Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Engineering Physics and Mathematics

The architectural strategies of classrooms for intellectually disabled

students in primary schools regarding space and environment
Tawfiq Jebril, Yang Chen ⇑
School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Intellectually disabled students differ from other students in terms of rational, behavioral, and physical
Received 12 December 2019 aspects; their education and activities must be planned practiced to enable them to be integrated with
Revised 15 May 2020 healthy students. The provision of special needs to people with intellectual disabilities is a reflection
Accepted 20 September 2020
of the aspirations of any country aiming to care for all categories of society. This study investigates the
Available online 29 October 2020
architectural design of classroom space for intellectually disabled students by comparing the design spec-
ifications of primary-school classrooms for intellectually disabled and healthy students. To encourage
Keywords:
students with special needs, have a normal personal life and to try to integrate them into the primary
Intellectual disability
Standards
school community, the impact of abnormal health status on their classroom must be considered. The
Classrooms architectural factors that must be considered in this context are: the layout of the classroom; flooring
Architectural design materials; toilets; transition area; foldable furniture; insulation; ventilation; lighting; colors; and sun-
Primary schools space. Following a brief discussion of the critical methodological issues germane to this research, the
paper details the most important aspects that must be available in primary-school classrooms. In conclu-
sion, after detailing the results obtained, the study provides five key architectural strategies regarding the
space and environment of the classroom, covering furniture, adjacent toilets, colors and materials, form,
lighting, ventilation, and soft music.
Ó 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Intellectual disability is a state of disability in general mental

