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Fiber Science Bookby KSV
Fiber Science Bookby KSV
A Textbook of
11O -5201
Salem -5
Examinations
Instructions
Max.Marks
Course
Semester - Duration
Hours / Hours / Continuous
End Total
Week Semester Assessment
Examination
TOTAL 80
RATIONALE
Fibres are the basic raw materials for the manufacture of yarns and fabrics. The ultimate
property of a yarn or fabric depends on the property of the fibre in it. Therefore, it is important
to study the fibre properties. Different fibres exhibit different physical and chemical properties.
This is due to a number of factors like the material of the fibre, its molecular structure and
length and the amount of draft applied to it during its spinning.
Fabrics made from different fibres and their blends are put to specific uses such as summer
wear, winter wear, industrial wear etc., depending on their particular properties.
Therefore it is very important for a textile student to study the science of fibres and the
technology of extraction of natural fibres and the manufacture of man made fibres.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the Course, the students will be able to
Define the terms related to fibres, yarn, fabrics and fibre forming polymers.
Understand the basic concepts and different types of natural fibres used.
Know the terms and definitions related to fibre forming polymers
Understand the important fibre properties and uses of natural and synthetic fibres.
Knows the outline of process sequence in the woollen and worsted systems
Knows the major fibre producing countries and synthetic fibre manufacturers
Gain knowledge on different types of rayon’s including high tenacity and eco friendly
rayons
Understand the sequence of manufacture of nylon ,polyester and acrylic fibres
Gain knowledge about the properties and end uses of spandex, glass, asbestos
carbon and metal fibres widely used
Know s the different techniques of spinning manmade fibres by melt, dry and wet
spinning techniques
DETAILED SYLLABUS
1.1 Definition of textile fibre; classification of textile fibres with regard to origin and
chemical nature-Natural, natural polymer and synthetic fibres with examples. 3 Hrs
Properties required for an ideal textile fibre.
1.2. Introduction to common forms of textile fibres; staple fibre, filament tow;
Types of yarn- spun, continuous filament, mono filament, multi filament, flat
and textured yarn-single, ply and cabled yarns; types of fabrics- woven , knitted
4 Hrs
and non woven fabrics. Definition of terminology related to polymers;
monomer, polymer, copolymer, co monomer, oligomer, repeat unit, mer-
weight, polymerisation, degree of polymerisation, polymer molecular weight.
1.3. Types of fibre forming polymers- homo polymer and copolymer- Types of
copolymer- alternating, random, block and graft copolymers; types of
polymerisation-addition and condensation polymerisation. Important methods 3 Hrs
of spinning man made fibres- melt, dry and wet spinning techniques;
Importance and effects of drawing man made fibres.
1.4 UDY, POY and FOY; Differences between fully drawn yarn and partially oriented
yarn; Dope dyed and delustred fibres. Fibre structure-orientation and
crystallinity; Schematic representations of poorly oriented, moderately 3 Hrs
oriented and highly oriented fibre; Crystalline and amorphous content of
common natural and man made fibres. End uses of textile fibres.
2.1 Cotton producing countries and states in India. Study of environment and soil
necessary for the growth of the cotton plant; cotton cultivation and harvesting.
Stages in the growth and development of the cotton fibre. Cotton maturity- 3 Hrs
matured, half mature, and dead fibres. Effect of maturity in spinning and
further processes.
2.2 Physical structure of cotton; chemical composition of raw cotton. Commercial
classification of world cottons with brief details of their length, fineness, colour
3Hrs
and spinnability; Grading of cottons; Important cotton varieties grown in India
and their characteristics;
2.3 Hybrid cottons; Common pests and diseases that affect the cotton crop.
Chemical damage of cellulose in brief. Physical and chemical properties of
3 Hrs
cotton. Uses of cotton. Organic cotton-cultivation –its advantages; Brief study
of Kapok and fruit fibre.
2.4 Major jute producing countries and states in India. Environment and soil
necessary for the growth of jute plant; Cultivation and harvesting of jute; Steps
in the extraction of the fibre from plant. Physical and chemical properties of
jute. Uses of jute.
Major flax producing countries. Growth conditions for flax plant; Cultivation 4 Hrs
and harvesting of flax; Steps in the extraction of fibre from the plant. Physical
and chemical properties of flax. Uses of flax. Brief study of ramie, hemp, soya
and bamboo fibres.
UNIT –III NATURAL PROTEIN FIBRES - SILK & WOOL .....13 HOURS
3.1 Names of major silk producing countries. Different types of silk- wild and
cultivated silk. Sericulture and life cycle of silk worm. Silk reeling, throwing and
doubling ;Types of silk yarn commonly produced Degumming of silk and
6 Hrs
weighting of silk - Differences between raw and degummed silk .Waste silk-
noils , dupion silk; Outline of process for the manufacture of spun silk. Chemical
composition of silk. Physical and chemical properties of silk. Uses of silk.
3.2 Names of major wool producing countries. Classification of wool with respect to
sheep and by fleece. Grading of wool- American system and the British systems.
Physical and chemical structure of wool. Chemical composition of raw wool.
Production of clean wool from raw wool. Outline of process sequence in the
manufacture of woollen and worsted systems of spinning; differences in the 7 Hrs
characteristics of woollen and worsted yarn and fabric. Virgin wool and
remanufactured wool. Importance of wool marks. Brief study of the felting of
wool and its causes. Methods of prevention of felt. Physical and chemical
properties of wool. Uses of wool.
TEXT BOOKS
Year of Publishing /
S.No Title Author Publisher
Edition
1. Man made fibres R.W.Moncrieff Mc Graw Hill 1975, 6th Edition
2. Textile fibres 2nd Prof V.A.Shenai Sevak publications 2000, 4th Edition
Revised Edition Vol .I
3. Textiles ; Fibres to Prof. Bernard Corbman Mc Graw hill 1993, 9th Edition
Fabric
4. Textile fibres Prof. V.K.Kothari IAFL publications 2000
5. Fibre science and Premamoy Ghosh Tata Mc Graw Hill 2004
Technology
REFERENCES
Year of Publishing /
S.No Title Author Publisher
Edition
PART - B (5 X 12 = 60 Marks)
Note: i) Answer all questions choosing either division (A) or division (B) of each
question
ii) All divisions carry equal marks
21. A How textile fibres are classified. Give examples for each of them. 12
(OR)
B Explain dry spinning and wet spinning principles with neat sketches. 12
A Explain the physical structure of a cotton fibre with a line sketch and 12
22.
write down the chemical composition of cotton.
(OR)
B Explain how jute fibre is extracted from its stalk after harvest? 12
A Explain the production of reeled silk from cocoons. Draw suitable line 12
23.
sketches.
(OR)
B Explain the physical and chemical properties of wool. 12
A Explain in brief the production nylon6 filament yarn from its raw 12
25.
material.
(OR)
B Explain the manufacture of acrylic filament yarn by any one method. 12
PART – B (5 x 12 = 60 Marks)
Note: i) Answer all questions choosing either division (A) or division (B) of each
question
ii) All divisions carry equal marks
21. A Explain briefly the important characteristics of a textile fibre. 12
(OR)
B Explain the importance of drawing synthetic fibres and mention the 12
differences between orientation and crystallinity in textile fibres.
22. A Write the important physical and chemical properties of cotton fibre. 12
(OR)
B Explain the sequence of processes in the extraction of flax fibre. 12
23. A Explain the life cycle of silk worm with necessary sketches. 12
(OR)
B Explain how wool is classified by sheep and by fleece. 12
24. A Explain in detail the wet spinning and post spinning of viscose rayon 12
with a sketch.
(OR)
B Write the physical and chemical properties of Viscose rayon. 12
25. A Explain the steps in the manufacture of Nylon66 filament yarn from its 12
raw materials.
(OR)
B Write the physical and chemical properties of polyester and mention 12
their uses.
1.1. INTRODUCTION:
Textile fibres satisfy one of the basic needs of man, viz, clothing. Textile fibres were used
merely for clothing, but today they find a wide variety of uses. The present day applications
include apparel, household textiles, industrial textiles, high- performance textiles, textiles in the
medical field, geotextiles, reinforcement textiles, optic-fibres tele communications and so on.
Such wide uses are due to the efforts of man to invent newer fibre with newer properties.
ii. Natural fibre: A fibre that occurs naturally or is produced by nature is called a natural
fibre. Natural fibres may be animal, vegetable or mineral origin, e.g. cotton, wool, silk, etc.,
iii. Man-made fibre: A fibre manufactured by man, is a man-made fibre, e.g. rayon,
nylon, polyester, acrylic, acetate, spandex fibres, etc.
iv. Natural polymer fibre: A fibre manufactured by man from naturally occurring fibre-
forming polymer, e.g. the rayon’s, cellulose – ester fibres, the azlon fibres, etc.
v. Regenerated fibre: A man made fibre produced from a naturally occurring fibre-
forming polymer by a process that includes regeneration of the original polymer structure,
e.g. the rayon and azlon fibres. Natural polymer by chemical process of the purification
/modification of the polymer, bring back the original (natural) polymer structure during fibre
formation (or regeneration).
vi. Synthetic fibre: A man-made fibre produced from polymer built up by man from
chemical elements or compounds. E.g. polyester, polyamide, polyolefin, polyurethane fibres
etc.
vii. Refractory fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, which can withstand without
degradation, heat at temperature at or below which other fibres would normally char, melt
and / or degrade, e.g. carbon (graphite), glass, ceramic, metal fibres, etc.
viii. Organic fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, composed essentially of carbon and
hydrogen often also with oxygen and nitrogen. Almost all the commonly used textile fibres
are organic. In the case of natural fibres, all the fibres derived from “ living” matter, such as
plants and animals, are organic. All the natural animal and vegetable fibres and the natural –
polymer and synthetic polymer fibres are organic fibres.
ix. Inorganic fibre: A fibre, natural or man- made, composed of one or more types of atoms in
which carbon and hydrogen do not occur together. In the case of the natural fibres, those of
mineral or non-living origin are inorganic fibres; an example is asbestos, obtained from
certain naturally occurring rocks. Among the man- made fibres, glass, carbon, ceramic and
metal are examples of inorganic fibres.
1. Fibre Length:
All textile fibres must have a minimum length: This length is essential for setting the roller
drafting system in the spinning machines. The staple length of the cotton ranges between ½” to
1¾”. The longer fibres can be utilized for spinning finer counts and produces a stronger yarn due
to high interfibre friction. The shorter fibres require more twist for binding the fibres together
during spinning than longer staple fibres. All staple fibres produced for required length (36mm,
40mm, 44mm etc) can be processed and spun into a spun yarn.
2. Tensile Strength:
The textile fibre is processed through several opening and cleaning machines during
spinning. The yarn passes through healds and reeds and are subjected to severe stresses and
strain during weaving and knitting. The fibre and the yarn made out of it has to withstand these
strains during conversion to yarn and fabric. A stronger yarn will withstand, whereas a weaker
yarn will break and the fabric produced will be too weak for normal use. Thus strength is an
essential characteristic for all textile fibres.
3. Fineness (FP):
This is a very essential quality required for a textile fibre. The finer the fibre the better the
product will be. The fineness of a fibre results in softness of the product made. A given fibre may
vary widely in fineness or diameter (e.g. cotton). A finer fibre can be spun into a fine yarn. The
fineness of cotton is expressed in micrograms/inch (Micronaire value). Artificial fibres can be
manufactured uniformly fine e.g. polyester nylon etc
4. Flexibility (EP):
The fibre must be pliable or flexible enough so that it will easily bend without any
damage to itself. There are many fibres available which have both length and strength, but do
not posses the desired flexibility (e.g. glass fibre). Such fibres are difficult to bend and are it is
stiff so that it may break during spinning. Flexibility is derived from fineness. Even very fine glass
fibres will have the desired flexibility. A pliable fibre will spin and weave well and makes the
product smooth and soft.
5. Durability (EP):
The fibre that is to be used in the textile industry must be durable i.e, have a sufficiently
long useful life, so that its valuable qualities are not lost in a very short time. Textile materials
must be durable for some reasonable years for normal wearing purposes and also for reasons
of economy.
6. Availability (EP):
The fibre must be available in abundance at a reasonable price and very near the site of
the textile industry, so that it can be used as a useful raw material. A fibre with all essential
properties, but rarely available cannot be used for manufacturing purposes in a textile industry.
8. Lustre (DP): The luster or shine improves the appearance of a fibre. Of all the natural fibres,
silk has the maximum luster. The natural fibres except silk are generally regarded as ‘dull’. The
man-made fibres are usually ‘lustrous’ and can be made to be ‘dull’ if required. The luster of
cotton can be improved by a chemical process called ‘mercerisation’, if required.
9. Elongation (DP)
When a fibre is pulled or stretched it shows an increase in length until it breaks. This
increase in length is called elongation. Fibre elongation is an important property because the
fibre is expected to withstand loads and pulls during its normal every day life which may
increase its length. Elongation varies considerably from fibre to fibre. A fibre that shows poor
elongation will be brittle (or will break easily). Elasticity refers to the ability of a fibre to recover its
original dimensions or shape form and elongated position when the load applied to it is
removed.
For a product whose end use is in making bagging material, a fibre with the least amount
of elongation should be preferred, e.g. jute bags, rice bags. For a product, which is to be used
for making elastic bands, rubber fibre, which has the maximum elongation and elasticity should
be preferred.
mechanical processes particularly when used as short staple fibres. These staple fibres are
usually mixed with natural fibres like cotton or wool, as crimp is essential for better cohesion and
grip during spinning. Thus crimp is a desirable property that can be expected of a fibre.
a) Staple Fibres: Fibres, natural or man-made, which are of limited length are called staple
fibres. The natural staple fibres are variable in length. The man-made fibres have variable
“cut-length of 36, 38, 40mm etc, e.g., natural fibres - cotton, wool, jute, coir etc.; man-made
fibres-rayon staple fibre, polyester staple fibre, acrylic staple fibre etc.
b) Filament : A fibre of indefinite length is called a filament, e.g., continuous filament silk
and all continuous filament man-made fibres.
c) Yarn: A product of substantial length and relatively small cross-section consisting of
fibres or filaments and with or without twist.
d) Continuous Filament Yarn: An assembly of one or more filaments that run the whole
length of the yarn, e.g., silk and man-made filaments yarns.
e) Monofilament years: A yarn that consists of only one filament. It is normally thicker than
an individual filament in a multifilament yarn, e.g., nylon bristles (as used in tooth-brushes),
nylon sewing yarn, fishing line etc.
f) Multifilament yarn: A continuous filament yarn consisting of more than one filament,
e.g., silk and man made yarns containing many filaments.
g) Tow: An assembly of continuous filaments of man-made fibre, usually very much larger
than that required for a yarn. A tow is usually converted to staple fibre or to a strand
containing relatively short fibres arranged parallel to the strand axis (top or sliver).
h) Thermoplastic Fibre: A fibre which can be deformed by the application of heat and
pressure without the occurrence of chemical change. The deformation is reversible, e.g.
nylon, polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.
i) Flat Yarn: A flat yarn is a fully drawn continuous filament yarn substantially without twist
and untextured, e.g. nylon, polyester, polyolefin continuous filament yarn that has been fully
drawn but not textured.
j) Textured Yarn: A continuous filament or other type of yarn that has been treated to
introduce durable crimps, coils, loops and any other fine distortions along the length of the
filaments of yarn, e.g. false-twist textured yarns, air-textured yarns, etc.
k) Spun yarn: A spun yarn is an assembly of parallelised staple fibres which has been
given a twist in order to hold the fibres compactly and to give strength to the spun yarn.
l) Single yarn: A thread produced by one unit of a spinning machine or of a silk reel is
called single yarn, e.g. ring-frame yarn, yarn from a draw-twist machine, etc.
m) Folded Yarn or Doubled Yarn or Piled Yarn: A yarn in which two or more single yarns
are plied and twisted together in one operation, e.g. a two-fold yarn, or a two-ply yarn, a
three-fold yarn or a three-ply yarn, etc.
n) Cabled Yarn: Two or more folded yarns twisted together in one or more operations is
called a cabled yarn.
o) Fabric (Textile): A manufactured assembly of fibres and/or yarn which has substantial
surface area in relation to its thickness and sufficient mechanical strength to give the
assembly inherent cohesion, e.g. woven fabric, knitted fabric, and non woven fabric.
p) Woven fabric: A fabric consisting of yarns interlacing each other generally t right angles
to each other. The interlacing yarns are known as warp and weft.
q) Warp: i) Threads lengthways in a fabric as woven, (ii) A number of threads of long
length and approximately parallel, in various forms and intended for weaving knitting, sizing,
dyeing, etc.
r) Weft (Us-filling: UK-woof, Shute, Shoot): (i) Threads width ways in a fabric as non
woven. (ii) Yarn intended for use as in (i).
s) Weave: The pattern of interlacing of warp and weft in a woven fabric, e.g.: plain weave,
twill weave, satin weave, etc.
t) Knitted Fabrics: A fabric made up of loops of one or more threads, the loops
enmeshing with each other.
u) Non-Woven Fabric: In general, non-woven fabrics are normally made from flat webs or
balls of fibres. The fibres are bonded together by the use of adhesives or by mechanical,
thermal or stitch bonding and so on.
a) Polymer: The fibre forming substance of organic fibres is called POLYMER. A polymer may
be defined as a chemical compound of large size and molecular weight, which consists of small
molecules linked together by covalent (strong chemical) bonds. Other names for polymer are
macromolecule, glant molecules, long-chain molecule etc., e.g., cellulose, proteins, polyamide,
polyester, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile and so on. Polymers may be linear branched or cross
0linked (Net-work). Fibre –forming polymers are linear polymers. Linear means ‘like a line’. If a
fibre must have a high length to thickness (L.T) ratio, the molecules making it up most also have
a high L:T ratio, or they must be ‘linear’ i.e., long and thin.
Example of Monomers
Ethylene: CH2 = CH2 Adipic Acid: HOOC(CH2)4 COOH
Hexamethylene Diamine : H2N(CH2)6 NH2 Propylene : CH2 = CH – CH3
Terephthalic Acid : HOOC (C6H4) COOH Ethylene glycol: HO(CH2)2 OH
d) Repeat Unit : The chemical unit that repeats continuously along the polymer chain is known
as ‘repeat unit’. the chemical formulae and repeat units of some common polymers are given in
the following table:
e) Mer Weight : The molecular weight of the repeat unit of a polymer is called ‘mer weight’. The
table above gives the mer weights of the polymers mentioned.
(I) Additional Polymerisation: When one or more monomers react together under specific
conditions to form a polymer without the liberation of a byproducts, the polymerization is called
as addition polymerisation. Examples:
Addition
Polymerisation of Vinyl Chloride : n(CH2 = CHCI) -------------------------- (CH2 – CHCI)n
Polymerisation (AP) Polyvinyl Chloride
AP
Polymerisation of Ethylene : n(CH2 = CH2) -------------------------- (CH2 – CH2)n
Polyethylene
ii) Condensation Polymerisation: When one or more monomers react together under specific
conditions to form a polymer with the liberation of a byproduct (usually a small molecule such as
H2O, HCl, CH3 OH etc) the polymerisation is called as condensation polymerisation. Examples:
Condensation
1) n[H2N (CH2)5 COOH ------------------> [HN (CH2)5 CO]n + (n-1) H20
amino-caproic acid Polymerisation Nylong 6 + Water
CP
2) n[HOOC(C6H4) COOH] + n[HO (CH2)2 OH] ----> [OC(C6H4)COO(CH2)2O]n+ (2n-1) H20
Terephthalic acid (TPA) + Ethylene glycol (EG) Polyethylene Terephthalate+ Water
(PET)
h) Polymer molecular weight (M) : The average molecular weight can be calculated as the
product of the mer weright of the polymer and its average degree of polymerization.
