responsible for their crimes because
they did not choose to commit crimes, but rather, were
driven to commit them by conditions in their lives. He
also claimed that strict adherence to preventive
measures based on scientific methods would eventually
reduce crime and allow people to live together in society
with less dependent on penal system.
Conclusion
Enrico Ferri Summarized that:
● Social as well as biological factors played a role in
criminality.
● Criminals should not be held responsible of their
acts because the factors causing their criminality
were beyond their control.
● Crime could be controlled by improving the
social conditions of the poor and to that end
advocate the provision of subsidized housing,
birth control, and public recreation facilities.
Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934)
A Italian jurist and a student also of Cesare Lombroso. H
is Contributions in the Italian School of Criminology are
as follows:
a. rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the
position that crime can be understood if it is to studied
by scientific methods
b. attempted to formulate a sociological definition of crime
that would designate those acts which can be repressed
by punishment
Garofalo constituted” Natural Crime” and were considered offenses violating
the two basic altruistic sentiments common to all people, namely, probity
(moral integrity) and pity (feeling of sympathy, regrettable thing, mercy)
Garofalo (1851–1934). Positivism is classified intro three segments
which includes the following:
● Biological Positivism – includes the study of the following theories in
relation to criminality: criminal anthropology, phrenology,
physiognomy, heredity: Kallikak and Juke Family study, criminal body
type theories/somatotyping, genetic structure, biochemistry, blood
sugar levels, adrenaline sensitivity, allergies and diet and substance
abuse.

● Psychological Positivism – relates criminality through the study of
the following theories: psychodynamics/psychoanalytical theory,
behavioral learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
● Social Positivism – refers criminality through the study of the
following theories: social disorganization theory, Chicago school
theory and anomie theory.
Types of Criminal by Raffaele Garofalo
Murderer – refers to a criminal who kills another person and is satisfied from
vengeance/revenge. This type of criminal totally lacks both pity and probity
and will kill whenever opportunity arises.
Violent Criminal – lack pity and can be influenced by environment factors
such as the consumption of alcohol or the fact that criminality is endemic to
criminal’s particular population.
Deficient Criminal – refers to a person who commits crime against property
like theft and robbers.
Lascivious Criminal – refers to a person who commits crime against chastity
like acts of lasciviousness, seduction, adultery and the like.
Just like Lombroso and Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo rejected the doctrine of
free will and supported the position that the only way to understand crime
was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced by Lombroso’s theory of
atavistic stigmata, which he found to have many shortcomings, he traced the
roots of many criminal behavior, not to physical features, but to their
psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies.” According to
this theory, natural crimes are found in all human societies, regardless of the
view of lawmakers, and no society can disregard that.
According to Garofalo, natural crimes are those that offend the
basic normal sentiments of probity, which mean respect for property of
others, and piety or avoidance of causing infliction of suffering to others.
Raffaele Garofalo’s suggestions are the following:
● Death for those criminal acts grew out of a permanent psychological
anomaly, rendering them incapable of social life;
● Partial elimination of long time imprisonment for those fit only for the
life of nomadic hordes or primitive tribes; and
● Enforced reparation on the part of those who lacks altruistic
sentiments but who have committed crimes under pressure of
exceptional circumstances and not likely to do so again.
Other Important Contributors in Criminology
1. Sir Alec John Jeffreys (in criminalistics) – fellow of the Royal Society (FRS),
born 9 January 1950 at Oxford in Oxfordshire is a British Geneticist, who
developed techniques for DNA fingerprinting and DNA profiling.
2. Alphonse Bertillon – was a French law enforcement officer and Biometrics
researcher, who created anthropometry, an identification system based on
physical measurements. Anthropometry was the first scientific system police
used to identify criminals.
SOCIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
He applied scientific methods in the study of society, from where he
adopted the word sociology. He wanted a society in which all social problems
will be solved by scientific methods and research. He believed that large
groups of people such as society, being a subject of scientific study, can lead to
the discovery of specific laws that would greatly help them.
Adolphe Quetelet – Belgian Mathematician and Andre Michel Guerry –
French Lawyer
They started the Cartographical School of Criminology in which they
work independently on the relation of crime statistics to such factors as
poverty, age, sex, race, climate, and other demographical factors. Both
scholars concluded that society, not the decisions of individual offenders, was
responsible for criminal behavior.