Intellectually disabled students spend a large part of their day
in the classroom so it must be a safe, supportive, and caring envi-
ronment where children feel they belong [1]. A well-thought-out
physical arrangement is important for any type of special educa-
tion; a classroom that has a well-defined physical arrangement
will promote a positive learning environment [2].
There are four essential steps in creating a 21st-century class-
room: encouraging mobility; ensuring resource accessibility; fos-
tering respect; and igniting inspiration (see in Fig. 1) [3].
Therefore, by following these four steps, it is possible to create
an appropriate environment for this category of students [4].
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: chenyang@xjtu.edu.cn (Y. Chen).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
capabilities such as logical thinking, problem-solving, planning,
abstract thinking, academic learning, and learning from previous
experiences and the experiences of others. This disability also leads
to a failure to adapt to other individuals and the inability of the
person with the intellectual disability to be independent and take
responsibility. It also leads to problems in one or more aspects of
daily life such as social contact and academic and professional per-
formance. Intellectual disability begins in childhood or from the
birth of the child; intellectual disability is not a disease itself but
is, in some cases, the result of the a disease [5].
Studying the physical and psychological characteristics of chil-
dren with mental disabilities reveals that there are architectural
methods the must be considered before and during the architec-
tural design of the classroom space [6], such as a U-shape in furni-
ture arrangement, flooring, toilets, transition areas, foldable chairs,
ceiling height, soft music, architectural insulation, ventilation, nat-
ural lighting, colors, and sunspace [7]. These requirements are
based on six diseases and problems experienced by students with
mental disabilities (detailed later in Section 3) [8], such as atten-
tion deficit disorder, human growth hormone deficiency, urinary
incontinence, lack of self-confidence, sensory imbalance (visually
impaired), anxiety, neuroses, and depression [9].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.09.005
2090-4479/Ó 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Jebril and Y. Chen
encouraging
mobility
resource igning
accessibility classroom inspiraon
fostering
respect
Fig. 1. Four steps are essential in creating a 21st-century classroom (source:
authors).
However, classrooms in primary schools designed for students
with intellectual disabilities do not usually meet these architec-
tural requirements, because this class of students needs a special
classroom designed according to specific architectural standards
and requirements [10] such as color, materials, furniture, lighting,
ventilation, and architectural insulation, depending on the charac-
teristics of their bodies and minds, physically and psychologically.
There are many design defects in the current traditional class-
rooms of primary schools, including the usual arrangement of fur-
niture for healthy students (which leads to intellectually disabled
students feeling bored and depressed) and using uncomfortable
materials without protection for the edges of furniture or seats,
especially the materials of floors. Many classrooms use ordinary
tiles without any covering by other materials or carpets, and this
conflicts with the nature of the bodies of intellectually disabled
students [11]. Further, the toilets can be far away from the class-
room, making it hard for intellectually disabled students to reach
them [12]. The height of the ceilings is also usually low, and not
appropriate for this category of students, as this increases the
amount of noise in the classroom due to sound being reflected
from the low ceiling and the use of fans and air conditioning units,
which disturbs such students disproportionately [13]. Classrooms
are also not equipped with soft-music-playing systems, which is
very important for intellectually disabled children as soft music
can be used beneficially during many classroom activities [14].
Most classrooms also do not provide the required thermal insu-
lation, leading to the need for noisy fans or air-conditioning units.
In addition, there is usually insufficient space for windows to pro-
vide students with adequate ventilation [15]. Finally, there is little
thought given to the use of appropriate colors, as this does not
match their psychology, and thermal comfort is very important
through the presence of adjacent spaces with plants that help to
refresh the atmosphere of the classroom such as a sunspace. There-
fore, to overcome these problems, it should be mentioned the
architectural requirements in the classroom according to their
body and mind.
2. Literature review
Previous studies have generally considered the behavior of stu-
dents with intellectual disabilities in terms of their physical and
psychological characteristics and from a medical point of view,
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835
all of which is useful in deigning classrooms that meet their
requirements. However, there is a lack of research available on
classroom design for this category of students.
Ojok and Wormnaes [16] studied the inclusion of pupils with
intellectual disabilities by examining primary school teachers’ atti-
tudes and willingness to include them in a rural area in Uganda;
they surveyed 125 school teachers using an attitude scale and a
willingness sub-scale. The results showed slightly more positive
than negative attitudes and more willingness than an unwilling-
ness to teach learners with intellectual disabilities. The attendance
of workshops and seminars had a positive impact on teacher atti-
tudes and willingness towards inclusive education.
Brown et al. [17] studied students’ behavioral intentions
towards peers with disability, comparing the behavioral inten-
tions of high school students towards individuals with intellec-
tual disabilities and individuals with physical disabilities, and
also exploring the reasons for these behavioral intentions. The
results showed that behavioral intentions were significantly
more negative towards students with intellectual disabilities
than towards those with physical disabilities. This difference
was also reflected in responses to the open-ended questions.
Common reasons for discomfort were perceived dissimilarities
in interests or abilities.
Veerle Garrels [18] examined student-directed learning of liter-
acy skills for students with intellectual disability. The study used a
single-case experimental design to investigate how student-
directed learning may address the double challenge of motivation
and performance. In the study, five adolescents (aged 13–15) with
mild intellectual disability used the Self-Determined Learning
Model of Instruction to select self-chosen goals within reading and
writing skills. Despite little prior knowledge of the goal-setting
and action-planning process, all participating students attained
their literacy goals. This finding emphasizes the need for special
educators to provide their students with frequent opportunities
and training to practice and refine the necessary skills for active par-
ticipation in the learning process. Doing so may enhance students’
motivation for learning as well as their academic performance.
Szumski and Karwowski [19] studied the school achievement of
students with mild intellectual disabilities from Polish elementary
schools considering the role of socioeconomic status, placement,
and parents’ engagement. Findings revealed that the children of
parents with higher socioeconomic status more frequently
received inclusive education. The findings shed some light on the
mechanisms underlying the education system for children with
disabilities.
Szekeres [7] studied, using sociometry, the social integration of
children with mild intellectual disabilities in the primary school.
This study examined the position of students with mild intellectual
disabilities in their classrooms. Participants comprised 200 inte-
grated children with mild intellectual disabilities and 200 non-
disabled students. Children with a mild intellectual disability
received significantly (p < 0.001) fewer choices generally than
the non-disabled students in the abilities factor, the sympathy
choices factor, and the competition factor. These findings serve
as an important contribution towards the realization of increas-
ingly successful and more efficient integration.
Vaz et al.’s [20] study aimed to identify the factors associated
with primary school teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of stu-
dents with all disabilities in regular schools. A total of 74 primary
school teachers participated in a cross-sectional survey conducted
in Western Australia. Teachers’ attitudes and efficacy toward the
integration of students with disabilities were measured using the
Opinions Relative to Integration of Students with Disabilities scale
and Bandura’s Teacher Efficacy scale, respectively.
Golubović et al. [21] studied the effects of exercise on physical
fitness in children with intellectual disabilities by examining the
T. Jebril and Y. Chen Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835