Thus, M = DP x mer weight, where M is the average molecular weight of the polymer and DP is
the average degree of polymerization.
Examples of Oligomers:
i. The ‘grafts’ in graft copolymers are usually oligomers of a monomer other than the
one making up the main polymer chain. In zefran fibre the grafts are oligomers of polyvinyl
pyrrolidone.
ii. The manufacture of polyester is normally done in two steps: First the esterification
and then the polycondensation. The first step consists of oligomers of diglycol terephthalate,
which is a product of the initial chemical reaction between terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol.
i. A homopolymer is a polymer consisting of only one type of monomer, that is, monomers of
the same chemical structure. Homopolymers can be represented schematically as below:
-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A
where ‘A’ stands for a monomer molecule. A few examples of homopolymers and their chemical
formulae are given in the following table. In each of them the repeat unit is that of only one
monomer type.
II) A Copolymer is a polymer which consists of two or more different types of monomers, that is,
monomers of different chemical structures. There are basically four types of fibre forming
copolymers: 1) Alternating copolymer, 2) Random copolymer 3) Block copolymer, 4) Graft
copolymer
-A-B-A-A-B-B-B-A-A-B-B-A-B-A-B-A-A-A-B-A-B-A-A-
d) Graft Copolymer: A graft copolymer is a polymer which consists of a main backbone chain
of one type of monomer and grafts of oligomers of another type of monomer attached to the
main chain. This can schematically be represented as:
The equipment required for wet-spinning consists of a supply tank, a metering pump,
filter, spinnerette and coagulating bath. A typical wet-spinning system is shown in the figure.
WET SPINNING
The viscose rayon is spun in the greatest quantity by this method. High-tenacity rayon
and polynosic rayon are also produced by this method. With different formulae of the
coagulating bath. Other fibres produced by this method include cuprammonium rayon,
regenerated proteins, alginate fibre, modacrylic fibre DYNEL, many commercial acrylic fibres,
polyvinylchloride fibre, polyvinyl alcohol fibre and segmented polyurethane (Spandex) fibres.
The rate of production by this method of spinning is of the order of 80m/min. Higher speeds
have been used for some fibres.
After coagulation, the filaments are collected and stretched continuously outside the
coagulation bath. This process of stretching or drawing is done for all man-made fibre during
manufacture as it gives the desired strength to the continuous filament yarn. The degree of
stretch or ‘draw ratio’ will depend on the type of fibre and the end use requirements. In some
cases, (e.g. polynosic rayon) the stretching is done in the coagulating bath itself.
The polymer solution or dope is filtered between the metering pump and spinnerette. The
hot air enters the drying chamber at a temperature higher than the boiling point of the solvent,
so that the solvent is removed leaving solidified filaments. The fibres usually produced by this
method of spinning are cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate and acrylic fibres. The rate of
production is about 300 m/min.
The polymer chips consist of small granules or thin flakes; the small size is necessary,
since thermal conductivity of the material is low and large places would create melting
difficulties. They are fed from a “hopper” into a heating grid and drops of molten polymer fall
through into a heated sump or molten polymer pool. The filaments are extruded, solidify and
pass through a cooling chamber in which they are cooled by a current of cold air. The cooled
filaments are combined at the haul-off roller and led to the take-up device for package.
In the case of nylon, the process takes place in an atmosphere of nitrogen, since the
effect of oxygen on the melt is to discolour and finally degrade the polymer. Nylon, polyester,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinylidene chloride fibre, Saran and glass fibres are melt spun.
Melt spinning has the advantage of needing no chemical baths or solvent recovery systems. It
also achieves the highest spinning speeds of about 900 - 1200 m/min. As with the other two
methods of spinning, the extruded yarn on spools is taken to draw-twisting machines for
stretching to the desired degree.
filaments are formed either by coagulation (wet spinning) or by solidification (dry and melt
spinning). In this just-spun state, the linear molecules in the filaments are randomly arranged
and the yarn is useless for textile purposes as it is too weak to withstand the tensions of normal
textile processes such as warping, weaving, knitting, etc. The just-spun yarn is called as an
‘undrawn yarn’ (UDY) or low-oriented yarn (LOY).
In order to make the yarn suitable for normal use, it has to be stretched or drawn.
Drawing causes the linear molecules in the fibre to be arranged more or less parallel to the fibre
axis and closer to each other. This arrangement allows forces of attraction to take place
between adjacent molecules (intermolecular forces). The drawn yarn is thus much stronger and
capable of withstanding further textile processes. The arrangement of molecules in an undrawn
fibre and a drawn fibre and the reduction in the filament diameter as a result of the drawing are
shown in the following figure:
This reduction in diameter in a fibre occurs abruptly at a ‘neck’, during drawing. This is
shown in another figure. A stationary pin or guide called draw pin may be used to stabilize the
position of the neck in the drawing processes used for synthetic fibres such as nylon and
polyester. The changes that take place in a fibre during drawing can be as follows:
i.) The molecules are arranged so that they are more or less parallel to the fibre axis.
ii.) The molecules are much closer to each other so that intermolecular forces of
attraction can readily take effect. The more the intermolecular forces of attraction the
stronger is the fibre and vice - versa.
iii.) The diameter of the fibre is reduced. This means that the count (denier) of the fibre
also decreases:
1.9. Drawing in fibre manufacture: The different stages and the different ways of drawing
The drawing operation may be carried out at any one or more of the following stages
during manufacture of fibre depending on the polymer and the end use of the fibre:
iii. In the high-speed melt-spinning of polyester, the take-up speed is increased to about
3000 metres / minute and the product is called partially oriented yarn (POY). This POY is
meant for texturising by the draw-texturising process, in which a drawing operation is
carried out along with the operation of texturising in one machine.
2) Spin-drawing process
Further developments in the melt spinning have led to the process known as spin
drawing. In this process a standard drawing arrangement consisting of a feed roll and a draw
roll, is introduced between the haul-off roller and take-up operation. The take-up speed in spin
drawing can reach values of about 6,000 m/min and the final product is a flat, fully oriented yarn
(FOY), suitable for further textile use, e.g. weaving, knitting etc. The fibres used in spin-drawing
machinery are nylon, polyester, polypropylene and so on.
A typical spin-drawing machine is shown separately in a figure. The extruded filament
are cooled as usual, collected, oiled (i.e. spin finish is applied) and led around the haul-off roller
to a feed-Godet rotating at x rpm and then to a draw-Godet, rotating at y rpm (y is greater than
x). The yarn is generally given four or five wraps around the pair of
Godet rollers to prevent slippage during the drawing process. The yarn is stretched to its natural
draw-ratio to give a fully-oriented yarn (FOY). It is conditioned by passing it through a steam
chamber and finally taken up as a large package.
For natural fibres, these factors are controlled entirely by nature, and their behaviour
during use. For man-made fibres, the factors that control fibre behaviour are mostly controlled
by man. This is particularly true for synthetic fibres, which include a very wide range of fibres
types and their properties.
Orientation in textile fibres: The term “orientation” of molecules in fibre may be defined as the
arrangement or alignment of the molecules with respect to the fibre-axis. A perfectly oriented
fibre would have all its molecules aligned or arranged exactly parallel to the fibre axis. A very
poorly oriented fibre will have its molecules arranged randomly with respect to the fibre axis. The
textile fibres are highly oriented, moderately oriented and poorly oriented.
In the highly oriented fibres the molecules are aligned more or less parallel to the fibre
axis. This arrangement allows the formation of a great number of inter-molecular bonds and thus
results in a strong fibre. Examples of highly oriented fibres are flax, ramie, high-tenacity
synthetic fibres etc.
In the poorly oriented fibres, the molecules are arranged in a nearly random manner
and there would be few inter-molecular bonds. The result is a weak fibre, probably just above
the borderline of the acceptable strength range for normal textile use. Examples of poorly
oriented fibres are wool, acetate and the azlon fibres (regenerated protein).
All the three types of orientation are found commonly in textile fibres and a perfectly
oriented fibre is shown separately in a figure.
Crystallinity in textile fibres: Crystallinity may be defined as the extent to which molecules
within a fibre are arranged in an orderly manner with respect to each other. As fibre molecules
are linear in shape it is possible for them to be organized in perfect three-dimensional order.
However, orderly arrangement is not possible throughout the length of the molecules and only
different portions of them are arranged in such a manner. It is thus possible for a given molecule
to successively pass through regions of orderly and disorderly arrangement of the fibre
molecules. The regions of orderly molecular arrangement are called ‘crystalline regions’. The
extent to which this arrangement occurs in a given fibre is called as the degree of crystallinity.
The regions of disorderly arrangement are called the ‘amorphous regions’ in the fibre structure.
The crystalline regions of a fibre contribute to properties such as strength, chemical and
thermal resistance of a fibre. The amorphous regions in a fibre contribute to properties like
moisture absorption, dye absorption etc.
For natural fibres, the process adopted by nature for arranging the molecules in a fibres,
is not clearly understood. For man-made fibres, the crystallization starts immediately after fibre
formation (by regeneration or solidification during spinning) and increases during further
operations such as drawing or heat-setting etc.
Estimated content
S.No. Fibre General fibre Structure
Crystalline Amorphous
1 Cotton Crystalline 65-70 35-30
2 Flax Very Crystalline More than 75 Less than 25
3 Silk Crystalline 65-70 35-30
4 Wool Very amorphous 25-30 75-70
5 Viscose Amorphous 35-40 65-60
6 Acetate Amorphous 40 60
7 Nylon Very Crystalline 65-85 35-15
8 Polyester Very Crystalline 65-85 30-15
9 Acrylic Very Crystalline 70-80 30-20
Very amorphous in the relaxed state, very crystalline in the
10 Spandex
extended (stretched) state
The figure shows the perfect three-dimensional arrangement of molecules that may
occur within a given crystalline region. Regular inter-molecular bonds (forces of attraction) occur
in such arrangements. The crystalline regions or ‘crystallities’ therefore contribute to the
strength, chemical and thermal resistance of the fibre. In general, the greater the degree of
crystallinity, the better are these properties. A highly crystalline fibre may not be well-oriented
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College Department of Textile Technology 27
Fibre Science And Technology
unless subjected to drawing. The drawing and heat-setting of man-made fibres, in general,
induce the formation of a larger number of crystalline regions or the existing crystallites to grow
in size, where as the sudden cooling (or quenching) of an melt-extruded fibre prevents the
growth of crystals. This is the technique practiced for the melt-spun fibres so that the drawing
operation is smooth and the resulting yarn is more uniform.
In the manufacture of regular staple- fibre polyester, the amount of stretch given is such
that its strength and modulus are comparable with those of the fibre to which it is to be blended.
The draw ratio for polyester staple fibre is in the range 1:3 to 1:4. In the production of continuous
filament yarn for ordinary apparel and household use, the degree of stretch is usually higher, as
the yarn may be required to withstand the tensions during warping and weaving. The draw-
ration in this case is higher at around 1:5.
1. Apparel textiles – textile material that is used for the production of dress wear.
2. Household textiles – all types of textiles, other than apparel textiles, that are used at
home. This includes bedsheets, mattresses, pillows and their protective covers, quilts,
textile mats, carpets, door and window curtains (screens), table cloths, textiles used in
household cleaning, etc.,
3. Industrial textiles – textiles used in industry and for all non-household or apparel
purposes. The range is very extensive, and few examples are listed below.
a) Geotextiles – The textiles used in civil engineering constructions such as roads,
railways, canals, etc.
b) Safety and protective textiles – The textiles used in weatherproof, winter
clothing, protective work clothing, textiles for protection from heat and fire, from
impact, pressure and harmful radiations, space shuttle uniforms, textile
packaging, etc.
c) Textile in transportation – Automotive upholstery, seat belts, canvas,
tarpaulins, tyrecord, etc.
d) Filtration textiles – The textiles used in the filtration of all kinds of chemicals in
gaseous or liquid form.
e) Medical textiles – The textiles used for medical purposes such as bandage
material, sutures, operation and emergency room textiles, hospital bed linen and
blankets, synthetic skin etc.
f) Military and defence textiles – All types of textiles used in the armed forces
such as parachutes, uniforms, belts, ropes, ballistic protection (fabric for bullet-
proof vests), military tents, covers, helmets etc.
g) Textile in sports and recreation – Textiles used for active sportswear covers for
domes and stadium, textile material in sports and games equipment (e.g.
raquets, nets, court curtains), race car drivers uniforms, fabric for hot air balloons,
fabric for sport shoes, fishing nets and sleeping bags etc.
c) Harvesting: This is the process of picking the pods or bolls from the plant. Since all the
cotton bolls do not open at the same time, only those that have burst open are ready for picking.
Picking is done by hand or by mechanical pickers. In India, picking is mostly done by hand.
Mechanical pickers have not been successful because of the following reasons:
1) All the bolls in the crop do not mature at the same time. They are left on the plant until all
of them are open. During this time the fibres in the open bolls become discoloured and
dirty due to long exposure to sun and the weather. Also many fibres may be lost due to
their flying away from the boll.
2) Mechanical pickers will collect a large amount of trash such as leaves and stem.
3) The capital investment is high.
The outer layer that appears first consists of the cutcle and a thin wall below it called the
primary wall. The main body of the fibre consisting of the daily growth layers called the
secondary wall. The central hollow space is called the lumen. The successive deposits of the
daily growth-layers of the secondary cell-wall can be seen in cross-section as the daily growth-
rings, as shown in the figure. As each cotton fibre is a result of the development of individual
cells on the surface of the seed , the fibre is described as unicellular.
The number of convolutions varies form one cotton variety to another and usually lies in
the range 40-60/cm. The presence of convolutions in cotton can be seen under a microscope.
Convolutions give cotton an uneven fibre surface and therefore increases inter-fibre friction. This
enables the spinning of fine cotton yarns of adequate strength. The direction of twist of the
convolutions is usually random, some being left-handed and others right-handed.
Mature fibre
If the soil conditions and the environment are good during the cultivation of cotton and
there is no hindrance to the growth of the plant, a large number of growth layers are deposited
inside the secondary wall. The secondary wall will be well-developed and thick. As a result the
lumen will be very thin. This fibre is called a mature fibre. Thus, a mature fibre has a well-
developed thick cell wall and a very thin central canal or lumen.
Immature Fibre
If the deposition of daily growth-layers is stopped due to attack by insects, pests or plant
disease, the result is an immature fibre. In this case, the cell wall is very thin and the central
hollow space is very wide (see figure). Immature cotton is also called dead cotton.
Half –mature
Cotton fibres that falls in between those of mature and immature fibres are described as
half-mature. i.e. partially developed fibre.
a) Spinning: The main trouble caused by the presence of Immature fibres during spinning is
the formation of neps. Immature fibres are very weak, flexible and during the process of ginning,
blow-room and carding, these immature fibres tend to tangle with and bend over each other to
form minute (very small) balls of tightly entangled fibres celled neps. Neps once formed cannot
be removed during the further processes during spinning and results in a poor yarn, poor
uniformity and a bad appearance on yarn surface.
b) Dyeing: Fibre immaturity also affects the shade in dyed yarn and cloth, which show whitish
or light-coloured specks (dots) at the neps. As the neps consist of immature fibres with a very
thin cell wall, no dyeing can occur at the neppy portions. A dyed fabric having too many neppy
specks will look very bad in appearance.
Thus, the cotton used for spinning must preferably contain a very small percentage of
immature fibre. Whatever the variety of cotton and good conditions of growth of the plant, cotton
as a natural fibre, will always contain some small quantity of immature fibres. It is the normal
practice to test the cotton for immature fibre content before purchasing the cotton.
a) Cuticle
The cuticle is the outermost layer of the fibre. It consists of wax, pectic material and
mineral matter. The waxy nature of the cuticle enables it to adhere well to the primary wall. The
inert nature of this waxy layer protects the fibre from chemical and other degrading agents. Raw
cotton, i.e cotton that has not been given any chemical treatment, is therefore difficult to wet. To
allow easy wetting of the fibre and make it suitable for bleaching, dyeing and finishing
treatments, its cuticle layer is removed by scouring process.
b) Primary wall
The layer immediately below the cuticle is called the primary wall. This wall is composed
of very fine threads of cellulose, called fibrils. A fibril is a very tiny fibre and consists of a bundle
of cellulose molecules (see figure). Two sets of fibrils are present in the primary wall layer and
these are arranged in a criss-cross pattern. Each set spiralling the fibre at about 70. This
spiraling network imparts strength to the wall and protects the fibre from the action of alkalies
and chemicals.
c) Secondary wall:
This wall is situated below the primary wall. It is the main bulk of the fibre composed of
cellulose. The wall consists of concentric layers of spiraling cellulosic fibrils and divided into
three zones, the S1 layer, the S2 layer and the S3 layer.
i) The S1 layer: This is also called the ‘transition layer’ or ‘winding layer’ and lies just below the
primary wall. This layer is about 0.5m thick. It consists of bundles of fibrils, which spiral the
fibre axis at angles of 40 to 70
ii) The S2 layer: This is the main part of the cell wall and is about 5m thick. It consists of
several layers, each composed of fibrils which spiral the axis at 25 to 40 angle. The mean spiral
angle of the fibrils in the S2 layer is about 30.
iii) The S3 layer: This layer is seen clearly only in very mature cotton fibres and is about .5
thick. The mean spiral angle of the fibrils is much below 30. This layer is located as the last
layer of the secondary wall but just before the lumen.
Much of the strength and stability of the cotton fibre, yarn and fabrics made out of it is
mainly due to the secondary wall of the fibre. The secondary wall also contributes to the dyeing
ability of the fibre, a mature fibre dyeing much deeper than an immature fibre.
Reversals: The direction of the fibrils in the secondary wall of the cotton fibre follows a helical
path around the fibre axis. Sometimes given layer of fibrils may suddenly change direction form
‘S’ to the ‘Z’ helix. The point at which this occurs is called a reversal. Reversals occur in cotton
with a frequency of 10 to 15 per centimeter of fibre length.
iv) Lumen:
The hollow canal (the empty space) running the length of the fibre center is called lumen.
It is the innermost part of the fibre. During fibre growth, the lumen is filled with cell sap. The cell
sap is composed of solutions or proteins, sugar, mineral and waste products. When the boll
bursts open, the fibre begins to dry. The cell sap evaporates and leaves a hollow space. In a
fully developed structure the cell sap will be completely utilized and a solid fibre with a very
narrow lumen is formed. This may appear as a discontinuous line under the microscope due to
the collapsing of the fibre.
v) Chinese Cotton:
This class of cotton is available in China. This is the shortest and coarsest cotton. The
staple length of this cotton varies from ½” to ¾” and used for spinning very coarse yarn.