Gabriel Tarde
Tarde’s major contribution in the study of cause of crime as his concept of the
criminal as a professional type. He believed that most criminals went through
a process of training before finally becoming criminal. Moreover, it was an
accident of birth or chance that put them in an atmosphere of crime.

Emile Durkheim
According to Durkheim, crime is an inevitable aspect of society. It could
disappear only if all members of society had the same values, and such
standardization is neither possible nor desirable. He called this concept as
ANOMIE (Greek, anomos, without norms), a breakdown of social order as a
result of a loss of standards and values.
Chicago School
The Chicago School arose in the early twentieth century, through the work of
Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, and other urban sociologist at the University of
Chicago.
In the 1920’s, Park and Burgess identified five concentric zones that often
exist as cities grow, including the “zone in transition” which as identified as
the most volatile and subject to disorder. In the 1940’s, Henry McKay and
Clifford Shaw focused on juvenile delinquents, finding that they were
concentrated in the zone of transition.
Criminal Etiology
Criminal etiology, in simpler terms, is a study of causes of crimes. This
chapter discusses the different explanations to criminality. They include the
various theories (classical or modern) and factors (biological, psychological,
psychiatric, sociological, geographical, and criminogenic) that account for
criminal behavior of man.
Earlier explanations of the existence of criminality
● Crime is caused by demon (Paganism Era). Men violate social
norms and religious practices because they are possessed by demons
or evil spirits.
● Crime is caused by devil will. Men manifest criminal behavior
because they are sinful. God is the offended party when they commit
crimes, and the punishment is in the form of plagues, earthquakes, or
 other forms of desolation. This was, God’s anger is lessened.
● Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution. (Ancient
Word, Early Greek Law). The earliest form of punishment was
private revenge, in which the victim or victim’s kin retaliated for
injury and the community did not interfere. This often resulted in
vendetta or blood feuds that could continue for many years until one
or the other family was completely wipe out. The earliest broad laws
reflected of the retribution system are those found in the Babylonian
Code of Hammurabi (1790 B.C.). These laws were based on “an eye
for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” concept of retribution. However, the
exacting for a penalty corresponding to the offense was observed only
when the victim was the upper or freeman group. And when a
freeman offended a slave (serf), he might make justice by a small
payment of money. Slaves had no legal rights.
● Crime is equal to sin. (Middle Ages). Crimes and sins were treated
as the same substances and nature. The state claimed that it was
acting in the place of God when it inflicted horrible punishments such
as ostracism, stoning, exile from the community, burning,
decapitation, and capital punishment.
Biological Theory
Biological explanations of crime assume that some people are ‗born
criminals‘, who are physiologically distinct from non-criminals. According to
biological positivists the basic cause of crime is biological inferiority, which is
indicated by physical or genetic characteristics that distinguish criminals from
non-criminals. Biological theorists also advocate brain surgery, chemical
treatment, improved diets, and better mother and child care.
Early Biological Theories vs. Modern Biological Theories
● Early biological theories viewed that structure determines function
that is, individuals behave differently because of the fundamental fact
that they are somehow structurally different. It focus strongly on
inherited characteristics.
● Modern biological theories examine the entire range of biological
characteristics, including those that result from genetic defects (and
thus are not inherited) and those that are environmentally induced.
Biological Explanations of Criminality
The biological explanations of criminality assume that individuals vary
in behavior because of their biological structural differences. These structural
differences may be the result of chromosomes, genes, chemistry, hormones, or
even body type. The biological theories suppose that something is happening
inside the person, often beyond his control to cause criminal behavior, and
that criminals may be born, not made.
1. HEREDITY AND CRIMES
Early biological theorists believed that criminality was an inherited
trait passed on the genes. Although this view las long lost popularity, many
modern criminologists are still interested in the role of genetics.
The methods employed to test the proposition that criminality was
inherited are the following:
● FAMILY STUDIES
Some studies were conducted to prove that children of
criminal parents are more likely to become law violators that children
of conventional parents. They are as follows:
The Study of the Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)
The Juke Family consisted of 6 girls, some of whom were illegitimate. One of
them, Ada Juke, was known as “The Mother of Criminals.” Dugdale traced the
1,200 descendants for 75 years and found 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7
murderers, 40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants premature
born, 50 prostitutes, and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.
The Study of the Kallikak Family (Henry Goddard)
Martin Kallikak was an American Revolutionary was soldier. While stationed
in small village, he met a feeble-minded girl and had illicit relations with her.
About 489 descendants from this lineage were traced which included 143
feeble-minded and 46 normal. Thirty-six were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3
criminals, 8 kept brothels, and 82 died in infancy.
The Study of Sir Jonathan Edward’s Family
Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the colonial period.
When his family tree was traced, none of the descendants was found to be
criminal. Rather, many become presidents of the United States, governors,
members of the Supreme Court, famous writers, preachers, and teachers.
2. THE XYY “SUPERMALE” STUDIES
The role of chromosomes in crime causation has been analyzed in
recent studies in human genetics. The first well-known study of this type was
undertaken by Patricia A. Jacobs, a British researcher who examined 197
Scottish prisoners for chromosomal abnormalities through a relatively simple
blood test known as karyotyping. Twelve (12) of the group displayed
chromosomes which were unusual, and 7 were found to have an XYY
chromosome.
XY Chromosomes is Normal for Males
XX Chromosomes is Normal for Females
Studies of XYY males tend to show that supermales:
● Are taller than the average male, often standing 6’1 or more.
● Suffer from acne or skin disorders.
● Are of less than average intelligence.
● Are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals.
● Come from families with less history of crime or mental illness.
3. PHYSIOGNOMY
- Physiognomy is the study of facial features of a person in
relation to his criminal behavior.
4. PHRENOLOGY OR CRANIOLOGY (Franz Joseph Gall)
- Phrenology or Craniology is the study of external formation
of the skull indicating the conformation of the brain and the
development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of the
criminal.
5. PHYSIOLOGY OR SOMATOTYPE
- Physiology or Somatotype refers to the study of the body
build of a person in relation to this temperament and personality and
the type of offense he most prone to commit.
⮚ Ernest Kretschmer studied the different body types and
presented the relationship between physique and mental
illness. He classified the body build into four distinct types:
● Asthenic Type – this person is skinny, with ribs
easily counted and slender body type. This type
usually commits crime known as petty theft and
fraud.