effects of carefully designed physical exercise programs on the were residents from two state-run facilities located in the South-
development of physical fitness in intellectually disabled children. eastern region of the United States that provide 24-h care to
The study sample consisted of 42 children with intellectual disabil- approximately 850 individuals with varying levels of intellectual
ities and 45 typically developing children. All the participants were disability, age, gender, and race. An on-site licensed psychologist
assessed using the Eurofit Test Battery. The results were analyzed diagnosed all participants with intellectual disability based on
in terms of participation in the exercise program and level of intel- DSM-IV-TR criteria.
lectual functioning. Intellectually disabled children scored signifi- Kroeger and Sorensen-Burnworth [26] reviewed the current lit-
cantly lower on fitness tests when compared with typically erature addressing toilet training among individuals with autism
developing children, and the study revealed an association and other developmental disabilities. Components of such pro-
between the degree of intellectual disability and physical fitness. grams were isolated and described in their contribution to toilet-
Einarsson et al. [22] compared the differences in physical activ- training models. Studies were then reviewed and compared for
ity among youths with and without intellectual disability. The participant and study characteristics. Individual studies validating
study aimed to investigate physical activity and physical activity toilet-training programs were then discussed in light of their pro-
patterns among Icelandic school children with mild-to-severe gram components and efficacy.
intellectual disability. Although children with intellectual disabil- Hughes et al. [27] demonstrated that providing the opportunity
ity were 40% less physically active and spent 9% more time seden- to interact with general education peers was associated with
tary than their peers, there was interaction between group and sex increases in conversational initiations and responses of five high-
(p < 0.05). TDI boys were more active and less sedentary than TDI school students identified with intellectual disabilities and autism.
girls (p < 0.05), but no sex differences were found among children This paper is one of the few published social-skills interventions
with intellectual disability on any physical activity variable. involving high-school students with intellectual disabilities and
Sumaryanti et al. [23] studied the improvement of the basic autism in inclusive settings and extends findings to a population
movements and health of mentally disabled students through of students with more varied communication characteristics.
adaptive physical activities. The study aimed to develop a learning
model of adaptive physical activities (APA) to improve the basic
2.1. Intellectual disability: clinical overview
movements and health of mentally disabled students in a disabled
elementary school in Bantul regency. The authors used five steps: a
Students who have an intellectual incapacity are aware of what
preliminary study; planning; expert validation; empirical valida-
is going on around them. However, their capacity to understand
tion; and effectiveness testing. The small-scale implementation
and speak can be limited, and they can find it difficult to explain
testing was performed with 13 disabled students, whereas the
themselves [28]. Speech issues can make it even harder for other
large-scale implementation testing comprised 42 third-grade stu-
people to understand their emotions and needs; they may, there-
dents from the disabled elementary school. Both the small-scale
fore, become angry and upset. Intellectual disability can occur for
and large-scale implementation testing resulted in the improve-
various reasons: genetic conditions; pregnancy issues; issues dur-
ment of the students’ basic physical movements. The teachers of
ing birth; problems after birth; and poverty and cultural factors
physical education and health also found the models easy to follow
[29]. The effects of intellectual disability broadly fall into three
and the students had fun while being taught using them.
categories:
Muhamad Bram Riyadi et al. [7] discussed physical education as
a way to aid mentally disabled students’ self-development. They
 Conceptual: includes issues with ability in language, reading,
studied mentally disabled students in everyday life and deter-
writing, mathematics, reasoning, memory, and knowledge
mined their motion behaviors outside and inside physical educa-
retention.
tion activities. This study used qualitative methods (life-story
 Social: refers to problems with empathy, judgment, communi-
case study) with four criteria: the degree of confidence (credibil-
cation, making and retaining friends, and other social functions.
ity); transferability; dependability; and certainty (conformability).
 Practical: focuses on issues with self-care such as non-public
The degree of confidence was examined by using the triangulation
hygiene, job duties, private finance, and general organization.
of data from an informant who was considered a person suffi-
ciently close to the mentally disabled students. The results of this
Therefore, parents who suspect that their child may have an
research showed that physical education can be a medium for
intellectual impairment must seek counselling and assistance from
mentally disabled students’ personal development: physical edu-
certified intellectual health and medical professionals [30].
cation was proven to enhance the students’ concentrations and
The primary level of education is an important level in a child’s
focus and to increase their self-confidence, while physical activity
life as it represents a basis for learning in other advanced stages,
was shown to help students interact well socially and to improve
and the method of teaching at this stage stems from the needs of
their self-development.
students such as love, kindness, play, etc. Intellectually disabled
De Laat et al. [24] investigated adapting physical activities for
children in the 9–12-year-old age group are more likely to offend,
intellectually challenged adolescents, encompassing psychomotor
and the older the child becomes, the more such problems are likely
characteristics and implications for programming and motor inter-
to increase [31]. Their behavior becomes more apparent and com-
vention. The major difficulty these individuals faced stemmed from
plex, therefore affecting family and teachers in terms of psycholog-
language comprehension barriers and their failure to grasp instruc-
ical stress; in addition, their lack of experience and inability to deal
tions. Some also possessed physical characteristics that posed con-
with intellectually disabled children may lead them to abuse them,
straints in learning and performing motor skills. Social attitude of
physically or psychologically [32].
equality and acceptance played a major role in their successful inclu-
sion in society. This article describes the behavioral and psychomo-
tor characteristics of intellectually challenged individuals and offers 3. Methodology
general and specific recommendations for instruction and
intervention. The selection of the methodology for this research was based on
Smith and Matson [25] studied behavior problems in relation to the need to understand the impact that the classroom can have
the differences among intellectually disabled adults with (physically and mentally) on intellectually disabled students,
co-morbid autism spectrum disorders and epilepsy. Participants encompassing architectural factors such as the layout of the class-
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Fig. 2. The plans of the space geometry for two classrooms: (a) traditional students’ classroom; (b) intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors).