The above classification is based on the first geographical origins of the different classes
of cotton. However, today many of the cotton producing countries are cultivating most of the
above varieties.
Grading of Cotton
The different cotton varieties available in the world vary widely in quality. This is due to:
(a) Differences in the soil quality, (b) Differences in climatic conditions and, (c) Differences in
cultivation practices in different countries.
The wide variation in quality of cotton makes it necessary to be graded into specific
categories or groups. Such grading will help the spinner to quickly decide whether a given cotton
is suitable or not, with respect to both quality and cost, for spinning a given count. Cotton
grading is thus very important for practical and commercial purposes. There are two methods
based on: (1) Staple length, (2) Quality characteristics.
a) Colour: The colour of cotton is governed by (1) The variety, (2) The soil used for its
cultivation, (3) The extent of exposure to sunlight during cultivation, (4) The weather conditions
during its growth and so on. The best cotton is extra white in colour. The colours referred in this
method of grading are given below in decreasing order of merit.
Colour Notation
Extra white Ex. White (the best grade)
Extra white White
Ligth Spotted Lt.Sp.
Spotted Sp.
Tinged Tg.
Yellow stained Ys.
Light Grey Lt. Grey
Grey Grey (the worst grade)
b) Trash content:
The trash contains materials like bits of leaves, stem, hull, bark, broken seeds, oil and
dust. The cotton can be graded on the basis of ifs trash content: as follows:
c) Quality of Ginning:
During ginning, there are chances of production of neps and naps in cotton. These are
mainly due to immature cotton and lack of process control during ginning. Neps are small
tangled knots of fibres that are visible as specks in loose fibre, yarn and fabric. Naps are large
clumps or matted masses of fibres that contribute to a rough appearance. If there are too many
neps in cotton, it is called neppy cotton. Generally cotton is graded on the basis of both colour
and trash, e.g., LMTg, GMLt Grey, etc.
Tenacity
2.5% Spinnin
Uniformi Micronair (3 mm Tras
S.No Cotton span g limit
ty e value gauge h
. Variety length (count
ratio (%) (fineness) Stelometer) (%)
(mm) in Ne
( g f / tex )
SHORT STAPLE –B (20 mm and below)
1 Bengal Desi 17.5 49 7.0 19.0 7.0 Below
10s
SHORT STAPLE –A (20.5- 24.5mm)
2 Georani 23.5 47 5.0 24.5 6.0 17s K
(G6)
3 Jayadhar 23.5 47 5.0 23.0 6.0 17s K
4 Y-1 24.5 48 4.7 26.0 6.0 20s K
5 Digvijay 24.5 49 4.3 27.5 6.0 20s K
6 J-34 24.5 47 4.2 24.0 9.0 20s K
7 Jyothi 24.5 47 4.4 25.5 6.0 20s K
MEDIUM STAPLE (25 - 29 mm)
8 Ira 5166 27.0 48 3.8 25.0 7.0 30s K
9 MCU 7 28.0 48 4.2 25.5 6.0 30s K
Hybrid 4
10 28.5 48 4.1 25.0 6.0 30s K
(H.A.)
40s K
11 Mech.11 29.0 48 3.8 27.5 5.0
40s C
LONG STAPLE (29.5 – 32.5 mm)
60s K
12 MCU5 32.5 46 3.5 26.5 5.0
60s C
EXTR LONG STAPLE (33mm and above)
80s K
13 MCU5 33.5 46 3.7 26.0 5.0
80s C
100s K
14 Varalakshmi 35.0 46 3.4 29.0 6.0
100s C
100s K
15 DCH 32 36.0 45 3.4 30.0 6.0
100s C
Above
16 Suvin 37.5 48 3.1 38.0 3.0
100s
NOTE:
a) 2.5% span length is an important length characteristic of cotton obtained by means
of an instrument called the digital fibrograph. This length is very important as it is
used in setting the drafting rollers.
b) Uniformity ratio is a value related to the variability in cotton fibre length.
c) The micronaire value is a quantitative measure of the fineness of cotton fibres.
Micronaire values are usually given in terms of micrograms per inch ( g / inch = 10-
6
grams per inch ).
d) Tenacity is related to the fibre strength. It is used for comparing tensile strength of
different cotton fibres. The Stelometer is an instrument to find out the bundle
strength of cotton fibres in gram force per tex ( g f / tex ).
2.8. Chemical composition of Raw Cotton
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College Department of Textile Technology 38
Fibre Science And Technology
Cotton is of vegetable origin and consists mainly of cellulose. Other constituents are
protein, wax, ash and minor substances. The composition of dry cotton is as follows.
Oxycellulose
The products resulting from the reaction of cellulose with oxidizing agents such as
hypochlorite solutions are called oxycellulose. Various types of oxycelluloses are formed when
cellulose reacts with different oxidizing agents and under varying conditions of reactions;
i) Cellulose + alkaline hypochlorite solution Oxycellulose with acidic properties and
low reducing power.
ii) Cellulose + acidic hypochlorite solution Oxycellulose with high reducing power.
The chemical structures and properties of some types of oxycellulose are given in the
table below.
Hydrocellulose
When cellulose is treated with mineral acids (hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.)
under certain conditions a partial hydrolysis of the cellulose molecule takes place, breaking the
glycosidic links (the oxygen bridges) at many places. The product is called hydrocellulose and
consists of cellulose with a reduced DP. Hydrocellulose has high reducing power.
Partial hydrolysis of cellulose lowers its DP and hence reduces the strength of fibre. The
extent of breakdown (or damage) of cellulose depends on the pH, concentration, time and
temperature of treatment of the acid causing the hydrolysis. Cellulosic textiles should therefore
be neutralized property and washed after any treatment with mineral acids, or else
hydrocellulose will develop gradually on storage and cause tendering (weakening) of the
material. To minimize the chemical damage during processing of cellulosic textiles, greatest
care in use of chemical and process control is essential.
2.11. Biological damage to cotton: Insects and diseases affecting the cotton plant
To get a good yield in cotton cultivation, it is necessary to have good control over the
insects and diseases that affect the cotton plant during its growth.
a) Damages by insects: The cotton plant is attacked by a number of insects. Out of these, the
serious damage causes to the plant are (1) pink-boll worm, (2) spotted boll worm and
(3) cotton boll weevil.
i) Pink boll worm: This insect causes a lot of loss to cotton crop. It feeds on cotton seeds and
prevents their development. The only remedy is the removal of the affected portions and their
burial deep into the soil. Some times carbon disulphide is used to destroy the worm.
ii) Spotted worm: This worm is usually found in the stem of the cotton plant. It eats away the
leaves of the plant and prevents normal growth of the plant.
iii) Cotton boll weevil: This is a small beetle that eats away the buds and bolls of the plant. It is
also called boll weevil.
To control the above pests and their destructive action, insecticides like DDT, Benzene
hexachloride, carbon disulphide etc. are used.
b) Diseases: Diseases attacking the plant are less problamatic than insects and are more likely
to occur when the climate is unfavourable. The general types of disease are:
i) Seeding disease: Young plants are damaged and killed due to diseases affected seeds. This
can be controlled by using disease-free seeds.
ii) Root diseases: The roots may be spoiled due to unfavourable soil and can cause a complete
destruction of the plant. These diseases are also caused by small worms. This can be controlled
by the use of chemicals like sulphur, formaldehyde and carbon disulphide in the soil.
iii) Leaf and stem diseases: These are caused by improper soil conditions, lack of potash and
improper drainage. The affected plants show spots on the leaves and stems. To control this
disease, it is necessary to use disease-free seed and fresh, healthy soil.
iv) Boll rot: When undried mature fibre is unduly exposed to the atmosphere before picking,
biological and chemical deterioration may affect the quality of the fibres.
1. Length: Length of cotton fibre varies from ½” to 2-1/2” and depends on the variety.
2. Lustre: Due to the wax present in the raw cotton, it has little or no luster. Bleached cotton is
slightly more lustrous, while mercerized cotton is quite lustrous, especially when stretch
mercerised.
3. Strength: Cotton is a moderately strong fibre. Its strength is due to the presence of crystalline
regions(65-70%), a fibrillar structure and a moderate degree of orientation. The dry tenacity is
20 to 44 gf / tex (9 gf / tex = 1gf / d). The wet tenacity is 30 gf / tex. Cotton thus shows a 10%
increase in tenacity when wet. This is an advantage as no special care in fibre handling is
required during wet-treatment.
4. Elastic - Plastic Nature (Visco-elastic behaviour): It is inelastic (poorly elastic) due to its
crystalline polymer system; cotton fabric thus wrinkles and shrinks easily unless specially
finished to overcome this tendency.
6. Hygroscopic nature: Cotton fibre is very absorbent. This is due to the presence of polar-OH
groups which attract water molecules.
7. Moisture regain: Cotton has a moisture regain of 7 - 8.5% in standard atmosphere (65%
relative humidity and 200 C.)
8. Heat conductivity: Cotton is a good conductor of heat. It therefore feels cool to the touch
and is ideally suited for summer wear.
10.Colour: Its colour varies from white to cream, depending on the variety and cultivation
conditions.
11. Diameter: The fiber diameter (ribbon width) various from 11m to 22 m. The finer cottons
are generally longer and the coarse cottons are shorter.
13. Length to breadth ratio: Cotton has a length to breadth ratio ranging from 1000:1 to 6000:1
15. Special Property: Cotton fiber consists of characteristic convolutions or twist along its
length that are randomly left-handed or right handed and ranges between 40 - 65/cm.
1. Chemical composition of raw cotton: Cellulose – 94% protein, wax and others –6%
2. Polymer (or) Fiber forming substance: Linear cellulose polymer – (C6H10O5)n=10000
2b. Average degree of polymerization of cotton cellulose: about 5000 cellobiose units
3) Effect of Acids: Cotton fibers are weakened and destroyed by acids. This is due to the
hydrolysis of cotton polymer at glucoside oxygen atoms and the formation of hydrocellulose. The
DP is lowered by such hydrolysis and this results in lower strength.
a. Concentrated acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and HCI destroy fiber easily.
b. Cold dilute acids like HNO3, H2SO4 and HCI do not harm cotton if washed
immediately and thoroughly.
c. Organic acids have little effect on cotton.
5. Effect of Sunlight: cotton loses its strength and has a tendency to become yellow with
prolonged exposure to sunlight.
6. Affinity for dyestuffs: Cotton is a fibre easy to dye and print. This is due
to the presence of polar chemical groups in the polymer. Direct, napthol, vat, reactive and
sulphur dyes can be applied to cotton.
8. Effect of bleaching agents: If bleaching agents are used with care and
control with regard to concentration, pH, temperature and time, cotton is not damaged. If any
of these variables goes out of control, chemical damage occurs, oxycellulose is formed and
the fibre weakens. Cotton is readily bleached by solutions of sodium and calcium
hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide and sodium chlorite.
11. Effect of heat: Cotton can withstand dry heat up to 140 0 C. At 2450 C it
scorches and bums. Cotton textiles can thus withstand domestic ironing without yellowing
provided that their contact with the hot iron is kept to the required minimum.
1) Fibre Form:
a) Surgical cotton used in the medical filed: wadding (fibre-fill) used in pillows
and mattresses.
b) Cotton Linters: cotton linters are the very short fibre bits removed from the
seed during the second ginning process. The linters are too short to be spun into yarn,
but are useful in the manufacturing of writing paper, gun-cotton, varnishing celluloid,
photographic films, regenerated cellulosic fibres and cellulose-ester fibres.
3) Fabric form:
2.15. Cotton the King of Fibres”. Even through there are a number of man - made fibres
available in the world, cotton finds a unique place in the textile filed. It is still the most-widely
used fibre due to the following reasons and hence it is called as the “King of Fibres”.
Some of the reasons for this are:
1. Cotton is considered as nature’s most economical fibre. Due to its relatively low
price, cotton is still the cheapest fibre for clothing purpose.
2. Cotton fibres can withstand moderately rough handling and water at boiling
temperature. It can therefore be laundered and ironed repeatedly.
3. Though cotton textiles tend to soil easily due to the presence of fine protruding
fibres, they can also be easily washed and cleaned. Cotton-is thus a very hygienic fibre.
4. Cotton has good moisture absorption, particularly when bleached and/or dyed
and this makes it a very comfortable fibre when used as dress wear;
5. Cotton is increasingly preferred psychologically to man - made fibres for dress
wear; a natural fibre feels better and ‘safer’ next to the skin than an “artificial’ fibre.
Therefore it seems that cotton will continue to be the “King of Fibres” for a long time to comel
2.16. KAPOK
Kapok is a silky fibre obtained from the seed- pods of the kapok tree. It is thus a seed
fibre, the tree grows principally in java. It is also found in small quantities in India. The fibre is
also called Ceba, silk-cotton, java-cotton, silk floss etc. The pods are oblong in shape, from 4 to
6” in length and 1 to 1 ½ “ in diameter. The fibres are contained inside the outer shell. When the
pod bursts, the fibre surrounding the seeds is freed from the shell. The pods are harvested by
hand as soon as they are ripe. The fibres are separated by hand. As these fibres are very short
(less than1”) and weak they are not used for spinning yarn.
FRUIT FIBRE
Coir: Coir is a natural fibre obtained from the husk of coconut which after full development, is
removed from the fruit. After this the husk is retted in water for few days. This is mainly to loosen
the fibres from the outer shell. After retting, the fibres are separated by simply hitting the husk
with wooden paddles. Then the fibres are dried.
Coir is a stiff and inelastic fibre. It is mainly used for cordage. The cords are
manufactured by simply twisting the coarse fibres with each other. Coir is also used in sail cloth
and coarse matting. Because of its resemblance to horse hair, it is used as stuffing material in
upholstered furniture
JUTE
Jute producing countries: India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute. China and
Brazil are the next important producers. Other countries producing jute are Nepal, Burma,
Vietnam, Taiwan and Thailand.
Cultivation
Jute is obtained from the stem (bast layer) of the plants botanically known as ‘Corchorus
Capsularis’ and ‘Corchorus Olltorius’. Commercially, jute is divided into 1) White jute, (First
botanical variety) and 2) dark jute (Second botanical variety).
a. Sowing of seeds: The land is prepared by ploughing. The seeds are sown during
February to June, the time being chosen according to the climatic conditions. The seeds
germinate within 2 to 3 days of sowing. Close planting of the seeds at intervals of about four
inches gives the best yield.
b. Growth of the plant: The plant grows like any other plant and normally reaches a height
of two to five meters. It has a single stalk. During its growth, any weeds that appear are
removed immediately. The plants are ready for harvesting in about 120 days after the seeds
are sown. There are three stages in the growth of the plant before harvesting. These are:
Harvesting during the first stage gives fibre that is fine and light in colour, but the yield is low.
Harvesting during the second stage gives fibre that is nearly as fine and medium dark in colour.
But the yield is higher. Harvesting during the third stage gives coarse and dark coloured fibre
and the highest yield. Generally, harvesting begins at the end of the first stage and ends at the
end of the second stage. It is easier to remove the fibres from the stalks when harvesting is
done during the second stage. The flowers appear as small buds with a peculiar sweet smell.
They are normally yellow in colour. When the flowering stage is over, the harvesting is carried
out.
Harvesting: Harvesting is the process of cutting the stalks from the ground as close as
possible. This is done by hand. The top and root ends of the plants are cut off and the stalks are
left for few days till the leaves dry and fall away. The stalks are then bundled and taken for fibre
extraction.
Fibre Extraction
In the living plant, the jute fibres lie below the outer bark, and surrounded by gummy
substances. These gummy substances must be softened, dissolved and washed away for easy
fibre extraction. The sequence of operations in fibre extraction are 1. Retting, 2.Stripping,
3.Purification
a) Retting: Retting is the process by which the fibres under the bark are loosened by
softening the gummy substances surrounding them. This is carried out by exposing the
stalks to the combined effects of water, light and heat. The outer bark and the gummy
substances are decomposed due to the fermentation (bacterial action) that occurs during
retting. There are four different methods of retting. They are:
I. Dew retting
II. Stagnant-water retting (or tank retting)
III. Running- water retting (or stream retting)
IV. Chemical retting
i) Dew retting: In this method, the stalks are simply spread out on the grass in the field
for about 20 to 25 days. The stalks are thus directly exposed to sunlight during the day
and to moisture (dew) during the night. The outer bark becomes soft and the fibres can
be removed from the top ends of the stalks by hand.
ii) Stagnant- water retting (or) Tank retting: in this method, the stalks are immersed
in stagnant water in a tank or in a pond. The water must be clean and free from minerals.
The stalks are kept in the water for abut 10 to 20 days. After a few days of immersion,
the stalks float near the surface of the water due to evolution of carbon dioxide during the
fermentation that takes place. After a few days the colour of the stalks change from
green to yellowish-green to yellow. The bundles are then taken out and dried.
iii) Running-water retting (or) stream retting: In this method, the stalks are kept under
a stream of cool, gently running water for three to four weeks. When they are fully retted,
the stalks are removed from the water and dried.
iv) Chemical retting: In this method, the stalks are softened by boiling with 1% NaoH or
0.5% of H2SO4 for about six to eight hours. The gummy substances are hydrolysed and
degraded. The fibres are then washed by fresh water.
b) Stripping: After retting, the stalks are dried and the fibres are stripped (removed) from the
stalks. There are many ways of stripping the stalks. They are:
1. The central woody portion of each is first broken manually. The fibres are then
pulled out gently by hand, stalk by stalk.
2. By using a wooden paddle, the bottom end of the stalks are beaten. the fibres are
then freed and removed manually. This method is very slow and costly but yields best
quality fibre.
3. By passing the stalks in between pieces of bamboo or wood fixed in a frame, until
the fibres are free to be removed manually. This method is very slow and costly but
yields best quality fibre.
4. The stalks are hit against the surface of the water or a pole secured vertically in
the tank of water used for retting until the fibres are freed. This method produces a poor
quality of fibre.
c) Purification: Immediately after the fibres are freed from the stalk, the fibres are washed
repeatedly in clean water. The fibres are freed from fragments of gum, bark and wood sticking to
them. After purification, the fibres are dried by spreading them on the ground or by hanging the
fibres over poles.
1 Cellulose 64.4%
2 Hemicellulose 12.0%
3 Lignin 11.8%
4 Moisture 10.0%
5 Water solubles 1.1%
6 Fats and Waxes 0.5%
7 Pectin 0.2%
Chemically, the main difference between jute and cotton is that the jute contains much larger
quantities of lignin and hemicellulose. Cotton is thus a purer form of cellulose that can be
purified to almost 100 percent by normal scouring and bleaching processes. Due to this reason
the cotton linters are considered as a useful source of raw material for the manufacture of
regenerated and cellulose ester fibres.
13. Length –to-width ratio: The single fibre has a length-to-width ratio of about 2000:1.
Uses of jute:
1. Jute is used mainly in sacks and bagging material due to its low elasticity and strength.
2. Another major use is in the manufacture of ropes and twines.
3. Jute is also used as stuffing material in household and automotive upholstery.
4. Jute is used in woven carpet manufacture as carpet backing cloth. Jute also serves as
backing cloth in linoleum (PVC carpets).