● Athletic Type – this person bas broad shoulders,
powerful legs and muscular body type. This type
usually commits with violent crimes.
● Pyknic Type – this person is stout, has short stubby
hands and with round body. This type usually
commits deception, fraud and violence.
● Dysplastic or Mixed Type – the person has a body
type that is less clearly evident having any
predominant type (unclassifiable). Any person with
this body usually commits an offense against decency
and morality.
⮚ Somatotype Theory by William Sheldon
William H. Sheldon (1898-1977) – Sheldon is an influence
of the Somatotype School of Criminology, which related body
built to behavior. He became popular of his own Somatotyping
Theory. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of
―Survival of the Fittest‖ as a behavioral science. He combines
the biological and psychological explanation to understand
deviant behavior. Sheldon‘s ―Somatotyping Theory‖
maintains the belief of inheritance as the primary
determinants of behavior and the physique is reliable
indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon
a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of
soft, roundness throughout the regions of the body.
They have low specific gravity. Persons with typically
relaxed and comfortable disposition.
b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle,
bone and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and
firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are
routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most
likely to commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy
through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend
to look more fatigue and withdrawn.
6. PHYSICAL DEFECTS AND CRIMES
- Leaders of notorious criminal groups are usually nicknamed,
in accordance with their physical defects or handicaps, such funny
names as “Dorong Pilay,” “Asiong Bingot,” “Densiong Unano,” and
others. These physical defects were usually source of irritation during
their childhood days whenever they were the subject of mockery of
others. As a result, they develop inferiority complex. Consequently,
they have poor social relationship and serious emotional disturbances.
They lack competitiveness occupationally and socially, and they
become frequently irritated to people. This makes them resort to
violent criminal behavior.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychological Theory. A general perspective that looks to the
psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in
explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself
is important only in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.
I. FREUDIAN PSYCHOANALYTICAL THOERY
It focuses on abnormalities or disturbances in the individual’s
emotional development from early childhood.
 Crime, according to Freud, is a symbolic expression of inner tension THE ID
that each person has but fails to control. It is an out expression of having
learned self-control improperly. ● It is the unconscious seat of irrational, antisocial, and instinctual