Table 1 1. Focusing on the physical characteristics of intellectually dis-

Input data for classrooms (source: authors). abled students, such as urinary incontinence and human
Design variable Healthy students Intellectually disabled students growth hormone deficiency.
Orientation South–North South–North
2. Focusing on the psychological characteristics of intellectually
Dimensions 11 m  7.8 m 11 m  7.8 m disabled students such as attention deficit disorder, lack of
Window area 11.84 m2 21.21 m2 self-confidence, sensory imbalance (visually impaired), anxiety,
Materials Porcelain floor tiles Foam mat floor tiles or neuroses, and depression.
vinyl flooring
3. Re-conceptualizing and studying the architectural strategies
Thermal isolation Isolated Non-isolated
required in classrooms for intellectually disabled students in
primary schools.

room, flooring materials, toilets, transition areas, foldable furni-
ture, insulation, ventilation, lighting, colors, and sunspace. The
methodology chosen was a comparative study between intellectu-
ally disabled and healthy students in primary-school classrooms,
focusing on their main problems, students such as attention deficit
disorder, human growth hormone deficiency, urinary incontinence,
lack of self-confidence, sensory imbalance (visually impaired), anx-
iety, neuroses, and depression.
For this research paper, a quantitative research approach was
adopted to identify the architectural issues in traditional classroom
design by conducting a comparative study comparing a traditional
classroom design to one based on best practices suggested in
related recent studies.
This paper contributes both theoretically and practically by
detailing the basic architectural factors for a primary-school
classroom for intellectually disabled students after extensive
study in this field, applying these strategies to study cases, ana-
lyzing them, and finally examining all these factors in the two
case studies (P. Lord School and Deyang School for Deaf & Intel-
lectually Disabled Children) to identify the advantages and
disadvantages.
3.1. The problem
There is a lack of research examining the relationship between
students with mental disabilities and their optimal (architectural)
classroom conditions based on their psychological and physical
needs. This is a research gap that needs to be addressed.
3.2. The approach
The research method follows an exploratory-descriptive
approach, comprising three major stages:
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3.3. The space geometry
The modeled space in the present study was a classroom for an
intellectually disabled student’s classroom vs a traditional class-
room design (an 11 m  7.8 m classroom with two doors, one door
for entry and another one for exit; see Fig. 2 and Table 1). Two toi-
lets should be provided in the intellectually disabled students’
classroom.
3.4. Hypothesis development
Based on the theoretical discussions in Section 2, the following
hypothesis is proposed:
H1: There are significant architectural strategies for intellectu-
ally disabled students in primary schools that affect the space
and environment of their classrooms.
4. Results of characteristics of intellectually disabled students
and the effects on their classroom
There are many problems that students with intellectual dis-
abilities suffer based on their physical and mental characteristics,
such as attention deficit disorder, human growth hormone defi-
ciency, urinary incontinence, lack of self-confidence, sensory
imbalance, anxiety, neuroses, and depression [36]. These are
described in detail in the following sub-sections results.
4.1. Attention deficit disorder
Fig. 3 shows the impact of attention deficit disorder on an ideal
intellectually disabled students’ classroom; this is the most impor-
tant factor as students with attention deficit disorder or attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder find it unusually difficult to pay
attention [37], to concentrate on tasks, and to control impulsive
behavior [38].
T. Jebril and Y. Chen Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835