5. Jute finds some use in the manufacture of decorative wall coverings and 49aneling.
6. Jute yarns are used as packing for telephone and electrical power cables.
7. Garment interlinings are made from fine jute fibre.
8. Jute fibre in admixture with wool is used in bed pillow linings.
9. Fine jute has been used in blends with cotton and polyester in the production of apparel
and household textiles. This is a result of research in new applications of jute by SITRA and
the Textile Department of PSG college of Technology
10. Fine jute has been used in blends with cotton and polyester in the production of apparel
and with the Government of India providing all the assistance and support. The
organizations closely involved in the development and promotion of jute are:
Jute and the development of products from it has assumed importance during the last
decade or so with the Government of India providing all the assistance closely involved in the
development amount promotion of jut are:
Jute Manufactural Development Corporation (JMDC) Calcutta.
Indian jute industries research Association (IJIRA), Calcutta.
South Indian Textile Research Association (SITRA), Calcutta.
PSG College of Technology (PSG Tech), Coimbatore.
a. Soil: flax requires deep, rich, well-ploughed soil that must be enriched for six years
before it yields a good harvest. So only one crop for every seven years can be raised on
a given piece of land. Level and with a plentiful supply of soft, fresh water is necessary.
b. Climatic conditions: A cool and damp climate is necessary. Warm weather affects the
growth and quality of the fibre.
Cultivation of flax:
Sowing of seeds and growth of the plant:
A selected portion of land is used once in six years. During the remaining periods, the
land is enriched with rich soil and then levelled flat. Flax seeds are sown by hand in April to May.
When the plants are few inches high, the weeds must be carefully removed. This is done by
pulling them out, with extreme care to avoid injury to the flax plants. In three months, the plants
have straight, slender stalks from two to four feet in height. The plants have tapering leaves and
small flowers, which may be blue, purple or white in colour, depending on the variety of the
plant. The plant with the blue flower yields a fine quality of flax. The others produce a coarse but
strong fibre. By the end of August the flower turns a brownish colour, which indicates that the
plant is ready for harvesting.
Harvesting : Harvesting is the process of pulling the slender stalks from the ground. Harvesting
should be carried out immediately after the flowers turn brownish, otherwise the fibre will loose
its luster, soft texture and price. The plants are pulled out of the ground by hand. They are then
cut with care, ensuring that the stalks are intact. The tapered end of the fibres must be
preserved so that a smooth yarn may be spun.
1. Rippling : Rippling is the process of removing the leaves and seeds from the stalks. This is
done by passing the heads of the stalks through a coarse comb or between two wide pulleys
held together by springs. After the seeds, leaves are removed, the stalks are bundled together
for the next process, called retting.
2. Retting: Retting is the process by which the fibres under the bark are loosened by softening
the gummy substance surrounding them. This is carried out by exposing wet stalks to the effects
of sunlight and the weather. The outer bark is thereby decomposed by the fermentation that
takes place. The following methods of retting are normally used.
a) Dew retting: In this method, the stalks are simply spread out on the
grass in the field for about 20 to 25 days. The stalks are exposed to the actions of sunlight
by day and moisture by night. The outer bark thus becomes soft as a result of which the
fibres can be removed from the stalk by hand.
b) Stagnant-water retting or dam or Tank retting: In this method the
stalks are immersed in stagnant water that may be a tank or pool of water. The water must
clean and it should be free from minerals. The stalks are kept immersed in the water for 10
to 15days. The bacterial action or fermentation causes the decomposition of the outer
portion or bark and the fibres are loosened.
c) Stream retting or running-water retting: In this method, the stalks are
kept in a stream of cool, slow running water for about 10 to 15 days. When they have been
fully retted the stalks are taken out and dried. This method produces superior, strong fibres
of pale yellow colour.
d) Vat or mechanical retting: This method shortens the retting process.
The stalks are immersed in wooden vats of warm water at temperatures ranging from 25-
30°C. This treatment quickens the decomposition of the woody bark.
e) Chemical retting: In this method, the stalks are immersed in a bath
containing dilute sulphuric acid at fairly high temperature. The bark is softened and the
gummy substances are hydrolysed and degraded. The fibres are then washed with fresh
water. This method shortens the retting time, but affects the strength and colour of the fibre.
Extreme care is required in the washing step to prevent the formation of hydrocellulose.
The retting process should be carried out carefully and optimally due to the following
reasons:
1. If retting is insufficient, the fibre may be injured during removal
from the stem.
2. If over-retting is done, the fibre will be weakened.
3. Drying: After retting, the stalks are washed with fresh water and then dried. During drying the
stalks get partially separated from the fibre.
4. Breaking: In this process the dried stalks are passed through a breaking machine consisting
of a series of pairs of fluted rollers, when the woody core is broken and the bark is reduced to
small pieces called “shives”.
5. Scutching: The broken woody core and the shives are removed by the scutching process. In
this process, the stalks are passed through a rotating beater consisting of wooden paddles,
which beat down the woody core and bark and release the fibre from within. The scutching
operation can also be done by hand. This method is practiced where the production of flax is
carried out on a small scale.
6. Hackling: After scutching, the fibres are straightened by the hackling process. This is a
simple combing process, which separates the short fibres from the long fibres. The long fibres
are left in parallel form, while the short fibres are removed.
The long fibres are known as “line” and the short fibres are known as “tow” the yarns
and fabric produced entirely from flax fibres are also referred to as linen yarn or fabric
respectively. After hackling, the fibres are put together to form small bunches called “Stricks”
The stricks are then bundled together. The unwanted woody matter called ‘Shives’ which are
separated during the breaking and sctuching processes are used as fuel. Cottonisation of flax
is, when the fibre bundles broken down to their ultimate by mechanical or chemical means. The
product, called cottonised flax, can be blended with cotton, ie., small fibres, fluff etc
2. Oiling and softening: the extracted strands of fibres are sprinkled with oil and then softened
by passing them through rollers.
3. Combing: This process helps to parallelise fibre. This is done by means of a roller covered
with a series of spikes. The short fibres are thus removed.
Ramie is a silky, white and permanently lustrous fibre. It absorbs water readily and it
dries quickly. It is a very strong and durable fibre. Ramie yarns have a hairy feel due to the
stiffness and harshness of the fibre. It can be bleached to extreme whiteness. It has good affinity
for dyes.
Ramie is used in the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles. It is also used as twines,
ropes, heavy industrial fabrics, canvas and nets. Ramie is used as weft yarn in mixed woollen
fabrics, as adulteration with fibres and as a substitute for flax.
2. Hemp
Hemp is a bast fibre obtained from a plant belonging to the nettle family. It is produced in
Russia, Italy, Japan, France, India and Central America. The hemp plant is a robust and tough
plant. Its stalks reach a height of more than 10 feet. When it reaches its full height, the stalks
turns’ yellow and the leaves in the lower part of the stalk fall off. This is the right time for
harvesting, when the stalks are cut off. The fibre is freed from stalks by the processes of retting,
breaking and scutching just like flax.
Hemp is a coarse fibre. It has very good lustre and is hygroscopic, strong and durable
fibre. It greatly lacks in flexibility and extensibility and thus cannot be wonven into fine fabrics.
Hemp is mainly used in the manufacture of ropes, twines., sail cloth, rugs and carpets. It is
especially suitable for ship cordage, as it is not weakened or rotted by sea water.
second category and are called as ‘non-keratin fibres as they are composed of protein other
than keratin.
The keratinous fibre ‘wool’ is available only in staple fibre form. The most important
commercial fibre in filament form is the well-known ‘silk’. The animal fibres are made up of
protein from natural origin, and are called as ‘natural protein fibres’.
The silk fibre can be described as a continuums protein filament produced by a type of
caterpillar called Bombyx Mori. This is commonly known as mulberry silkworm. The silk worm
is not really a worm but a caterpillar having eyes and legs, which no true worm, possesses.
Sericulture
Sericulture starts with the proper selection and care of eggs. The eggs of the silkworm
are classified as 1) Eggs used for reproduction 2) Eggs used for cocoon production.
The first one are used by the egg producers and kept as stocks. The second one is latter
hatched by cocoon farmers. Besides rearing the worms very carefully for reproductive purpose,
the producers examine the body of the mother moth microscopically after death and if any sign
of disease are discovered, her eggs are discarded. In this way the birth of healthy worms is
ensured.
The Mulberry silk worm or the Bombyx Mori species is the only cultivated silkworm. All
other silk worms are ‘wild’ as they cannot be cultivated by man. The life cycle of mulberry
silkworm is as follows.
1. The Egg: The female silk moths lay about 350 to 400 eggs on
numbered cards before they die. The eggs stick to the card due to the gummy substance
which covers them. The dead months are examined microscopically. The cards of eggs from
moths which are infected are burnt. By this careful, scientific regulation, Japan has not only
protected and helped sericulture but has developed as a leading producer of silk fibre in the
world.
The eggs change colour rapidly to bluish brown or black. The egg sheets are placed in an
incubator where the temperature is regulated at 80°F. for about 10 days. Each healthy egg
hatches into an ant. One ounce of egg will yield 40,000 to 60,000 ants after hatching.
It is fed five times a day with chopped mulberry leaves. During this time the worm
changes its skin (or undergoes moulting) four times. Just before the moulting of shedding of its
skin starts, the worm stops eating for a time and becomes motionless. The worm increases in
size and weight with remarkable speed. The fully-grown worm is a smooth grayish white
caterpillar measuring 5 to 9 cm in length and weighing 2 to 5 grams. When it is fully grown or
when it has reached the limit of its growth the worm ceases to eat, diminishes in weight,
changes from greyish-white to a creamy-white colour. A constant restless rearing movement of
its head indicates that it is ready to spin its cocoon. The fully developed or ripe worms are taken
from their feeding trays and are placed in spinning racks or straw mountings.
The worm turns its head around looking for a place to anchor (fix) its silk filament. When
this is done, a thick solution of protein (called fibroin) flows through two channels to a common
exit tube (or the spinnerets) located under the caterpillar’s jaws to produce the silk filament. At
this point the flow is jointed by the secretion of a gummy protein substance (called sericin or silk
gum) from two other symmetrically located glands. This gum cements the two silk filaments
together. The liquid substance hardens immediately on exposure to the air.
Each caterpillar thus builds an oral casing by extruding the viscous fluids from its glands.
It adds layer after layer of filaments by moving its head in arcs of circles crossing in the form of
the figure 8. The silkworm is hidden from view within 24 hours; In 2 to 3 days, the cocoon is
completed. It is about the size and shape of a peanut shell. The silk filament is in the form of a
double filament held together by the gum lying in between them.
1 2 4
3 5 6 7
3. The Chrysalis: After finishing the spinning of its cocoon, the enclosed silk worm undergoes a
remarkable transformation, changing from the form of a caterpillar to a pupa or chrysalis.
4. The Moth: If the pupa is left undisturbed inside the cocoon it rapidly develops into a moth
within two weeks. To come out of the cocoon, the moth must break at one place by secreting an
alkaline liquid that dissolves the filament. Thus, to come out of the cocoon, the moth damages
the cocoon and breaks the continuity of the silk filaments. The moth is whitish grey and has a
soft body. It has no mouth and therefore does not eat. The female moths are larger than the
male, but both are unable to fly. The life a moth lasts for about 3 to 4 days. The female moth
lays about 400 eggs before dying and thus completes her life cycle.
a) Stoving of Stifling: When the moth cuts and damages the cocoon in order to come out, the
filament cannot be unwound in one long thread. To prevent damage to the cocoon and to get a
continuous silk thread, the life cycle of the silkworm is terminated at the chrysalis stage by a
process known as stoving. The cocoons are boiled in hot water or hot air to suffocate the
chrysalis. The delicate silk filament is not harmed.
b) Filature Operations: The cocoons that are raised by silk farmers are delivered to a factory,
called a filature, where the silk is unwound from the cocoons and the strands are collected into
hanks or skeins. Filature operations consist of the following steps.
so fine that 1000 cocoons are required to produce about four ounces of useful thread and about
3000 cocoons are required to make one metre of silk fabric.
The silk filaments are reeled into ’skeins’ which are packed in small bundles called
‘books’ each weighing about 60 kg. This is the form in which the raw skill is shipped to all parts
of the world.
Charkha Silk: Silk reeling is practiced as a cottage industry in India. The reeling is done by
hand-operated ‘charkha’, and the silk yarn reeled is called ‘charkha silk’.
Thrown silk: Reeled silk is a single yarn and is not suitable for weaving or knitting. It must be
converted to silk thread suitable for weaving purpose. This is done by a process known as
“throwing” or “twisting”. The people engaged in this work are called throwsters. The silk throwing
process is similar to the doubling and twisting process in cotton yarn manufacture.
The raw silk is stored according to the size, colour, length and quantity and then soaked
in an oil or soap emulsion in water to soften the silk thread. This softens the sericin and helps in
handling the silk thread. After mechanical drying, the silk hanks are placed on light reels (or
swifts) and wound on bobbins.
Several ‘singles’ may be doubled and twisted to give folded yarns of desired size.
Different sizes of threads are produced to meet the requirement of knitting or weaving to
produce various kinds of silk fabric. Silk throwing requires special skill and knowledge and
expensive machinery. The final product is then inspected and packaged and is ready for delivery
to the producers of silk fabric.
3.5. Kinds of thrown silk yarns: Several kinds of silk yarn or threads are used in the
manufacture of silk goods. The type of yarn and twist depends on the weavers choice.
Singles : Usually 3 to 8 silk filaments are twisted together in one direction to form a yarn
called a single. Loose twisted singles (2-3 tpi) are used for weft yarn in many silk fabrics.
Hard twisted single are used in the production of fine fabrics.
Tram: Tram is used only as weft yarn. Usually 2 to 4 untwisted singles are combined
with a slight twist of about 3 to 5 tpi. When tram is used in the production of taffeta, it is
twisted to about 30 tpi.
Voile: This yarn used for sheer crepe fabric such as voile. A voile yarn consists of three
untwisted single yarns twisted to 35 to 40 tpi.
Georgette: A georgette yarn is made up of two untwisted singles with a hard twist of 70
to 75 tpi. These yarns are very fine, strong and elastic and are used as warp in fabrics
such as georgette or crepe.
Organzine : This type of thread is used primarily for warp yarns. It is made up of two or
more singles, each of which has 16 Z turns per inch. These singles are then doubled and
twisted in the S direction to 12 to 20 tpi. Organzine yarns interlock more tightly and
results in a firmer and stronger yarn.
In addition to the above there are other types of silk threads such as Grenadine, Two-by-
two. Compense-S and Crepe, etc.
3.6.Types of silk
The silk can broadly be divided into 1: Domesticated silk, 2. The wild silks
Some examples of major wild silks are
Tussur silk: This is the most important of the wild silks. It is obtained from a silkworm, which is
very different from the domestic mulberry silkworm. It will feed only out of doors on the leaves of
oak tree of shrub type. The worm is five to six inches when mature, soft green in colour and is
covered with tufts of reddish brown hair. The tussar silk worm makes a compact cocoon, which
has less lustre, is brownish in colour and the silk is uneven and stiff.
Spinning tends to be discontinuous, and the filament is more broken than the mulberry
silk worm. For this reason tussar silk is more suitable for spun yarns. There are two crops of
cocoons produced annually, the spring and the autumn crops. The Tussur silk contain more
gum and also calcium compounds, which makes it necessary to treat them chemically in the
boiling-off operations, so that the filament may be unwound easily.
Eri silk: This is similar to tussar silk but has a lighter natural colour. The Eri silk worm feeds on
the leaves of the castor oil plant. It gives a very high quality of white silk. It is not possible to reel
the silk from the cocoons. Therefore, it is necessary to spin it into yarn by the methods used for
spinning silk yarn from waste. It is harder and less lustrous than cultivated silk.
Muga silk: The muga silk worm is found in Assam and in importance it is next to tussar silk
worm. It is either white or light brown in colour. The other types of wild silk, namely Fagara,
Mussel, Yamamai and spider silks are of lesser importance.
Spun silk: Spun silk, also called ‘Schappe silk’ is produced from a mass of short, fine fibre that
form a waste. Waste silk is mainly obtained from the cut cocoons after the silk moth has come
out and from the reeling and throwing operations. There are several sources of waste silk:
i) Pierced cocoons, the result of breeding moths that have come out
of their cocoons.
ii) Double cocoons, the result of two cocoons having been spun by
two silk worms too close together. Double cocoons are also called doupion silk or douppioni
silk.
iii) Floss, brushed from cocoons before reeling. Floss is the loose
tangle of silk fibre that holds the cocoon within the straw mounting arranged for cocoon
spinning.
iv) Frison, the coarse and uneven silk fibre at the beginning and end
of each cocoon.
v) Scrap or silk noil, the machine waste left from reeling, throwing,
etc.
The waste silk is degummed and carded and combed to remove the very short fibres
and spun into yarn just like cotton spinning. The waste silk strands (slivers) may be drawn
several times before spinning to give a thorough distribution of fibres. Spun silk yarns are soft,
but they are less lustrous than reeled silk and are not as strong or elastic. Spun silk fabric tends
to become fuzzy after wearing because the yarn is made of short staple fibre.
Spun silk is less expensive than reeled silk. Although it has less strength and elasticity, it
possesses all the general characteristics of reeled silk. It has great demand for producing fabrics
with soft, pliable finish and for its spreading qualities in pile. Spun silk is used for shantung and
pile fabrics; for dress trimmings, linings and sewing silk, for velvets, umbrella fabrics and
insulative materials.
3.7. Degumming of silk: This process is called ‘boiling-off. In this process raw silk goods are
treated in alkaline soap solutions to dissolve the silk gum. The concentration of the alkaline soap
solution is in the range 6-10 grams per litre for dense or heavy fabrics. The liquor ratio is usually
40:1 and the temperature of the degumming solution is kept close to the boiling point (95°C) for
a treatment period of 1 to 1½ hours.
Degumming may take place after the silk yarn is thrown in order to prepare it for yarn
dyeing. Complete degumming brings out the natural lustre and the soft feel of silk. As much as
25 percent of the weight is lost by the gumming process. When the gum has been removed, the
silk fibre or fabric is in creamy white colour, beautifully lustrous and luxuriantly soft. Sometimes
silk is partially degummed in order to give the finished product added strength or a dull finish.
Ecru silk is an example of silk fabric from which sericin has been partially removed.
Weighting of silk : The silk fabric may be given a wide variety of finishes like bleaching, dyeing,
calendering, embossing etc. There is one finish, that is unique to silk and this is called ‘weighing
of silk’. Silk loses a lot of weight in the degumming process and this is an important factor in
production cost, because the manufacture buys silk by weight. In order to make up this loss in
weight, silk goods are ‘weighted’ with metallic substances so as to lower the cost of silk to the
consumer.
The weighting process involves treatment of silk goods with solutions of heavy metal
salts, such as stannic chloride, such that the fabric absorbs and retains a portion of the metal
salt. Weighting gives silk fabric crispness, lustre and a firm feel. Silk fabric which has been
weighted to exactly make up the loss in weight due to degumming is said to be ‘weighting to
par’. Weighting of fabrics to values lower or higher is considered respectively as ‘weighting
below par’ and ‘weighting above par’. Too much weighting can lead to ‘tendering’, of silk fabric
and a resulting loss in strength.
Pure-dye silk: Silk fabric that has only been dyed or dyed and finished with the usual chemicals
such as starch etc., but not been weighted using metal salts is called ‘pure-dye’ silk.