He believes that people develop in a series of stages. When
abnormalities occur, the person is more likely to experience conflict. Conflict
arises from the person’s basic drive and social controls. Because conflict is
painful to confront, people tend to push into their unconscious mind, thus,
experience that produce conflict. Finally, people use defense mechanisms to
handle personal conflicts.
Freudian. This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It
claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and
superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood.
impulses, which must be controlled and shaped for social adaptation
to life in society.
● -It is the original system of personality present at birth. It consists of
blind unreasoning, instinctual desires and motives. Selfishness,
violence and anti-social wishes are part of the original instinct of man.
● One of the three components of Freudian personality development.
The id contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food,
water, sex, and pleasure.

THE EGO
The four main elements in Freud’s Theory are as follows:
● It is the conscious and rational part of the mind, and it usually grows
● Human nature is inherently anti-social. Every child possesses a set from the ID.
of primitive anti-social instincts that he called the ID.
● It is part of the personality that must deal with conflicting demands of
● Good behavior comes thru effective socialization. Thru socialization, the ID and SUPEREGO.
the child learns internal control. ● It also represents problem-solving dimensions of the personality.
● The life-long features of the human personality originate in early
● It deals with reality because it can differentiate reality from fantasy.
childhood. By the age of 5, all of the essential features of the child’s
adult personality have been developed. ● Decisions are reached in terms of REALITY PRINCIPLE.
● Delinquent behavior is the result of a defective superego.

● Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed criminality as a result

THE SUPEREGO
of too much guilt feelings. The noticed that those suffering from
unbearable guilt committed crimes in order to be apprehended and ● It is the conscience and moralizing part of the mid. “CONSCIENCE OF
punished. Once they had been punished, their feelings of guilt were
MAN”
relieved.
● It grows out from ego, and represents the moral code and the norms
and values the individual has acquired and the superego is also
The three (3) parts of the Human Psyche (Personality by Sigmund responsible for feelings of guilt and shame.
Freud):
 ● If the parts of the human psyche co-exist in unified and harmonious
way, the person is mentally healthy, but when the human psyche
comes into conflict, the person is maladjusted and there is a high
probability that he will commit delinquent acts.
● In contrast to Freud’s notion of criminality caused by overdeveloped
superego, August Aichorn, argued that criminality is rather the result CLASSES OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY
of an underdeveloped superego. Aichorn was psychoanalyst who
Idiots
administered an institution for juvenile delinquents. He observed that
many of the incarcerated youths had underdeveloped superegos, and They are persons whose case exists mental defectiveness of such a
h attributed their criminality to unregulated id. degree that they are unable to guard themselves against common physical
dangers. Their mentality is compared to a 2-year-old person.
Imbecile
Electra Complex. This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around
ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a They are persons in whose case exists mental defectiveness, whose
hatred and fear of her mother. thought not amounting to idiocy, is yet so pronounced that they are incapable
of managing themselves or their affairs. There mentality is like a child of 2 to 7
Notable Individuals
years old.
Freud, Sigmund: (1856–1939) Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis and
Feeble-minded Persons
psychological theory, theorized the Oedipus complex and the Electra
complex, coined the terms id, superego, ego, sex drive, and libido. ` Those in whose case exist mental defectiveness which though not
amounting to imbecity, is yet so pronounced that they require care,
Friedlander, Kate: Wrote The Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile
supervision, and control for their own or for the protection of others, or in the
Delinquency (1947).
case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable by reason of such
defectiveness or receiving proper benefit from the instruction in ordinary
schools.
MENTAL DISTURBANCES AND CRIMES
Criminal behavior is also link to some mental disturbances. These
disturbances or disorders come in many forms as follows:
Mental Deficiency – this is a condition of arrested or incomplete MORAL DEFECTIVENESS
development of the mind existing before the age of eighteen, whether arising
Persons wherein mental defect exist coupled with strong vicious or criminal
from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury. Mentally deficient
propensities, and who require care and supervision, and control for their own
persons are prone to commit malicious damage to property and unnatural sex
or for the protection of others.
offenses. They may commit violent crimes but definitely not crimes involving
the use of mentally. Psychosis – this is the common category of mental disorders among youthful
offenders and habitual criminals. Psychosis can be functional or organic. It is
characterized by infantile level of responses, lack of conscience, lack of
affection to others and aggression to environment and other people. Psychotic
people lost contact with reality and have difficulty distinguishing reality from
fantasy. Most of the time they have severe breakdown in their ability to
communicate and they become isolated from others.
The most common types of psychoses are the following:
● Schizophrenia – this is manifested by delusions or hallucinations or a
clear-cut thought disorder. This is also common known as dementia
praecox. Sometimes schizophrenics are not logical in their thoughts,
as shown by their language. The personal appearance is dilapidated,
and they are liable to impulsive acts and may commit suicide.
● Paranoia – it is psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or
unreasonable ideas which can be seen as truth by people suffering
from this disorder. Paranoia is a Greek term which means “a mind
beside itself.” Paranoid people are suspicious and have that feeling of
being persecuted by others, referred to a psychotic delusion. In the
paranoid’s mind the delusion system us firm and is accompanied by
clear and orderly thinking because he or she can give rational distinct
and clear reasons for his or her thoughts.
PARANOID PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Schizoid Personality Disorder – It is characterized by the inability to form
social relationship and lack of interest in doing so. Persons with this kind of
disorder hardly expresses their feelings. They lack social skills. They are the
so-called "loners"
Schizotypal Personality Disorder – It is characterized by seclusiveness,
over-sensitivity avoidance of communication and superstitious thinking.
Histrionic Personality Disorder – It is characterized by immaturity,
excitability, emotional instability and self-dramatization.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder – It is characterized by an exaggerated
sense of self-importance and pre-occupation with receiving attention. The
person usually expects and demands special treatment from others and
disregarding the rights and feelings of others.
Borderline Personality Disorder – It is characterized by instability reflected
in drastic mood shifts and behavior problems. The person usually displays
intense anger outburst with little provocation and he is impulsive,
unpredictable, and periodically unstable.
Avoidant Personality Disorder – It is characterized by hypersensitivity to
rejection and apprehensive alertness to any sign of social derogation. Person
is reluctant to enter into social interaction.
Dependent Personality Disorder – It is characterized by extreme
dependence on other people – there is acute discomfort and even panic to be
alone. The person lacks confidence and feels helpless.
Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder – It is characterized by being
hostile expressed in indirect and non- violent ways. They are so-called
"stubborn".
Compulsive Personality Disorder – It is characterized by excessive concern
with rules, order, and efficiency that everyone does things his own way. It is
also characterized by an ability to express warm feelings. The person is over
conscientious, serious, and he has difficulty in doing things for relaxation.
Anti-social Personality Disorder
It is characterized by continuing violation of the rights of others through
aggressive, anti-social behavior without remorse or loyalty to anyone.
Anti-social Personality is actually the "Psychopathic personality” disorder.
The person lacks ethical or moral development and with inability to follow
approved models of behavior. They are the unsocialized people, which often
bring them to conflict with the society. They may refer to mixed groups of
individuals such as unprincipled business people, crooked politicians, drug
pushers, quack doctors, prostitutes, etc.