Strategy and method Intellectually disabled students Healthy students

U-shape in furniture
arrangement
By using U-shaped
furniture, students are
given a sense of proximity
to the teacher and social
inclusion [41]
A room where the teacher’s The arrangement of
desk is facing a semicircular furniture is fairly
grouping of children’s desks traditional, though
by using U-shape. sometimes diversity of the
furniture arrangement
occurs.

Fig. 3. The impact of attention deficit disorder on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [39].

4.2. Human growth hormone deficiency 4.3. Urinary incontinence

Fig. 4 shows the impact of human growth hormone deficiency
on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom.
Childhood-onset growth hormone deficiency is a condition where
the pituitary gland fails to produce enough growth hormone dur-
ing childhood [40].
Fig. 5 shows the impact of urinary incontinence on an
ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom. Urinary incon-
tinence is more common in students with special needs than
in healthy students [43], so it is important to provide toilets
for them.

Strategy and method Intellectually disabled Healthy students

students

Flooring
Floor materials should be
more comfortable for
movement, and not
slippery; therefore, it is
better to use vinyl
flooring because it’s Floors material should be Any type of flooring can be
safer [42]. more comfortable, such as used in classrooms for healthy
soft flooring like vinyl students.
materials or carpets [43].

Fig. 4. The impact of human growth hormone deficiency on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [41,42].

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Strategy and method Intellectually disabled Healthy students

students

Toilets
It is very difficult for
this category of students
to go to the toilets if they
are far away from the
classroom, requiring an
assistant to take
theme [44].

It is essential to provide the The toilets can be far away

large and adjacent of toilets from the classroom for healthy
for accessibility [45]. students [46].

Fig. 5. The impact of urinary incontinence on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [44,45,46].

4.4. Lack of self-confidence self-esteem by giving them a sense of connection, safety, and
accomplishment [47]. This can be achieved by providing a transi-
Fig. 6 shows the impact of lack of self-confidence on an ideal tion area and folding chair that can make students feel safer and
intellectually disabled students’ classroom; the idea is to build more comfortable, thus increasing their confidence.

(source: authors).
Strategy and method Diagram of the intellectually Healthy students
disabled students

A transition area
This space is required
to be an area in which
students do not feel
lonely, assisted by
supervisors, parents, or
even colleagues at
school; this will make
students feel safer [49].
This space is called a seating It is unnecessary to provide
alcove; it works as a transition seating alcoves for healthy
area before entering the students.
classroom; it helps to alleviate
student’s problems.

Foldable chair
Supporting
intellectually disabled
students with active
learning environments
that include flexible
student seating is very A folding chair is more Non-folding seats are not
important for them to flexible (multi-functional) in required in classrooms for
feel comfortable [50]. the classroom. healthy students.

Fig. 6. The impact of a lack of self-confidence on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [48,49].

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4.5. Sensory imbalance 4.6. Anxiety, neuroses, and depression

Fig. 7 shows the impact of sensory imbalance on an ideal intel-
lectually disabled students’ classroom. According to studies in the
Netherlands, nearly 70% of individuals with severe intellectual dis-
ability suffer from sensory imbalance, and the psychological
aspects of auditory perception can be understood in terms of
soundscapes [50].
Fig. 8 shows the impact of anxiety, neuroses, and depression
on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom. Changes
made in this context are key because mental disability is some-
times accompanied by muscle weakness or lack of neuromuscu-
lar coordination, in addition to the slow development of motor
skills [53].