1. Tenacity : Silk is a strong fibre due to its high crystalline content. The tenacity is 3.3 to
4.5 grams per denier in the dry state and 2.6 to 3.5 in the wet state. The wet to dry tenacity
ratio is thus about 78 percent.
2. Elongation-at-break : The silk filament shows a considerable elongation of 20%.
3. Elastic-plastic nature : Silk is little more plastic than it is elastic. In other words, its
elastic recovery is moderate. Wrinkles may be produced in silk garments during wear unless
used with care, but if sufficient time is given recovery is complete.
4. Moisture regain: The moisture regain of silk is 10-11 percent in standard atmosphere.
Silk is quite hygroscopic and under favourable circumstances will absorb as much as 30% of
its weight of moisture and still appear dry.
5. Diameter : The diameter of the raw filament varies from 8 to 13 m. it decreases after
deguming.
6. Density : Raw silk has a density of 1.34 g/cc. Degummed silk has a density of 1.25 g/cc.
7. Microscopic appearance:
Longitudinal view: When raw silk is examined under the microscope, the longitudinal view
shows a somewhat irregular, smooth, structure less, translucent filament. Frequently the two
filaments are distinctly separated from one another for considerable distances, the space in
between being filled in with sericin.
Cross sectional view: The cross-sectional view of silk shows irregular, triangular shapes. It
is this triangular shape that is responsible for the high lustre of silk.
H H H H H H
R1 O R2 O R3 O R4 O O Rn
The chemical structure given above is a general chemical structure of the long chain molecule of
any animal (protein) fibre, such as silk, wool or hair. R1,R2……. Rn represent the specific side
groups that tell the difference between the amino acids that make up the protein fibre. The basic
building chemical in a protein fibre, the amino acid, is represented by the
general chemical structure shown in the figure at the left, where ‘R’
H
represents the side group, which is specific to a given amino acid. For
HOOC – C – NH2 example, if ‘R’ is “H’, the amino acid is Glycine, and so on. It may be seen
R that the molecular structure of silk (and wool), as shown above contains
amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups as end groups as well as the
amide (-NHCO-) groups linking amino acids together. These three types
of groups are ‘polar’ groups and will contribute to properties such as
moisture absorption and dyeability.
The presence of a large number of amide linkages in the protein fibres has led to their
being called ‘natural polyamide fibres’. The amide linkage in the molecules of animal fibres is
also referred to as the ‘peptide’ linkage. The protein molecules are therefore also referred to as
‘polypeptide’ chains. (However it must be noted that this term is not used in practice for the
synthetic polyamides, which also have a large number of the amide linkages in their molecules).
2. Polymer: Raw silk consist of a pair of filaments which are held together by the silk gum. The
filaments are made up of the protein or polymer called fibroin while the gum is a different
protein or polymer called sericin. Silk fibroin is believed to consist of 16 different amino acids. Of
these, Glycine, Alanine, Serine and Tyrosine are the major amino acids which make up about 95
per cent of the silk fibroin. The remaining 12 amino acids in fibroin are minor amino acids,
making up the balance of about five percent. Silk fibroin is believed to be a block copolymer of
the four major amino acids. Silks does not contain any sulphur containing amino acid as does
the wool polymer. The sericin in raw silk is removed before chemical finishing by the degumming
process.
3. The fibrillar structure of silk: The silk filament is fibrillar in strcutre. Several long- chain
fibroin molecules are arranged as a small bundle called a ‘microfibril’. Many microfibrils form a
‘fibrillar bundle’ or tiny fibres and finally many fibrillar bundles make up the silk fibroin filament.
5.Crystalline/Amorphous content: The fibre structure of silk is well oriented and highly
crystalline. The cystallinity is 65 to 70 percent, thus giving an amorphous content of 35 to 30
percent. Silk is therefore a fairly strong and resilient fibre.
2 Sericin 22-25
3 Moisture 10-11
Other matter (traces of fat and mineral
4 1-2
matter)
7. Action of acids: Silk is readily soluble in cold concentrated mineral acids, e.g. hydrochloric
acid. The solubility in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid is used to determine the percentage of
silk in a mixture of silk and wool. Even traces of mineral acids, if dried into silk material, causes
‘tendering’ and reduction of the material to powder. When organic acids such as acetic acid are
dried into silk they give it a particular handle called ‘scroop’. (discussed earlier).
8. Action of alkalies: Cold concentrated solutions of caustic alkalies appear to have little effect
on silk, with little time allowed and the rinsing followed immediately. Thus, mixtures of cotton and
silk may be mercerized. Prolonged action of cold concentrated sodium hydroxide causes the
fibre to dissolve.
9. Reaction to bleaches: Silk will get badly affected if treated with highly alkaline bleaching
agents such as sodium hypochlorite. Hydrogen peroxide under mildly alkaline conditions may be
safely used to bleach silk provided the normal precautions applicable to silk are followed.
10. Solvents for silk: Silk is soluble in mineral acids, e.g. concentrated hydrochloric acid, at
room temperature. It is also soluble in 5% sodium hydroxide solution at boil.
11.Action of salts: Concentrated solutions of salts such as zinc chloride will dissolve silk.
Many others, such as sodium chloride for example, have no effect in wet condition, but can
produce tendering during prolonged storage when the salt is dried into the fibre.
12. Action of microorganisms and insects: Silk will not be affected by mildew, unless it is left
for some time in a damp state. Silk may be attacked by insects (larvae of clothes moths or
carpet beetles) and it may be destroyed when blended with wool, which is attacked by these
insects.
13. Effect of light: Continuous exposure to light weakens silk faster than either cotton or wool.
Raw silk is more resistant to light than degummed silk, and weighted silk has the least light
resistance.
14. Affinity for dyes: Silk has a good a affinity for basic, acid, metal complex and direct dyes.
The colour- fastness of dyed silk is generally good. However the light fastness is not so good,
especially dyed silk that has also been weighted.
Uses of Silk
In spite of its high cost, silk has been one of the most popular fabrics because of its unique
properties. Being soft, strong and lighter in weight than any other natural fibre, silk is prized for its
lightness with warmth, Sheerness with strength and delicacy with resilience. The uses of silk are therefore
for special fabric.
Apparel fabrics: Dresses, saris, blouses, dhotis, high class inner wears and formal dresses.
Silk is sometimes blended with either cotton or wool for reasons of cost or for special purposes.
Dress accessories: shawls, scarves, gloves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas and artificial
flowers.
Industrial: Sewing threads, embroidery threads, typewriter ribbons, textile printing screens, etc,
Tamilnadu produces about 1,000 tonnes of raw silk per year. This is produced in nearly
5,000 villages in the state and about three lakh persons are involved in the activities, which
include mulberry crop raising, Silkworm rearing and post-cocoon activities. More than 60 percent
of the work force involved in these activities are women.
One hectare of mulberry crop provides employment for 13 persons throughout the year.
Similarly, the production of three kilograms of fabric can generate employment for one person.
The mulberry cultivation in the state has increased from 300 to 25,000 acres in the past fifty
years. This expansion taking place mostly in the western and northern parts of the state.
Tamilnadu aims to produce 18,000 tonnes of raw silk in the Tenth five – year Plan period.
3.11. Wool
Wool and hair fibres are the natural hair growing on the bodies of certain animals and
are composed of protein called ‘keratin’. Wool and hair can be described as natural, animal,
multicelluar protein fibres. As explained earlier, wool and hair fibres are also referred to as
natural polyamide fibres. Wool felts were known 7000 years ago in China, Babylon and in Egypt.
The Merino sheep, which has the finest wool, was bred in the 14th century, in Spain, Sheep
breeding began in Australia at the end of the 18th century.
Turkey
Former USSR 15.0 Great Britain 2.0
New Zealand 9.0 Pakistan 2.0
China 7.0 Germany 0.2
Argentina 5.0 Others 21.0
a) ‘Merino’ wool (or ‘fine wool’): Merino sheep produce the finest and best wool in the world.
This variety of sheep was first bred in Spain. The fibre is relatively short, its length ranging from
1 to 5 inches (25-125mm), the fibre is strong, fine and elastic. It has good working properties
and is spinnable to counts between 60-100s. Merino wool has the greatest amount of crimp of all
wool fibres (118 per mm). These two characteristics of this fibre contribute to its superior warmth
and spinning qualities. Merino is used in the best types of wool clothing. Today, the Marino
sheeps are found in Spain, USA, Austria, France, Australia, New Zealand, South America and
South Africa.
b) ‘Class-Two’ Wools (or ‘medium wools’): This class of sheep was first bred in the United
Kingdom. UK produced fine wool fabric from this class of wool. Today this type of wool is raised
in many parts of the world. Though it is not comparable with merino wool this variety is
nevertheless very good quality wool. It is 2 to 8 inches (50-200mm) in length, has a large
number of scales per inch and has good crimp. The fibres are comparatively strong, fine and
elastic and have good working properties. This class of wool is spinnable to counts in the range
40s to 60s.
c)’Class-Three’ Wools (or ‘long wools’): This class of sheep originated in the United
Kingdom. The fibres are about 4 to 18 inches long (100-455 mm), are coarser and have fewer
scales and less crimp than Merino wool and the Class-two wools. As a result, they are smoother
and therefore have more luster. Wools of this class are less elastic and resilient. They are of
good enough quality to be used for clothing and have spinnability in the count range 44 s to 50s.
In fact some of these sheep, such as Leicester, Cotswold, Harris, Lewis, have given their names
to wool fabrics.
d) ‘Class-Flour’ Wools (or ‘crossbred wools’ or ‘carpet wools’): This class is actually a
group of mongrel (mixed –breed) sheep sometimes referred to as half-breeds. Sheep, which
grow in primitive conditions, also come under this class. The fibres are from 1 to 16 inches
(25-400 mm) long, are coarse and hair-like, have relatively few scales and little crimp, and are
therefore smoother and more lustrous. This wool is less desirable, with least elasticity and
strength. It is used mainly for carpets, rugs and inexpensive low-grade clothing.
qualities by touch and sight. As many as 20 separate grades of wool may be obtained from one
fleece if the sorting is done strictly. Each grade is determined by type, length, fineness, elasticity
and strength. There are generally two standard systems for wool grading with respect to its
fineness; (1) The United States system (2) The British system
The second quality is equivalent to the kind of wool that could be obtained from a half-
blood Merino sheep. Similarly there are three other grades: three-eights-blood, quarter-blood
and low quarter blood in descending order of quality. The poorest qualities are identified as
common and braid. They are coarse, have little crimp, relatively few scales, and are somewhat
hair-like in appearance. The grades of wool according to United States system is given below.
that the wool is not only fine but it also possesses good staple length. The wool trade commonly
accepts the following length terms stated above.
2. Sorting and grading: The fleece from any breed of sheep contains various quality of wool.
There are about fourteen different grades even in one fleece (see figure). Superior wool comes
from the sides and shoulders, where it grows longer, finer and softer (No.1 to 6 in the figure).
Wool from the head, chest, belly and shanks is of inferior quality.
The ‘Grader’ is a skilled person who is an expert in identifying qualities of wool by touch
and sight and classifies the wool from a fleece according to fineness, crimp, length, strength,
impurities and colour. Heavy contamination is usually found in the belly area. As many as twenty
separate grades of wool may be obtained from one fleece if the sorting is done strictly. The wool
is finally graded according to one of the systems described above.
3. Scouring: Raw wool contains a lot of dirt and grease and these must be removed in order to
prepare it for further manufacturing processes. This process is called ‘scouring’ and involves the
treatment of raw wool in a mild alkaline solution.
Scouring of loose wool: The scouring of raw wool in fibre form is done in machines, which
have a series of long scouring tanks called ‘bowls’. The scouring is achieved by treatment of the
wool in a mild solution of soda ash and soap or a non-ionic synthetic detergent at 45 to 55 C.
There are automatic rakes at each bowl, which stir the wool as it passes through the series of
scouring and washing treatments. There are rollers between the bowls that squeeze out the
water from the mass of wet wool. When the wool comes out of the last wash it must be free from
grease and dirt. This method causes entanglement in the wool and gives problems during the
spinning stage. Therefore alternative methods are used nowadays to give a more gentle
treatment using detergents and this is known as ‘emulsion scouring’.
Scouring of wool in yarn or fabric form: Worsted spun yarns generally contain combing oils
and dirt acquired during processing. If the worsted yarn is to be dyed it is scoured in hand form
in a ‘wool tape-scouring machine’. The hanks are scoured in bowls and moving tapes pushes it
forward. If worsted yarn is to be package dyed, the scouring may be done in the package-dyeing
machine prior to dyeing. Wool is also scoured in fabric form and this is done in a winch type-
scouring machine called the ‘dolly scouring machine’. An endless length of wool fabric in rope
form is scoured in this machine, without tension.
4. Carbonising: The scouring process removes all the greases and much of the impurities. The
wool may still contain a lot of ‘burrs’ or dried pieces of vegetable matter sticking to it. The
vegetable matters are the leaves, twigs, etc. picked up by the sheep during its everyday life. As
wool is a protein fibre, the burrs are regarded as impurity and have to be removed. This is done
by carbonising process, in which the wool is treated with a mineral acid such as sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid mixed in water.
Batch process: The first operation is acid impregnation and is most commonly performed by
steeping the scoured wool in 5 to 7% sulphuric acid for a period of 2 to 3 hours. This is followed
by hydro extraction and drying at 85C. The wool is shaken mechanically when the
hydrocellulose falls away. The residual acid is then neutralised with dilute sodium carbonate
solution or washed out thoroughly with water. Nowadays, continuous methods are also used.
Continuous carbonizing process: The scoured wool is passed through a lead-lined bowl,
where impregnation with sulphuric acid takes place. The acid-treated wool is squeezed as it
comes out of the trough and is then passed through a two stage heating assembly. In the first
stage it is dried at 50 to 60C and in the second stage it is heated for 15 to 20 minutes at
95 to 100 C. Next, the material is squeezed between fluted rollers to crush the hydrocellulose
and is then passed into a unit where the powdered hydrocellulose is shaken out. Finally, the
residual acid in the wool must be neutralized, washed and dried.
5. Oiling: The carbonized wool is dried to retain about 10 to 12 percent of moisture to condition
the wool for further handling. To make the wool more manageable, it is treated with various
animal and vegetable oils. Oiling of wool prevents it from becoming brittle and lubricates wool for
spinning operation. If the scoured and carbonized wool is taken for fibre - dyeing, the oiling is
done just before it is spun into yarn.
6. Dyeing: The wool is generally dyed in four different forms. They are (1) Loose-stock (fibre
form) (2) Top (sliver) (3) Yarn in hank (or skein) form (4) Fabric
a) Stock-dyeing: The wool is often stock-dyed in fibre form. This is usually done in a package-
dyeing machine. The fibre is loaded in perforated metal baskets and the dye liquor is circulated
through the fibre mass until the dyeing is complete. The advantages of stock dyeing are good
penetration of dyes and good overall quality of the dyed fibre. Mixture effects and coloured
blends can be produced if required.
b) Top-dyeing: ‘Top’ is a term used for wool in combed sliver form. Top dyeing is used in the
worsted industry. In top dyeing, the tops are wound on perorated spools or piled uniformly in
perforated cans and the dye liquor is circulated through them until the dyeing is complete.
c) Yarn-dyeing: The wool yarn is also dyed in hank or skein form. The loose arrangement of
the yarn allows for excellent dye penetration. The hanks are hung on poles and placed in a
carrier which is then immersed in a dye bath in a large container. The hanks are hung on poles
and placed in a carrier, which is then immersed in a dye bath in a large container. The dye liquor
is circulated for even dyeing. Hank dyeing is a costly method but the colour penetration is
excellent and the yarns retain a softer and loftier (bulkier) handle.
d) Fabric dyeing: The woolen and worsted fabrics are mostly buck-dyed. Long lengths of cloth
are passed in tension-free form through a dye bath in a continuous manner till the dyeing is
complete. Beck dyeing helps to keep much of the softness and fullness of the fabric.
Sorting, Sorting,
Blending, Blending,
Scouring, Scouring,
Carbonising, Carbonising,
and Oiling and Oiling
LOOSE-
STOCK
DYEING
CARDING CARDING
WASHING AND
DRYING
DRAWING
(Makes the
slivers i.e., tops,
WEAVING WEAVING
FINISHING FINISHING
As may be seen from the flow-diagram, the woollen spinning sequence is short and
quick, but the worsted system has additional processes such as ‘combing’ and ‘drawing’. The
combing process consists of two operations, namely ‘gilling’ and ‘combing’. The gilling operation
removes the shorter staple and straightens the fibre. The combing operation continues this
process and removes the shorter fibres of 1 to 4-inch lengths (called combing noils) and places
the longer fibres(called tops) as parallel as possible, and further cleans the fibres by removing
any remaining loose impurities. All other operations in both the systems are quite similar as the
manufacture of carded and combed cotton yarns.
Fibres used for the woolen and the worsted systems of spinning: The finer and better
grade of wool or its mixture with ‘tops’ wool is usually used for the worsted yarn production. This
is because worsted yarns are manufactured as fine yarns for high quality fabric. Woollen yarns,
on the other hand, are made for the cheaper or casual kind of fabric and for this purpose the
lower grades of wool or their mixtures with ‘noil’ wool will be satisfactory.
i) Virgin wool: This term is used to designate ‘new wool’ from a sheep’s fleece. It must be
used for fibre sheared from a living sheep. Virgin wool is a fibre that has never been spun,
woven, felted or worn previously. The term ‘New Wool’ is also used in place of virgin wool.
ii) Recycled wool (or ‘Shoddy’): This term is used to designate wool fibre that has been
reclaimed and remanufactured from used or unused wool materials. Other terms such as
remanufactured, reworked, salvaged, reclaimed are also used, but the term ‘shoddy’ is
widely used in the industry. Wool is recycled because there has never been a sufficient
supply of new wool to take care of the steadily increasing demand for wool.
The unused materials may come from combings and wool waste obtained during the
manufacturing processes, from sample swatches or from waste places of all-wool cloth from
apparel manufacturing. The used wool fibre is the fibre recovered from all kinds of used
consumers’ goods, such as old clothing, rags etc. Three classes of waste fibre are used in the
woollen industry.
a) Soft waste: The soft waste includes sweepings from wool sorting rooms, fibres left in
settling tanks (during scouring and washing), waste fibre from combing, waste ends from the
condenser, broken laps and short lengths of sliver from drawing.
b) Hard waste: Hard waste includes yarn waste from spinning, twisting warping etc.
c) Fibre from fabric waste: When wool garments are discarded, the fibres may still be
strong. By severe mechanical processes called ‘garnetting’, which is merely a picking and
shredding action, the material may be pulled apart into fibres that can be spun on the
woollen system. New rags from tailors clippings are another source of remanufactured fibre.
Soft rags, including knitted and loosely woven, very lightly milled rags are more easily pulled
than hard rags that are closely woven or heavily milled. Soft rags produce ‘shoddy’ with
average fibre lengths between ½ and 1½ inches. Hard rags produce the short-fibred
‘mungo’.