NEUROSIS – this is another common type of mental disorder linked to
criminal behavior. Neurotic behaviors are those that do not grossly violate
social norms or represent severely disorganized personalities. Most neurotic
are aware of their problems and may not seek professional help. They do not
require hospitalization but are guilty, unhappy, anxious people.
The most common neurosis with their respective symptoms are the
following:
● Neurasthenia – this is a condition of a weakened nerves that
manifests in fatigue and nervousness and sometimes in physical
symptoms such as pain.
● Anxiety – it is also known as “anxiety state” or “anxiety reaction,”
with the person feeling anxious, fearful or apprehensive. The person
may also be irritated and restless and has chronic tension, poor
concentration and overreaction to noise.
● Obsessive-compulsive neurosis – this is the uncontrollable or
irresistible impulse to do something. There may be an active desire to
resist this irrational behavior, but the person is prevented by his
unconscious motives to act out his difficulty or to suffer miserably in
his fear. This neurosis may be any of the following forms:
- Kleptomania – the compulsive desire to steal
- Dipsomania – the compulsive desire to drink alcohol
- Pyromania – the compulsive desire to set fire.
- Homicidal compulsion – the irresistible urge to kill
somebody
● Hysteria – this refers to unhealthy or senseless emotional outburst
coupled with violent emotional outbreaks.
● Phobia – it is generally called exaggerated fears of things that normal
people fear to some degree, and fears of things that ordinary people
do not fear.
● Depression – people who suffer from depressive neurosis generally
have feelings of pain, hurt, unpleasantness, sadness, rejection, self-
pity, helplessness, despair, boredom, and pessimism. When this feeling
become pervasive and affect all aspects of a person’s life, depression is
said to occur.
EPILEPSY
This is a condition characterized by convulsive seizures and a tendency to
mental deterioration. The seizure maybe extreme loss of Consciousness.
During the attack the person become muscularly rigid respiration ceases,
froth on the mouth and tongue maybe bitter. The disease is characterized by
the reduction of emotional control, stubbornness and irascibility,
impulsiveness, tendency to emotionalism, with much inconsistency in feeling
irritability manifested either by sudden outburst of anger and vicious conduct.
Just before the actual convulsive there maybe mental confusion, hallucination
or delusion and may commit violent crimes without provocation. After the
attack, the person maybe at the state of altered consciousness and may
wonder from one place to another and inflict bodily harm. In the course of
mild attack, he may unconsciously perform indecent acts, breech of the peace
and varying degree of crime of violence.
BIOLOGICAL AND BIOSOCIAL THEORIES
Biological theories trace back to Lombroso, and vary in the amount of
determinism built in. Atavistic man or the “born criminal” was always going to
be at odds with civilized society. More modern biological theories seek to
establish a link between things like IQ, testosterone, and criminality. While
they share a biological link, modern theories understand that the influences of
choice and the larger society also play a role in the crime dynamic.

Biosocial Theories.
Theories that examine the combined effects of biology, behavior, and the
environment on criminal behavior.
Social Learning Theory
Behavior Theory. Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and
included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This
expansion allowed them to identify the learning process, and included
elements such as operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative
stimuli, and schedules of reinforcement.
Differential Association. A theory of crime and delinquency developed by
Sutherland. Criminality is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate
behaviors exhibited by those with whom we interact.
Differential Identification. A modification of differential association theory.
In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that it
will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their
lives.
Imitation. One of the four main concepts of Akers’s social learning theory.
Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that
individual. Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with
perceived risks and rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
Notable Individuals
Akers, Ronald: Sociologist and criminologist, collaborated with Robert
Burgess to develop the differential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant
Behavior: A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
Sutherland, Edwin: (1883–1950) Developed the differential association
theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology
(1947).
SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES
● Containment Theory. A control theory in which the inner and outer
pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless
they are constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment
measures.
● Control Theories. A classification of theories that claim to ask not
why do people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit
criminal acts? These theories assume everyone has the desire to
commit criminal and deviant acts, and seeks to answer why some
people refrain from doing so.
● Delinquent Subculture. A group of delinquent peers who may
influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive
approval from the group. This concept works in conjunction with
control theory and may pull an individual toward delinquency.
● Drift Theory. This theory states that people can “drift” or float back
and forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use
techniques of neutralization as excuses to break the law when other
forms of social control are weak. When social control is stronger, the
offender will drift or float back to law-abiding behavior.
LABELING THEORY
Labeling Theory. The theory that the formal and informal application of
stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society
will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.
ANOMIE AND STRAIN THEORIES
Anomie. A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The term
was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later applied
by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in American
society.
Aspirations and Expectations. This refers to anomie strain theory. Aspirations
refer to what one hopes to achieve in life, and expectations refer to what the
individual believes is realistic. The greater the difference between aspirations
and expectations, the more likely strain becomes.

Key Concept
Anomie was coined by the French sociologist Durkheim, and first applied to
French society to examine rates of suicide. The concept of anomie was first
used in this country by Merton, in an effort to describe adaptations in
behavior and the interaction between legitimate and illegitimate means.

CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict Theory. The view that society is divided into two or more groups with
competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes the
laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules
still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior, which is
now viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both
law and criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as
well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts
defined as criminal).