Strategy and method Diagram of the intellectually Healthy students

disabled students

Ceiling height
Ceilings that are higher
at the front of the class
than the back of the
class allow sound to
carry to the back of the
room without an echo;
echoes can confuse Section of sloped ceiling to It is not necessary to design the
intellectually disabled prevent echoes. ceiling diagonally; it can be
students [53]. flat.

Soft music
The way can be elicited
in interaction with a
responsive partner for
reinforcing good
behavior, staying
active, Play soft music
or provide white noise
throughout the day to Soft music can improve It is unnecessary to add a sound
help with sensory relaxation and concentration system for traditional
stimulation. It is in various activities. classrooms.
therefore important to
screen children for
hearing impairment [54]

Fig. 7. The impact of sensory imbalance on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [51,52].

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Strategy and method Diagram of an intellectually Healthy students

disabled student

Architectural
insulation
The classroom must be
insulated (wall and
floor) to avoid noise,
e.g. from air
conditioning units or
fans [56]. Wall insulation for It is unnecessary to insulate the
intellectually disabled traditional classrooms.
students.

Ventilation
Poor ventilation often
leads to health issues
resulting in inattention
in class; therefore, it is
better to use natural
ventilation in the Often, attention to ventilation Ventilation equipment can be
classrooms [57] in the traditional classroom is on ceiling, walls, and floors for
only on natural ventilation ordinary students.
from the sides of the
classroom.
Natural lighting
Controllability of
lighting allows the
teacher to alter lighting
levels. Studies have
shown that sunlight
improves overall
health, increases
Using natural lighting is Lighting in the ceiling can be
productivity, and
beneficial for the health [58]. used as well as beside natural
reduce sick days and
lighting.
attrition rates [57].

Fig. 8. The impact of anxiety, neuroses, and depression on an ideal intellectually disabled students’ classroom (source: authors) [54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62].

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Colors
Colors should be used
to make students feel
more positive,
comfortable, and calm.
Cold colors such as
green and blue can
calm the nerves. Bright
Colors should be comfortable Any kind of color/tone can be
colors such as white on the eyes and induce used in classrooms for healthy
can be used as the main positive effects (e.g. cold or students [61].
color, to which other bright colors) [61].
attractive colors can be
added [60].

Sunspace
Retaining warmth
within the classroom
(without excessive
heating) may positively
affect the psychological
comfort of students. A
sunspace also reduces Using a sunspace retains It is unnecessary to use a
the noise coming into warmth within the classroom sunspace in classrooms for
the classroom from and reduces noise [64]. healthy students [65].
outside [62].

Fig. 8 (continued)

5. Case studies both intellectual and physical disabilities. Some are medically
fragile, and some also have hearing, vision, speech, or motor
5.1. P. Lord school impairments. The school’s design ensures large open rooms
with natural sunlight and bright, vibrant colors. The design
P. Lord School in Omaha is a primary school established to includes ‘‘sensory rooms” that can be tailored to students’ needs
serve students with a range of complex needs, encompassing [33] (see Figs. 9–11).

Fig. 9. Furniture, colors, and materials used in a classroom at P. Lord School (source: authors).

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Fig. 10. The height, air condition system, classroom zones, lighting, and ventilation in a classroom at P. Lord School. (source: authors).

Fig. 11. The toilet is large (about 3 m  3 m) at P. Lord School, suitable for architectural standards for intellectual disability [33].

5.2. Deyang school for deaf & intellectually disabled children teens with speaking and hearing disabilities as well as
intellectually disabled retarded pupils. The college includes
Deyang School for Deaf & Intellectually Disabled Children is teaching, sports activities, and lodging facilities [34] (see
a charitable educational institution, catering for recruiting Figs. 12–14).

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Fig. 12. The plan of the Deyang School for Deaf & Intellectually Disabled Children [35].

Fig. 13. Architectural details of the Deyang School for Deaf & Intellectually Disabled Children [35].