Woolmarks:
In order that the consumer has a clear impression of the kind of fibres used in articles
meant for sale, the International Bodies for Wool have made it compulsory for manufacturers to
label their products. The labels to be used for wool garments and other articles should use
specific terms as well as specific ‘Wool marks’. The terms used in the labels are:
“Pure new wool” “new wool blend”
The term ’Pure New Wool’ is used for all textiles made from 100% pure or new wool.
The term ‘Pure Virgin Wool’ is also permitted for these textiles. The term ‘Pure Wool’ is also
used for the products made from recovered wool. The term “New Wool Blend” is used for blends
containing virgin wool up to 60% along with one other fibre making up the remaining content.
Along with these terms the labels must also include the appropriate ‘Woolmarks’.
1. Cuticle: The cuticle is the outermost layer of the fibre. It is made up of flat, irregular horny
scales, which overlap each other, with the projecting edges pointing towards the fibre tip. The
scales are also called the epithelial cells. This serrated pattern is similar to the scales on fish or
like that of a tiled roof. The cuticle protects the main part of the fibre and gives it the required
rigidity. Fibres that are greater in diameter have a larger number of scales. The scaly layer
consists of three separate fractions.
a) Epicuticle: The epicuticle is the outermost layer. It is very thin, only few microns thick,
and is composed of a water-repellent, wax-like substance. There are countless
microscopic pores which enable the wool fibre to absorb moisture, perspiration etc.,
b) Exocuticle: The overlapping epithelial cells form the exocuticle. An epithelial cell is
about 30 microns long, 36 microns wide and 0.5 to 1.0 micron thick. The epithelial cells
are largely responsible for the felting shrinkage of untreated wool textiles.
c) Endocuticle: The endocuticle is an intermediate, cementing layer bonding the epithelial
cells to the cortex of the wool fibre.
2. Cortex: The cortex forms about 90 percent of the fibre volume and is therefore the main
portion of the wool fibre. It consists of a countless number of long, slightly flattened and twisted
spindle-shaped cells; that is, the cells are thick at the middle and taper to pointed tips at each
end. These spindle-shaped, or cortical cells are approximately 100 to 200 microns in length. At
the centre they are 2 to 5 microns wide and 1 to 3 microns thick. Fine wool fibres have about 20
such cells, whereas coarse wool fibres have about 50 cortical cells across any diameter.
The cortical cell consists of fibrils that are oriented along the length. The cells appear to
have an enclosing membrane and are joined together by a cementing tissue. The cortex of the
fibre is mainly responsible for strength, elasticity and dyeing behaviour of wool. The cortex has a
bilateral structure. One part, called the Para-cortex, has cells, which are arranged regularly. In
the other part, the ortho-cortex, the cells are arranged in a relatively disorderly manner. This
bilateral structure in wool gives rise to the characteristic crimp in the fibre.
3. Medulla: In some of the medium and coarser wools, such as those from crossbred sheep,
there is a dark, central canal or medulla that runs lengthwise through the fibre. This medulla
arises from the root and is loosely filled with many superimposed cells of various shapes, often
polygonal. The size of the medulla varies greatly and the volume of the wool fibres occupied by
the medulla may run from 10 to 80 percent. It is through the medulla the solutions of chemicals
and dyes penetrate the fibre. (See figures showing parts of wool fibre).
1) Ketatin: Wool keratin is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. The
composition of keratin is nearly same for different wools, but the sulphur content varies greatly.
The composition of wool is as follows:
Carbon - 50 to 53 %
Hydrogen - 6 to 7%
Nitrogen - 16 to 18%
Oxygen - 21 to 25%
Sulphur - 0.7 to 5%
ii) Grease: This is an impurity in raw wool, which is insoluble in water but can be partially
emulsified. It is soluble in organic solvent. Wool grease consists of esters of high molecular
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College Department of Textile Technology 76
Fibre Science And Technology
weight, fatty acids and a monohydric alcohol. The grease is not a fat but a wax that has the
power of absorbing large quantities of water.
iii) Suint: This is water-soluble matter that can be isolated from the raw wool. It is made up of
potassium salts of fatty acids and organic amino acids. The suint is a complex mixture.
iv) Sand and dirt: The fibre in its natural state contains a considerable amount of dirt held by
the grease. If falls off during the scouring operation when the grease is removed.
The cause of felting: Wool felts because of the serrated surface of its fibres formed by the
overlapping epithelial cells or scales (see figure). The wool fibre has a tip end and a root end. As
the scales are pointed in the direction of the fibre tip, less friction (between two fibres in
lengthwise contact) will result, if the fibre moves in a rootward direction than if it moves in
tipward direction. This difference in surface friction between the two directions is known as the
directional frictional effect (DFE).
During the normal laundering of a woollen fabric, the fibres in the constituent yarns will
tend to migrate or move. The movement of all the fibres will take place only in the respective
rootward directions of the individual fibres due to the DFE. This kind of one-way movement will
only increase the entanglement in the fibres and make the fabric more compact. The overall
result is the lengthwise and widthwise shrinkage of the fabric called felting. The chain of events
during felting is shown below;
The scales in wool The directional All fibres in a woollen The fabric shrinks
are all pointing in the frictional effect in the fabric in use can move and becomes very
tipward direction movement of fibres only toward their root ends compact, resulting in
due to the DFE
relative to each a felted fabric
Prevention of felting: As felting arises from the scales of the wool fibre, one logical way to
prevent felting is to remove or ‘smoothen’ the scales by some means, so that the directional
frictional effect cannot take place. Fibre migration will not be controlled by the scale structure.
The removal of the scales or smoothening the wool fibre surface is achieved by means of
suitable chemicals. The most successful process used is the ‘chlorination of wool’.
The process most widely adopted is the ‘wet chlorination process’, which consists in
treating the woollen fabric with acidified solutions of either sodium hypochlorite or bleaching
powder. This process is difficult to control because chlorine has a great affinity for wool and skill
is needed to see that every part of a large batch of fabric absorbs the same amount of chlorine.
It has been found that the pH of a solution containing active chlorine used in producing
‘non-felting’ wool is of great importance, and that the best pH for effective action and least
damage to wool is between pH 8 to 9. Wool is sometimes deliberately felted in a finishing
process (e.g. ‘fulling’) to give thick felted fabric.
3.21. Molecular properties of wool:
1. Chemical structure: The chemical structure given for silk, is also applicable to wool.
2. Polymer: Wool is made of the protein or polymer keratin. This protein is composed of 20
different amino acids. The major amino acids are Glutamic acid, cystine, Leucine, Serine
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College Department of Textile Technology 77
Fibre Science And Technology
and Arginine and together they constitute about 55 percent of the protein. The other 15
amino acids occur in minor quantities and make up the remaining 45 percent or so. Cystine
is a sulphur containing amino acid and is capable of forming crosslinks between adjacent
molecules of the fibre. This is a major difference between silk and wool.
3. Microfibrillar structure: Wool has a fibrillar structure. Three molecules spiral around
each other to form a ‘protofibril’, which is about 500 nm in length and about 2nm in diameter.
Ten to eleven protofibrils spiral around each other to form a ‘microfibril’ which is about 5 nm
in diameter and of yet unknown length. Hundreds of microfibrils combine together to give a
‘macrofibril’ of diameter 100 to 200 nm. Many macrofibrils are joined together to form a
cortical cell (see figure).
4. Degree of polymerization: This has not yet been determined to give a reliable estimate.
5. Crystalline /amorphous content: The fine structure of wool is extremely amorphous. It
is about 25 to 30 percent crystalline and 75to 70 percent amorphous. The spiralling of the
individual molecules, protofibrils, microfibrils and macrofibrils gives rise to a poor aligned
structure that is predominantly amorphous.
6. Chemical composition: This has already been discussed in detail earlier.
Uses of Wool: Wool has several applications. Some of the uses are listed below.
1. Apparel fabrics: Suits, costumes, pullovers, waistcoats, ovetcoats, dresses,
winter blouses.
2. Garment Accessories: Ties, scarves, hats, socks, stockings, etc.
3. Household textiles: Blankets, carpets, curtains, furnishings, etc.
4. Industrial textiles: Fire protection clothing, industrial felts, etc.
Types of Rayon: There are different types of rayon depending on the manufacturing method
used. The main types of rayon that have been and are presently in common uses are:
a) Viscose rayon
b) Cupramonium rayon, and
c) Polynosic rayon.
4.1. Outline of Process for Viscose Rayon: Viscose is a term used to describe fibres of
regenerated cellulose obtained by the viscose process. Cross and Bevan of U.K. discovered the
viscose process in the 1890’s. The commercial manufacture started much later. Viscose rayon
is the most popular type of regenerated cellulose. The cellulose comes from wood. The outline
of the process is:
i) Cellulose is purified and treated with caustic soda, which converts it into alkali
cellulose.
ii) The alkali cellulose is “aged” and then treated with carbon disulphide which converts
it into sodium cellulose xanthate.
iii) The sodium cellulose xanthate is dissolved in a dilute solution of caustic soda.
iv) This solution is then “ripened” and is then spun into an acid coagulating bath, which
regenerates the cellulose and precipitates it in the form of viscose rayon filament.
The conditioned sheets are weighed and then loaded vertically in a press and then
soaked in a 17.5% solution of caustic soda for 1-4 hours. This process is called mercerizing.
The boards swell in the liquor, which turns brown. About 8% of the original wood pulp dissolves.
The part that dissolves is called hemicellulose. The cellulose part is swollen, but not dissolved.
The excess alkali is squeezed out by a hydraulic ram in the press. A moist mass of soda-
cellulose is left behind and this is taken to a shredding machine. The alkaline liquors that are
pressed out are filtered and reused for the next batch of boards after adding to it fresh caustic
soda to make it up to 17.5% concentration. When the pressed alkali has become highly
contaminated after being used many times, it is sold to soap manufacturing units.
5. Ageing
Ageing is a process in which the crumbs of soda cellulose are stored or kept aside for a
long time and allowed to react with atmospheric air, in a galvanized vessel with a lid. The
oxygen in the air causes oxidation of the cellulose chain molecules and this results in its
depolymerisation or a breakdown of the long chain molecules. The average DP of the cellulose
falls from about 1000 to around 400 in this process. If the room temperature is 22 oC this process
takes about 3 - 3 ½ days. Higher temperature during ageing may be used but the time must be
reduced, so that too much depolymerisation does not occur.
Dull or dope dyed viscose fibre: If dull or dope dyed yarn is required to be made, about 0.5% -
2% of titanium dioxide or the required pigment (colouring matter) is dispersed in to the solution.
9. Ripening
The viscose solution is stored for 4-5 days at 10-18oC when it ripens. During ripening the
viscosity at first falls and then rises, so that it reaches the original viscosity. The solution is now
ready to spin. Viscose solution that is ready to spin is called dope. Further depolymerisation
takes place during ripening. Tests are done to determine when the viscose is ripe enough to be
spun.
The spinnerets or jets are made of a noble metal such as gold, tantalum or platinum as
other metals would be corroded due to continuous contact with the strong acid in the
coagulating bath. The spinning or coagulating bath is contained in a vessel of sheet lead and
may be composed of: ( Coagulating bath compositions vary from producer to producer ).
Sulphuric acid : 10 parts by weight
Sodium sulphate : 18 pats by weight
Glucose : 2 parts by weight
Zinc sulphate : 1 part by weight
Water : 69 pats by weight
The sodium sulphate precipitates the sodium cellulose xanthate into filaments and the
sulphuric acid converts it into cellulose. The glucose gives pliability and softens the yarn. The
presence of zinc sulphate gives yarn of increased strength and also filaments of serrated cross
section. The process variables that affect the quality of viscose rayon must be controlled. They
are (1) Temperature and composition of the bath, (2) Speed of coagulation, (3) Length of
immersion, (4) Speed of spinning.
Stretching
As the filaments emerge from the jet, they are led to the bottom Godet or feed Godet
roller, around which they pass three to four times for good grip. They are then passed three to
four times around the top Godet or draw Godet roller. The top Godet rotates at about two to
three times the speed of the bottom Godet roller. The yarn is thus stretched at this stage.
Stretching allows the molecules in the filaments to arrange themselves more nearly parallel to
the fibre axis. Stretching increases the orientation and therefore the strength of the filaments.
Take - up
The yarn passes from the top Godet downwards through a glass funnel to the centrifugal
spin pot known as the Topham box or Topham pot. The Topham box is a perforated cage
rotating at 7000 – 12000 rpm. A traversing arrangement moves the pot up and down and the
yarn is laid down uniformly on the sides of the pot to form a cake. The figure shows the wet
spinning process.
Spinning speeds
The normal speeds range from 60-80 metres/min. Some high speed processes run at
140 to 150 metres/min. If the speed of yarn delivery is 100 m/min and the spin pot runs at 7000
rpm, then the twist inserted into the yarn is 7000/100 = 70 turns per metre or 7000/(100 x 39.37)
= 1.8 turns per inch. The spin pot may be spun clockwise or anticlockwise so that S or Z twist
may be inserted to the yarn. A Topham box can take about 1.5 kg of wet yarn (0.5kg dry yarn
and 1kg of coagulating solution).
Post-spinning processes
The cakes of viscose yarn produced in the spinning section contain sulphuric acid and
other sulphur chemicals formed during coagulation. All of these chemicals have to be completely
removed before the yarn is dried.
Purification:
Purification is usually done by forcing the purifying liquids or water through the wet cakes
mounted on perforated spindles through which the liquids pass. The purifying sequence is given
below:
a) Washing with water to remove water-soluble chemicals.
b) Desulphurishing, using sodium sulphide solution, to remove compounds of sulphur
formed during coagulation.
c) Bleaching, using alkaline hypochlorite solution to make the yarn appear white.
d) Neutralizing, using hydrochloric acid to remove the hypochlorite.
e) Washing to remove the hydrochloric acid from the yarn.
f) Drying of cakes
g) Winding on cones
Finally the cakes of viscose rayon are dried and then wound on the bobbins. The cake
process of producing viscose rayon is a batch process that takes many days counting from the
manufacture of wood pulp.
Staple fibres produced in India: Grasim Industries Limited, Gwalior, M.P., a leading
manufacturer, produces the following range of viscose staple fibre for blending with cotton and
synthetic fibres:
Cotton spinning: 1.2, 1.5, 2.0 denier; 27, 32, 38, 44 mm length; bright, bleached, dull / semi
(for blends) dull, spun dyed
Synthetic spinning: 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 8.0 denier; 38, 44, 51, 60 mm length; bright,
(100% staple fibre) bleached, dull / semi-dull, dope-dyed or spun-dyed. Fine fibres (0.8 & 1.0
denier) and speciality fibres are also made.
4. Useful as a carrier fibre for spinning very short cotton fibres or asbestos. Which cannot
be spun on their own.
5. As staple fibre it may be used as 100% rayon yarns or in blends with polyester, acrylic,
cotton, polynosic, etc.
6. Viscose rayon with high covering power can also be produced. This filament viscose
rayon, is made by using sodium carbonate in the coagulating bath. As the filaments are
extruded carbon dioxide bubbles get entrapped in the filament. The resulting yarn is
somewhat hollow and very light, and therefore has high covering power.
7. Viscose rayon in film form is called cellophane and is used as packaging film, e.g. as
wrapping paper, etc.
1. It has a lower tenacity. The tenacity is reduced by about 50% when it is wet. Cotton
gains in strength when wet.
2. Its elongation is very high. In the wet state the elongation is even higher.
3. Its elastic recovery is poor and worse than that of cotton.
4. It swells too much in water itself. It does not therefore withstand the mercerization
process.
The viscose rayon is not of fibrillar in structure and has a very low DP of 200 cellobiose
units. On the other hand, cotton is “microfibrillar” in structure and has an average DP of about
5000 cellobiose units. A microfibril is a small bundle of molecules, and a fibril can be regarded
as a bundle of microfibrils and so on. Thus, a fibrillar structure is strong because the molecules
are held together by weak, but a very large number of intermolecular forces.
The low DP of the molecules in viscose gives rise to very few intermolecular bonds and
so microfibrils cannot be formed. The amorphous content in the fibre is therefore high and it
swells easily in water. Strong swelling chemicals like caustic soda used in the mercerization
process damages viscose rayon. The polynosic fibre is a modified kind of viscose rayon. In
polynosic rayon manufacture, steps are taken to maintain a higher average DP of 400 to 500
and also to obtain a microfibrillar structure.
It can be seen that the polynosic rayon process is shorter, by about two days or more, as
the stages of aging and ripening are avoided. As a result, the average DP of the resulting fibre is
much higher. The dilute spinning bath helps slower regeneration and the four-stepped godet
allows more uniform stretching. All these changes in the regular viscose process give rise to a
fibre with improved physical properties. However, the modified process is costly, especially due
to the changes that are necessary in the wet-spinning stage.
7. Dyeing: Polynosic fibre can be dyed with all classes of dyes that are applicable to cotton
and viscose rayon.
Uses of polynosic rayon
Polynosic rayon may be used in all applications where cotton is used though its wear
resistance is not as good as cotton. It finds applications in all sorts of dress material, curtains,
knitwear. It is also used in blend with polyester, cotton, etc.
4.10. Lyocell or Eco friendly Rayon or Tencel - the fibre of the future:
This fibre is a recent invention. “lyocell” is a generic name for eco-friendly cellulose
fibres. It may be defined as “a regenerated cellulosic fibre obtained by a organic-solvent
spinning process” Courtaulds Company of U.K. invented the fibre around 1980 as a modified
viscose process. The trade name of their first commercial fibre is ‘Tencel’. The traditional
viscose process uses a process that gives out harmful vapours and effluent. The vapours are
not good for human health and the liquid discharges spoil the soil and contaminate the
underground water. This process is therefore not eco-friendly. The Lyocell fibre is regarded as
eco friendly because the process of manufacture is such that no harmful vapours or effluent are
produced. The process is therefore not harmful to the health of the people working in the
production units. Also, the process does not give out harmful liquid discharges that would have a
bad effect on the surrounding land.
Principle of manufacture of nylon 66 polymer: The two monomers are reacted together first
to form an intermediate product called “Nylon 66 salt” or hexamethylene diamine adipic acid
(HA) salt. In the second stage of the reaction, the nylon salt is polymerized by condensation
polymerization to give nylon 66 polymer. During both the stages, the reactions take place with
the evolution of water.
Chemical reactions
Stage 1: Preparatin of Nylon 66 Salt
H2N(CH2)6NH2 + HOOC(CH2)4COOH H2N(CH2)6NHOC(CH2)4COOH + H2O
HMDA + AA Nylon 66 Salt + Water
Stage 2: Polycondensation
nH2N (CH2)6 NHOC (CH2)4 COOH + nH2O H { NH(CH2) 6NHOC(CH2)4CO }n OH + nH2O
Nylon 66 salt Nylon66 polymer + water
The homopolymer nylons, on the other hand, have only one-monomer repeat unit in the
polymeric chain molecule and the number of carbon atoms it contains is mentioned in the
designation. For example, the repeat unit of nylon 6 is that of caprolactam, which contains six
carbon atoms, hence the number 6 in the designation. Similarly, nylon 7 has a repeat unit
containing seven carbon atoms, and so on. As water comes out of the reaction between the two
monomers involved in the production of nylon 66, the reaction is said to be one of
condensation polymerization.
pressure is slowly released and the heating is continued to distill out all the water (i.e. to
remove all the steam.)
The function of the viscosity stabilizer is to control the molecular weight of the resulting
polymer. The greater the quantity added, the lower would be the molecular weight of the
final polymer and vice versa.
The function of titanium dioxide (TIO2) is to make the fibres appear dull. When this
chemical is not included, bright fibres are produced. The degree of fibre dulling can be
controlled by the varying quantity of titanium dioxide added to the polymerization mixture,
the greater the amount added, the greater being the dulling effect and vice versa, up to
three percent on the weight of the polymer is added for fully dull fibres.
iii) Production of nylon 66 chips:
In the batch process, the molten polymer, at a temperature of 285-290 oC at the end of
polymerization, is extruded through a slot in the form of a ribbon on to a casting wheel
immersed in a trough of water. The ribbon is thus quenched (cooled suddenly) with cold
water as soon as it solidifies. The function of the quenching operation is to keep the
degree of crystallinity in the polymer as low as possible, so that the polymer is easy to
melt and spin and give fibres of uniform properties during melt spinning.The ribbon of
nylon 66 is broken or cut into small pieces of uniform shape and size called chips. The
chips are dried in huge drying vessels to a moisture content below 0.05% and stored in
silos (large vessels) under an atmosphere of nitrogen.
Steps in the manufacture of nylon 66 fibre
There are two steps in the production of nylon 66 fibre.
Melt –spinning and take-up as undrawn yarn(UDY), and
Draw – twisting of the UDY to give fully-drawn yarn (FDY)
i) Melt spinning and take up
Nylon 66 is a thermoplastic polymer, so it is melt spun. The dry chips of the polymer are
fed through a Hopper into a Spinning Vessel B. In this vessel they fall on an electrically heated
Grid C, which has a mesh too small to pass the chips through it until they have melted. As the
chips melt, the molten nylon passes into the Pool D. The level of the pool of molten nylon is kept
constant by means of a electric float control which controls the electric heating of the grid. If the
level of the pool rises, the heating the grid is automatically cut off, and vice-versa.
A nitrogen atmosphere is maintained over the pool of molten polymer. The melt at
around 285º C is metered (measured) by a Metering Pump F through a filter to the spinnerette
E. The filtration helps to remove impurities. The spinnerette consists of a steel plate about 6mm
thick and about 50 or 75mm in diameter, with uniformly drilled each about 0.2mm in diameter.
The melt solidifies as soon as it comes out of the spinnerette and the filaments that are formed
pass through a cooling chimney in which a cold air-current G is blown across them. The
spinning speed is about 1000 m/min. The yarn coming out of the cooling chamber is about 70ºC
hot. It is then run through a Steam chamber H. to condition it. Finally, it passes through Guide
rollers K to be taken up (at about 1000m/min) on spool L1. undrawn yarn (UDY).
ii) Draw-twisting
Undrawn nylon 66 filaments (just spun) are not very strong. They are therefore cold
drawn or stretched at room temperature to 4-5 times their length. This process gives strong
filaments. The exact degree of stretch varies with the properties of polymer produced and the
type of yarn required. The stretching operation is done on a draw-twist machine. Undrawn nylon
yarn is pulled off the Spool L2, passed around Guides M and N, and taken through a pair of feed
rollers O, which determine the yarn’s initial speed (say ‘p’ m/min). The yarn then goes over a
deflector P and then two or three times around draw roller Q. The draw roller spins faster than
the feed rollers and gives the yarn a linear speed (say ‘q’ m/min). The draw ratio is usually about
1:5. The yarn then passes through a guide R, and is then taken up by bobbin S. Twist is inserted
in the yarn as it is taken up. The take-up speed is about 1000m/mm. The draw ratio or degree of
stretch is equal to the ratio of the linear speeds or the rpms of the rollers Q and O. If rollers Q
and O rotate at ‘Y’ and ‘x’ rpm respectively, the draw ratio is given by the ratio y/x.
Spin-finish oil is applied to the yarn just before take-up so as to make the yarn flexible enough
and suitable for further processes, such as texturising, weaving or knitting.
Nylon 6 Fibre
Nylon 6 is homopolymer. The monomer used in its manufacture is ‘caprolactam;, which
has the ring structure given below.
Nylon 6 is manufactured in two steps. In the first step, caprolactam is reacted with water
or hydrolysed to produce 6-amino caproic acid. In the second step, the 6-amino caproic acid,
along with caprolactam, is condensation-polymerised to produce the polymer, nylon 6 or
polycaprolactam.
Batch process: There are two stages in the batch process of polymerization of caprolactam.
In the first, some caprolactam is converted to amino-caproic acid, this reaction being carried out
under higher-than-atmospheric pressure. In the second reaction, which is carried out in a
separate vessel under below-atmospheric pressure, the mixture of caprolactam and amino-
caproic acid is polymerized to nylon 6. Solid caprolactam and 2-5% of its weight of water are
charged into a vessel provided with an agitator and heating arrangement. The vessel is heated
up to 90-100º C. On completion of the melting, the required quantity of up to 1% of viscosity
stabilizer, and delustrant tio2 is added.
The function of the viscosity stabilizer is to control the molecular weight of the final
polymer. The greater the quantity of stabilizer added, the lower will be the molecular weight of
the polymer. The stabilizer may be either the acid type (e.g. acetic acid, benzoic acid, etc.) or
the basic type (e.g. benzylamine). An acid stabilizer gives the nylon 6 polymer dyeability with
basic dyes, while a basic stabilizer gives dyeability with acid dyes.
The caprolactam melt, containing the stabilizer, is fed to a pre-heated autoclave through
melt filters. The melt temperature rises to 265-280ºC with 1-3 hours. During the initial hours of
the reaction, ring opening and prepolymerisation takes place. After prepolymerisation and
release of excess pressure, which may reach 10-20 atmospheres, vacuum is applied over the
melt to further remove the water from the system and promote fast build up of polymer
molecular weight. The condensation reaction is allowed to continue for another 3-6 hours. The
yield of polymer is about 90%. This means that up to about 10% of unconverted monomers and
oligomers are also present in the final product.
5.3.1. Production of polymer chips: After completion of polymerization, the clear viscous melt
is pressed by means of 2-5 kg/cm2 atmospheric pressure to the metering pumps and then to the
spinnerets. The ribbon of polymer that comes out of the spinnerete is taken to a casting vat filled
with water where it solidifies. Rollers draw the ribbon away and feed it into a chip-cutting
machine. The chips are extracted with hot water to remove unconverted monomers and
unwanted oligomers and finally dried. This is a major difference in the manufacturing process
steps of nylons 6 and 66. Nylon 66 does not leave any unconverted monomers at the end of the
polymerization that have to be extracted before spinning.
5.3.2. Continuous Process: The continuous process for the polymerization of nylon 6 is done
in a VK Tube’. The VK tube consists essentially of a 4-6 meter vertical tube into which molten
caprolactam together with stabilizer and water (which may contain delustrant if dull fibre is
required) is fed by means of metering pumps. During the passage of the melt in the VK tube,
some caprolactam rings open up to form amino-caproic acid, which initiates the polymerization
reaction. Water arising from polycondensation is removed from the reaction system in the form
of vapours that bubble out of the melt. By the time the melt reaches the bottom of the tube, it
gets fully polymerized and is withdrawn at a constant rate by means of a metering pump.
The continuous polymerization process is widely adopted today due to its simplicity and
the uniform product quality. In 1970s the VK tube was modified such that the unconverted
monomer and oligomers are removed from the polymer melt by the application of vacuum. This
modification allows the polymer melt to be taken directly for melt spinning without the need for
washing (extraction of chips), drying and remelting of chips during melt spinning. Chips can also
be produced, if required.
The spinneret consists of a steel plate about 6mm thick and about 50 or 75mm in
diameter, with uniformly drilled holes each about 0.2mm in diameter. The melt solidifies as soon
as it comes out of the spinnerette and the filaments so formed pass though a cooling chimney in
which a cold air current G is blown across them. The spinning speed is about 1000 m/min. As
the yarn comes out of the cooling chamber it is at a temperature of about 70ºC. It is then passed
around two rollers H1 and H2. The first applies water and a wetting agent to remove the last
traces of residual unconverted monomer. The second roller applies spin finish oil to the yarn so
as to make it more flexible and suitable for handing in further textile processes such as
texturising, weaving, knitting, etc. The yarn is then passed through guide rollers K and taken-up
on Spool L1, as undrawn yarn (UDY).
ii) Draw-twisting
Undrawn nylon 6 filaments are not very strong. They are therefore cold drawn or
stretched at room temperature to 4 - 5 times their length. This process gives strong filaments.
The exact degree of stretch varies with the properties of polymer produced and the type of yarn
required. The stretching operation is done on draw-twist machine. Undrawn nylon yarn is pulled
off the spool and passed around guide rolls to a pair of feed rollers, which determine the yarn’s
initial speed (say ’p’ m/min). The yarn then goes to a draw roller, which rotates at a higher rate
and gives the yarn a linear speed (say ’q’ m/min) about five times that of the feed roller. The
drawn yarn then passes through a thread guide, to a take-up bobbin, twist being inserted as the
yarn is taken up. This product is called fully-drawn yarn (FDY). The draw ratio or degree of
stretch is equal to the ratio of the linear speeds of the draw rollers and the feed rollers.
Types of nylon 6 yarn usually produced: Nylon 6 yarn is usually manufactured as two types:
(1) normal tenacity (or regular) yarn for household applications and high-tenacity (HT) yarn for
industrial applications. The HT yarns are made from special grade chips of higher average DP
than for regular yarn and a greater degree of stretch is given during the drawing stage.
5.4. Physical Properties of Nylon 6:
1. Tenacity and elongation: The strength of nylon 6 can be varied at will up to around a 9
gpd. The regular yarn has a tenacity of 4-5 gpd and a breaking elongation of about 30%.
The HT yarn has a tenacity in the range 7-9 gpd and an elongation-at-break of 16-20%.
2. Moisture content: In standard atmosphere (65% RH and 27ºC), this is only 4% for
nylon 6, the same as that for nylon 66.
3. Elastic recovery: Nylon 6 is an elastic fibre and recovers well from normal strains.
4. Density: Nylon 6 is a light fibre. Its density is 1.14 g / cc.
5. Electrical properties: Nylon 6 is regarded as a hydrophobic (water-disliking) fibre, as
its moisture content is low. Nylon is a poor conductor of electricity.
6. Microscopic appearance: Regular nylon 6 has a smooth cylindrical appearance in
longitudinal view and circular shape in cross-sectional view. For specific purposes, trilobal
(rounded - triangular) and other shapes of fibres are also produced.
7. Heat resistance: The melting point of nylon 6 is 215-220°C. Nylon 6 is less resistant to
heat than nylon 66 (e.g; ironing).
Differences between nylon 6 and nylon 66: The main differences are in: (i) the monomers
used, (ii) the type of polymer, (iii) chemical structure, (iv) repeat unit, (v) mer weight, (vi) average
DP, (vii) melting point, (viii) specific solubility and (ix) the depth of shade produced with acid
dyes.
Uses of Nylon 6
Nylon 6 is a versatile fibre which has variety of uses. Some of the uses of reqular nylon 6 are:
1. Socks: Nylon 6 yarn is used in textured form to make good, comfortable and durable
socks, stockings, hoses etc.
2. Woven fabric: Nylon 6 continuous filament yarn is used for producing light-weight
fabrics such as 100% georgette sarees and other dress wear. Sofa cloth, carpets, swim
wear, uniform cloth, filter-cloth, protective clothing may be made of nylon 6 yarn.
3. Knitted fabric: Knitted fabric and garments such as blouses, T-shirts, shirting cloth, etc.
may be made of textured nylon.
Properties of Nomex
1. Tenacity and Elongation-at-break:- Nomex has a dry tenacity of 4.5 - 5.3 gpd and a
wet tenacity of 3.0 - 4.1 gpd. Its breaking elongation is 22-32% in the dry state and 20-30%
in the wet state.
2. Microscopic Appearance: The fibre is cylindrical in longitudinal view. In Cross-sectional
view it is shaped like a dumb-bell or a regular peanut-shell.
3. Density: This is 1.38 g / cc for Nomex, the same as that of PET polyester fibre.
4. Moisture Regain: Nomex shows a moisture regain of 4.5% in standard atmosphere
(65%RH and 20ºC.).
5. Melting Point: Nomex is flame retardant. It does not melt easily. It decomposes at
371ºC.
6. Chemical Resistance: The fibre is unaffected by most acids under normal conditions
and has good resistance to alkalis, bleaches and solvents.
7. Dyeing: The industrial yam is non-dyeable. Staple fibre is dyed with cationic dyes.
8. Resistance to Light: This is good for Nomex. There is a slight loss in strength on
proplonged exposure to light.
9. Resistance to Micro-organisms and Ageing: The fibre has excellent resistance to
mildew and aging.
10. Abrasion Resistance: The fibre has good abrasion resistance.
5.5.2. Kevlar
Properties of Kevlar:
1. Tenacity and Elongation-at-break: Kevlar is very strong fibre. In fact, it is the strongest
textile fibre available today. It has a dry tenacity in the range 23 - 26.5 gpd. It’s wet to dry
tenacity is nearly 95%. Its breaking elongation is 2.5 - 4.0%. in both dry state and wet state.
2. Microscopic Appearance: It is cylindrical in longitudinal view and circular in cross-
section.
3. Density: This is 1.44 - 1.47g / cc for Kevlar.
4. Moisture Regain: Kevlar shows a moisture regain of about 4.3% in standard
atmosphere.
5. Effect of Heat: Kevlar is difficult to ignite. It does not propagate a flame. It does not
melt. It decomposes at about 482ºC
6. Chemical Resistance: The fibre is unaffected by most acids under normal conditions
and has good resistance to alkalis and solvents, but should not be bleached. Kevlar 149 has
the best chemical resistance.
7. Dyeing: Kevlar is non-dyable. It is spun-dyed to the required colours.
8. Resistance to Light: This is generally good for Kevlar. But prolonged exposure to
sunlight causes deterioration.
9. Resistance to Micro-organisms and Aging: It has excellent resistance to mildew and
aging.
10. Abrasion Resistance: The fibre has good abrasion resistance.
Uses of Kevlar:
Kevlar is used where its high strength and modulus are required. It is therefore used in:
1. Radial tyres (as tyre cord)
2. Conveyor belts and high-power transmission belts (as the reinforcing component)
3. Composites (as the reinforcing component)
4. Aircraft parts and other high-performance products (as the reinforcing fibre / yarn)
5. Ropes & Cables
6. Ballistics (bullet proof fabrics / vests) and friction products.
Two monomers are required for the manufacture of the PET polymer. They are:
b) Ethylene glycol (EG): HOH2C - CH2OH, sometimes called monoethylene glycol (MEG).
OR
In the second step, the low DP (oligomers) DGT is polymerized to give the polymer
polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This reaction is called ‘polycondensation’. The
polycondensation step is similar in both the cases.
Polycondensation (PC):
The Polycondensation or PC reaction is the same for both the routes to PET
manufacture. A catalyst such as antimony trioxide or antimony triacetate is used to increase the
speed of the reaction. The temperature of the reaction is kept at 270 - 285ºC. In order to reduce
thermal degradation, a stabilizer such as triphenyl phosphate, phosphoric acid or phosphorous
acid is added at the very start of the PC reaction. Antioxidants are also used sometimes for
greater protection of the polymeric product. An increasing vacuum is applied as the reaction
proceeds. This is to ensure a sufficiently high degree of polymerization of the PET polymer and
also to help the removal of the EG vapours. An efficient removal of EG vapours increases the
reaction velocity. The PC reaction is usually completed in 3 - 6 hours.
MANUFACTURE OF POLYESTER FIBRE
The polymer melt is then extruded under pressure through a jet in the polycondensation
vessel (also called autoclave). The melt comes out in the form of ribbon on to a casting wheel
or drum. Chilled water is sprayed on the ribbon of polymer and it solidifies. It is then cut into
“chips” of definite size for easy handling. The chips are dried to a moisture content below 0.005
percent before spinning.
1) Melt-extrusion and take-up: PET fibres are melt-spun. The polymer chips taken for melt
spinning must be sufficiently dry. If they are not dry enough, they will be degraded during the
melting and spinning processes, due to the action of the oxygen (present in the moisture) at high
temperature. The dry chips are put into hopper reservoirs, from which they fall on to an
electrically heated grid and melt. The melt passes through the grid to a molten polymer pool. It
is then pumped by means of a metering pump through a filter and extruded through a spinneret
with circular holes. The individual filaments that come out of the spinneret solidify almost
immediately due to a blast of cold air that hits them. They are then collected together at a haul-
off roller and wound on to spools as undrawn vam by means of a take-up / winding device. The
take-up speed is 800 to 1,200 meters / min. The spin finish oil is applied to the yarn just before
take up to make it suitable for easy processing during further textile processes such as weaving,
knitting, etc.
The speed of the metering pump determines the denier of the extruded filaments, the
higher the speed, the greater the denier due to the larger quantity of polymer melt coming out
and vice versa. The filter ensures that no impurities or improperly dissolved polymer particles
are passed on to the spinneret. Both of these would choke some holes in the spinneret and give
rise to a variation in the filament denier. The take-up speed determines the degree of orientation
of molecules in the filaments. Higher take up speed produces yarn of correspondingly higher
degree of orientation and vice versa. Whatever be the case, in the conventional two-step
process of manufacture, the melt-extruded yarn is regarded as undrawn yarn (UDY) or low-
oriented yarn (LOY) and is very weak and useless for normal textile applications unless it is
drawn or stretched.
ii) Draw-twisting: The undrawn yarn is weak and is stretched or drawn to make it strong
enough for textile use. It is taken to a draw-twist machine; where it is hot-stretched, at a
temperature of 90- 120ºC, to many time its original length. The amount of stretch given, or the
draw-ratio used, depends upon the type of yarn being produced. PET has to be hot-stretched so
that uniformly stretched yarn is produced. The drawing operation obviously increases the length
of the yarn: it also reduces the diameter and the denier of the filaments and the yarn
correspondingly. However, the number of filaments in the yarn, or the ‘filament count’ remains
unchanged.
For example, a 400-denier / 40-filament UDY, stretched to a draw ratio of 1:5, will result
in an 80-denier / 40 flament FDY. The filament denier is reduced from 10 to 2. After drawing,
the yarn is given a low twist to keep all the filaments in the yarn together and wound on to a
spindle as FDY In the figure, the passage of yarn through a draw-twist machine is shown. UDY
from Package 1 goes to the drawing arrangement consisting of the Feed Roller 2, Heater 3 and
the Draw Roller 4. The rpm of Roller 4 is 4-8 times that of Roller 2. The hot-stretched yarn
(FDY) that comes out passes first through guide 5, then the Ring-and-Traveller 6 and is finally
wound on to Bobbin 7. Thus, the two operations of ’drawing’ and ‘twisting take place in a draw-
twist (DT) machine,
Dull PFY: When PET is melt-spun normally, the yarn is bright in appearance. If dull yarn is
required a small quantity of titanium dioxide (TiO 2) is included in the polymer melt before
spinning or during the polymerization. About 0.3 to 1.0 percent on the weight of fibre is used for
semi-dull yarns. For very dull yarns up to 3 percent of TiO2 may be used.