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T. Jebril and Y. Chen
Fig. 14. The ceiling, flooring material, lighting, ventilation, and color at the Deyang School for Deaf & Intellectually Disabled Children (source: authors).
6. Discussion
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that has
explored the effect of the architectural strategies of classrooms
for intellectually disabled students in primary schools regarding
space and environment. Relevant research regarding intellectually
disabled students in primary school is limited, which makes the
comparison of our results with previous studies difficult.
The findings of the current study indicate that there are signif-
icant architectural strategies for intellectually disabled students in
primary schools that affect the space and environment of their
classrooms.
7. Limitations
There was some difficulty in obtaining relevant references as
most of previous studies in this area have focused on the physical
and psychological aspects of intellectually disabled students, with-
out reference to architectural considerations in their data. There-
fore, we had to extract relevant information from medical and
architectural references for this study.
8. Conclusion and recommendations
This paper has examined the architectural dimensions of the
classroom design for intellectually disabled students, attempting
to develop a model an ideal classroom, based on architectural
strategies, for intellectually disabled students. In the developed
model (see Fig. 15), the design shows the combination of all the
architectural and design factors that should be utilized within an
ideal classroom for students with intellectual disabilities. This
model can be summarized in terms of five broad strategies: furni-
ture; adjacent toilets; colors and materials; form; and lighting,
ventilation, and soft music.
Therefore, as has been assumed in the hypothesis there are sig-
nificant architectural strategies for intellectually disabled students
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835
in primary schools that affect the space and environment of their
classrooms will be Strategies related to furniture include the
following:
a) U-shapes, both for furniture layout and elements of the
space, should use frequently. This will give students a sense
of proximity to the teacher and social inclusion.
b) Folding furniture can support students with active learning
environments, which include flexible student seating; this
is important for them to feel comfortable.
c) Seating alcoves can work as a transition area before
entering the classroom. This can benefit students as it
provides an area in which they do not feel lonely. They
can be assisted by supervisors, parents, or even col-
leagues at school here, which helps make the students
feel safer.
d) The edges of all furniture must be smooth (no sharp corners)
to improve safety.
Strategies related to adjacent toilets include the following:
a) It is essential to provide large and adjacent toilets for acces-
sibility: incontinence is more common in children with spe-
cial needs than in typically developing children.
b) A sunspace is key to retaining warmth within the classroom
(avoiding excessive heating) positively affects students’ psy-
chological comfort in the classroom; it also reduces the noise
entering the classroom from outside.
Strategies related to colors and materials include the following:
a) Colors should be used to encourage students to feel positive,
comfortable, and calm. For example, the colors of nature and
cold colors such as green and blue can calm the nerves.
Bright colors such as white can be used as the main color,
to which other attractive colors can be added.
T. Jebril and Y. Chen
Fig. 15. Model the ideal architectural classroom design for intellectually disabled students (source: authors).
b) Floor materials should be comfortable to facilitate move-
ment and should not be slippery; therefore, it is better to
use soft flooring, such as vinyl, because it is safer.
Strategies related to form include the following:
a) Sloped ceilings allow sound to be carried to the back of the
room without an echo; echoes can confuse and perturb
intellectually disabled students.
Strategies related to lighting, ventilation, and soft music
include:
a) Natural lighting allows the teacher to alter lighting levels.
Studies have shown that sunlight and certain types of exte-
rior views improve overall health, increase productivity, and
reduce sick days and attrition rates.
b) It is better to use natural ventilation in the classrooms.
Ventilation often leads to health issues resulting in
absenteeism or inattention in class. In addition to archi-
tectural insulation, walls and floors should be insulated
to avoid noise from, for example, air conditioning units
and fans.
c) Soft music can help students to be more relaxed and more
focused in a range of activities.
Finally, regarding avenues for further research, several other
points can be explored in future studies relating to intellectually
disabled students that have not been covered here:
833
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 12 (2021) 821–835
 In-depth deep studies of colors and sounds: these two factors
are highly significant given the heightened sensitivity of intel-
lectually disabled students.
 Further research is encouraged regarding the provision of
appropriate lighting with accompanying emotional sounds to
help intellectually disabled students, specifically regarding the
use of private or quiet zones to enhance their mood.
 Different innovative classroom shapes should be explored,
including re-arranging the furniture and subsequently assessing
the comfort level of intellectually disabled students.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This study was funded in part by National Key Research and
Development Program (No. 2016YFC0700400). The funding
sources had no role in the design of this study, its execution, inter-
pretation of the data, or decision to submit, results.
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