5.6.4. Kinds of PET yarn: Three kinds of PET continuous filament yarn are normally made.
a) Normal-tenacity yarn: This is regular yarns of normal strength used mainly for clothing
or other household purpose. These yarns are ‘flat yarns’ that may be produced either by the
conventional two-step melt-spinning process at take-up speeds of about 1,000 m/min as
described above, or by the modern ‘spin-draw’ process at a take-up speed of about 6,000
m/min.
b) High-tenacity (HT) yarn: Special - grade chips are extruded and drawn or stretched to
a grater extent than the normal-tenacity yarns to give high-tenacity yarn that is used mainly
for high-performance applications in industry.
c) Textured yarn: Partially - oriented yarn (POY) is first produced in a modern melt-
spinning machine called the High-speed Melt-spinning Equipment. The take-up speed is
about 3,500 m/min. POY is better - oriented, stronger and more stable than UDY produced
by the conventional melt extrusion equipment, where the take-up speed is around 1,000
m/min. The polyester POY serves as feed yarn for the draw-texturing machine, which
converts it into textured yarn.
Normal Grade High-speed Melt-extrusion & Draw-texturing Textured yarn ready for
PET Chips take-up at 3500 m/min as POY use in knitting/weaving
High Tenacity Conventional Melt-extrusion & Draw-twisting HT-FDY ready for use in
take -up at 1000m/min as UDY industrial applications
PFY
Special-grade
PET Chips
Spin-drawing & take-up at over HT-FDY ready for use in
6000 m/min as FOY industrial applications
Polyester Filament Yarn in India: Regular Polyester Filament Yarn is available in India in the
denier range 34 – 310, and as semi-dull, bright or dope-dyed yarn.
The tow is drawn as usual, by means of the standard arrangement of rollers consisting of
feed rollers and draw rollers. It is then passed through a mechanical ‘crimping’ device, which
also has a heat-setting arrangement to “set” the crimp. The crimped tow is then cut to specified
length. The staple fibre is then packed into bales. As polyester fibre is commonly blended with
cotton, wool, viscose rayon oracrylic fibres, PSF is normally made in deniers and staple length,
suitable for conversion to yarn by the cotton, worsted or woolen systems of spinning.
Dull PSF: As for PFY, PSF of the required dullness can also be produced by mixing suitable
quantities of TiO2 in the melt before the extrusion or at the polymerization stage. Usually bright,
semidull and/or fully dull PSF fibres are produced in industry.
cost of production of the fibre. These advantages are achieved by using a continuous
polymerization process in which the raw materials are fed at one end of the plant and PFY of
PSF is continuously produced at the other end, without the intermediate step of polymer chips
production.
5) Solubility: PET fibres are dissolved by the organic chemicals hot m-cresol, hot
concentrated sulphuric acid and orthochlorophenol. A mixture of (tetrachloro acetic acid and
phenol) or a solution of trichloro acetic acid in methylene chloride also dissolves the fibre.
6) Biological Resistance: Insects and micro organisms do not attack the polyester
fibres.
7) Dyeing: PET fibres have high crystallinity and an absence of chemical polar
groups. They are therefore difficult to dye. Only disperse dyes are used and the dyeing is
done at high temperature and pressure or by the use of ‘carriers’ at 100ºC under
atmospheric pressure. Today many modified PET fibres are available. For example, one
type, called ‘cationic-dyeable fibre’ can be dyed to bright shades with cationic dyes. Another
type, the ‘carrier-free dyeable fibre’, can be dyed at 100ºC under atmospheric pressure,
without carriers.
iii) As yarn in elastic tapes, labels, zipper fabric, braiding, etc. and as sewing thread.
iv) As fibre and/or yarn in carpets.
v) As coated fabrics for protective clothing, gloves, foot wear, etc.
vi) PET polymer is also used in film form as X-ray films, audio and videotapes,
photographic film, etc.
5.7.1. Definition of acrylic fibre: The FTC defines an acrylic fibre as a manufactured fibre in
which the fibre forming substance is long-chain synthetic polymer consisting of at least 85% by
mass of acrylonitrile (CH2-CHCN) units.
Type of copolymer: The arrangement of the monomeric units along the polymer molecule is
such that the copolymer is a random copolymer. The comonomers that make up the non-
acrylonitrile content of up to 15% may be vinyl acetate, acrylic acid, vinyl benzene (or styrene),
vinyl pyridine, acrylamide, sodium vinyl benzene sulphonate, vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride,
etc.
Effect of the chemical nature of comonomers on fibre dyeability: The chemical nature of
the comonomer used in the manufacture of acrylic fibres determines the dyeability of the fibre.
i) Comonomer of the acidic type: These are comonomers such as acrylic acid
(sodium salt), sodium vinyl benzene sulphonate, etc. Comonomers of this type have anions
(negatively charged ions) capable of attracting the positively charged cations in the cationic
dyes. Acrylic fibre containing such comonomers shows good affinity for basic or cationic
dyes.
ii) Comonomer of the basic type: If comonomers such as vinyl pyridine, acrylamide,
etc, are used the acrylic fibre shows good affinity for acid dyes. The cationic groups in these
comonomers are attracted to the anions of acid dyes.
Suspension Polymerisation
This is a widely used method that is also called slurry polymerization as the polymer is
obtained in the form of ‘slurry’ or mixture with water. The additives and the conditions of
polymerization are:
1. Catalyst: Water-soluble catalyst like hydrogen peroxide, thiourea, etc. is used. The
catalyst concentration is 0.1 to 1.0 percent on the weight of monomer.
2. Initiator. sodium bisulphite. (Na2S2O8- NaHSO3), is used as an ‘initiator’ to chemically
‘start the addition polymerization; reaction
3. Temperature: The suspension polymerization is carried out at 40–70ºC.
4. pH: An acidic medium of pH 2.5–3.5 is used
5. Polymerisation medium: The polymerization of acrylonitrile and the comonomers is
carried out in water. The monomers are dispersed in water by agitation. The water-to-
monomer ratio is in the range 1:2.5 - 1:7. In a batch process, as the polymerization goes on,
the size (or length) of the molecules goes on increasing. After a certain state, the molecules
are so long that they are insoluble in water and precipitate as a solid. The time of
polymerization to get a polymer of the desired viscosity is about two hours in a batch
process. The yields are 70 - 90 percent.
In a continuous process, monomer, water and initiator are fed to a continuously stirred
overflow reactor at atmospheric pressure. Polymerization of acrylonitrile starts immediately with
the medium turning milky white in colour and the polymer is obtained as slurry. The time of
reaction is only 90 minutes in a continuous process and the yield is good.
Post-polymerisation reactions: The slurry of acrylic polymer is filtered from the aqueous
reaction medium and washed to remove any unreacted monomer and other impurities
generated from the catalyst. The polymer is finally dried, powdered and stored in large
containers (silos) and used when required for the preparation of the spinning solution. The
unreacted monomer (acrylonitrile) is usually recovered and reused in the next batch of polymer
manufacture. The advantages of the post polymerisation reactions are:
Its simplicity
Its ease of control
Its applicability to a variety of polymer compositions.
The temperature of polymerization is moderate
A high yield is obtained.
In solution polymerization, as the polymerization goes on, the molecules become longer.
But in this case they remain in solution as the polymerization medium is a solvent. The resulting
solution of acrylic polymer is distilled to separate unreacted monomers (acrylonltrile) from the
spinning dope. The distilled monomers are reused for the next batch of polymerization.
However, the disadvantage is that productivity is lower and the dope concentration
obtained is not enough for dry spinning. The method is therefore more suitable for wet-spun
acrylic fibre.
1. DRY - SPINNING
Dry spinning of acrylic fibre is usually done in two states:
a) Preparation of Dope: The dry polymer is mixed with dimethyl formamide or dimethyl
acetamide with vigourous stirring at a very low temperature of 0 – 5°C to obtain polymer slurry.
This is then heated to 80 – 90°C to get a clear solution. Additives are added at this stage to give
the resulting fibre some specific properties. For example, heat stabilizer to prevent
discolouration, tints and optical brightening agents to improve brightness, titanium dioxide as
delustrant and pigments to impart colour. The concentration of the spinning solution is 25 - 35%.
b) Spinning: The dope at 80-90°C is extruded through a spinneret usually containing 300-900
fine holes into a vertical chamber. Preheated inert gas (e.g. nitrogen gas) is blown into the
chamber at the bottom as the filaments come down. Due to the counter-current drying, the
solvent evaporates and the filaments solidify. The temperature of the inert gas depends on the
nature of the polymer and the solvent used and varies from 100-250°C. The removed solvent,
mixed with inert gas, comes out of the chamber at the top and is sent to a recovery plant. The
solvent is separated, stored and reused in the next batch.
c) Tow Formation: The solidified filaments come down from the spinner et at speeds of 200-
500 m/min. They come out of the spinning chamber by means of a haul-off roller at the bottom
of the chamber. The filaments coming out thus from several parallel spinnerets are combined to
form a ‘Tow’ consisting of thousands of filaments and collected in cans.
d) Washing and Stretching: The tow contains about 10-15 percent residual solvent, which is
removed by washing with hot water in a separate step. The tow is also hot-stretched three to
four times its length during the washing stage. This is done by means of two sets of rollers in the
washing trough, the first of which rotates at 10-25 m/min and the second at 30-90 m/min.
e) Drying, Crimping and baling: The stretched tow then passes through many operations
including drying, crimping and heat setting. Spin finish is applied to the tow and it is either cut to
the desired length to give staple-fibre or packed as tow. The staple fibre is used for the
production of 100 percent acrylic or acrylic blended spun yarns. The tow is converted to top and
used in the production of blended yarn. The cross-sections of dry spun acrylic fibres are usually
of the dog bone or dumb-bell shape.
a) Preparation of dope: The dry polymer is mixed with dimethyl formamide or dimethyl
acetamide or an inorganic solvent with vigourous stirring at a very low temperature of 0-5°C to
obtain polymer slurry. This is then heated to 80-90°C to get a clear solution. Additives are added
at this stage to give the resulting fibre some specific properties. For example, heat stabiliser to
prevent discolouration, tints and optical optical brightening agents to improve brightness,
titanium dioxide as delustrant and pigments to impart colour. The concentration of the spinning
solution may be 20-28 percent.
b) Spinning: The dope at 80-90°C is extruded through a spinneret containing 25,000 – 75,000
fine holes into a coagulating bath consisting of 60-65 parts of the solvent mixed in water and
maintained at a pH of 2.5 - 3. The water acts as a non-solvent and coagulates (Precipitates) the
filaments coming out of the spinneret. The speed of the haul-off rollers is 10-25 m/min.
c) Tow Formation: The filaments coming out as explained above from several parallel
spinnerets are combined to form a tow consisting of hundreds of thousands of filaments.
d) Hot- Stretching: The tow is led to a hot-water bath containing a standard drawing
arrangement. The tow is hot-stretched three to four times its length by means of the two sets of
rollers in the washing trough. The first set of rollers, the feed rollers, rotates at 10-25m/min and
the second set, the draw rollers, at 30-90m/min. The draw ratio is in the range 1:3.5 to 1:10.
e) Washing: The wet tow containing residual solvent is washed with hot water in the next step
to remove the solvent.
f) Drying crimping and balling: The stretched tow then passes through many operations
including drying crimping and heat setting. 0.3 - 1% spin finish is applied to the tow and it is
either cut to the desired length to give staple-fibre or packed as tow. The staple fibre is used for
the production of 100 percent acrylic or acrylic blended spun yarns. The tow is converted to top
and used in the production of blended yarn. The cross-sections of wet spun acrylic fibres are
usually nearly circular or bean shaped.
Spinning a mixture of 30-35% of High shrinkage fibre and 70-65 percent of Normal
shrinkage fibre by the short-staple spinning process will give a single yarn of acrylic fibre. This
yarn is made into a four-ply yarn by means of the doubling process. Treating this four-ply yarn
with boiling water or heat-setting it will shrink the High shrinkage fibres in the yarn greatly and
cause the Normal shrinkage fibre in close contact with them to bend and crimp. As a result of
the crimping of about two-thirds of the fibres, the yarn as a whole will increase in diameter and
give rise to a high-bulk yarn which appears voluminious but which is soft, warm and flexible. If is
HS fibre and is NS fibre, the following illustration shows schematically the principle of the
formation of a high-bulk yarn.
[8] Thermal Properties: Acrylic fibres show poor heat conductivity, which means
that they are warm fibres. The fibres do not melt easily like PET or nylon fibres, but melt with
decomposition at 280-330°C.
[9] Shrinkage: Regular (non-shrinkable) acrylic fibre has a boiling water shrinkage
of 0.5-2%. The high shrinkage fibre used for high-bulk acrylic yarn has shrinkage in the
range 22-25%.
Uses of Acrylic Fibre: Acrylic fibres are used widely in the form of fibre, yarn and woven and
knitted fabric. Some uses are:
[1] Apparel: 100% acrylic yarns are used mainly in the production of sweaters, knitted
outerwear fabric like T-shirts, blouses, frocks, skirts, underwear, shawls, caps, athletic
socks, sweatshirts, tracksuits, etc. As hi-bulk yarn it is hand-knitted to make pullovers,
cardigans, shawls, etc.
Polyethylene Fibres: Extruding polyethylene polymer, which is made from ethylene, produces
polyethylene fibre. Two kinds of polyethylene fibres have been produced commercially. One is
referred to as low-density polyethyiene (or LDPE) fibres and the other as high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) fibres.
LDPE Fibres:
Melt Spinning: Polyethylene is melt-spun. It is extruded at 300°c through a spinneret into a
current of cooling air and taken up as undrawn yarn. It is then cold-drawn to about six times its
original length and packaged as fully drawn yarn.
LDPE fibre is not suitable for apparel textile because it has a low melting point,
practically no moisture absorption and a waxy, unpleasant handle. It has only some industrial
applications.
1. LDPE fibre is used in boiler suits and clothing required for corrosive chemical plants
especially because of its excellent chemical resistance.
2. It is also used in low-temperature filtration, sewage filtration, etc.
3. LDPE fabrics made from 500 – denier monofilaments are used for car upholstery.
4. Nowadays, HDPE fibre is the one mostly used in textile applications rather than LDPE
fibre.
5.8.3. HDPE (High Density Poly ethylene Fibres):
HDPE fibre finds wider commercial applications as its properties are better than LDPE.
Chemical Reaction: The monomer in this case also is ethylene. But the polymerization reaction
is done under reduced pressure and temperature compared with those used for the production
of LDPE polymer. The chemical reaction is the same as for LDPE fibre.
A.P.
n(CH2 = CH2) - (CH2 – CH2)n-
‘n’ molecules of ethylene Polyethylene
Polymerisation
LDPE Polymer HDPE Polymer
Conditions
1,500 atmospheres 30 atmospheres
1. Pressure
( 1,500 kg/cm2) ( 30kg/cm2)
2. Temperature, °C 200°c 100°c
3. Catalyst A trace of oxygen Special Catalysts
Slightly branched molecules Linear molecules without
Close alignment of adjacent branching
4.Type of chain
molecules possible only where no Close alignment of adjacent
molecule
braches are present molecules possible for much
greater molecular lengths
CH2- CH3
5. Chemical Structure
-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2- CH2-
CH2- CH2-CH-CH2- CH2- CH2-
Lower density: Lower crystallinity; Higher density: Higher crystallinity;
6. Resulting
Lower melting point; Lower Higher melting point; Higher
Differences in
tenacity; Higher elongation-at- tenacity; Lower elongation-at-break
Properties
break (Than HDPE fibre) (Than LDPE fibre)
Melt Spinning:
HDPE is melt-spun. It is extruded at 300°C through a spinneret into a current of cooling
air and taken up as undrawn yarn. It is then cold-drawn to about six times its original length and
Thiagarajar Polytechnic College Department of Textile Technology 122
Fibre Science And Technology
packaged as fully drawn yarn. HDPE yarn is predominantly made in India in the form of highly
stretched, very strong tape yarn meant for sacking.
1. HDPE fibres have a tenacity of 4-6 grams per denier and a breaking elongation of 20%.
These properties are unaffected in the wet condition.
2. Like LDPE fibre, the outstanding property of HDPE fibre is its chemical stability, which
results from its inertness to chemicals. It is resistant to strong acids and most chemicals. It is
therefore used in protective clothing.
3. HDPE melts at a higher temperature of 130-135°C. This is too low for practical purposes
and the fibre is therefore unsuitable for high temperature applications.
4. Its specific gravity is 0.95 – 0.96. It is the third lightest of all fibres and will also float in
water.
5. HDPE fibre has practically no moisture regain and no absorbancy. It cannot be wetted.
6. HDPE fibre is very resistant to microbiological attack.
7. Being an inert fibre and non-wetting, HDPE fibre cannot be dyed in fibre form even under
severe conditions. If coloured fibre is desired, it is mass-coloured (i.e. colouring the melt
before spinning).
8. HDPE fibre has a low coefficient of friction. This means that it will be slippery. Slipping of
stacked goods package in HDPE material is quite common.
3. Specific gravity is lower than that for polyethylene; for polypropylene it is 0.90-0.92.
Polypropylene is therefore the lightest of all commercial fibres.
4. Moisture regain is practically nil. It is less than 0.05%. Polypropylene fibre has therefore
little use as an apparel fibre.
5. The fibre has good abrasion resistance.
6. Melting point of polypropylene is 165° to 170°C. This is low for application of the fibre in
the apparel industry.
7. The chemical structure and the typical average DP of polypropylene – already
discussed.
8. Chemical resistance of the fibre is excellent. Acids and alkalis have very little effect on
polypropylene. However, oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide will attack the fibre.
9. The fibre is easily washable and it dries quickly.
10. Polypropylene is sensitive to the action of light. This is due to the fibre being sensitive
to the ultra-violet and infrared rays of the sun. The average DP is lowered due to prolonged
exposure and the fibre weakens.
11. Polypropylene fibre is difficult to dye. This is because the fibre has a high degree of
crystallinity.
The term spandex is used, as it is a generic name given by the Federal Trade
commission (US). Spandex is defined as a manufactured fibre in which the fibre-forming
substance is a long chain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by mass of segmented
polyurethane.
The Du Pont company (USA) invented the first spandex or segmented polyurethane fibre
in USA and named it Lycra. Now it is manufactured under their license in many countries.
Petrofils India Co. Ltd., Gujarat manufactures Lycra in India. There are several other
manufacturers of spandex fibre, each of whom give their own trade name for their fibres.
Spandex fibres may be spun as monofilaments, or as multifilament yarns in which a number of
fine filaments have joined together after spinning. Extruding sheets of the polymer and then
cutting these into filaments produces square-section spandex monofilament.
Uses of Spandex fibre: Spandex fibre is used extensively in all applications where its excellent
extensibility and good recovery from stretch is required. Spandex filaments are used in three
forms:
a. Bare filaments: Uncovered spandex filaments are replacing natural rubber covered yarns.
The bare filaments are used in the production of foundation garments (i.e. underwear),
swimwear and hosiery. Bare spandex filaments are used primarily as knitted structures like
tricot, lace, etc.
b. Covered yarns: Spandex filaments are also used in covered form. The spandex filament
forms the core and this is cover by two layers of yarn of hard fibre such as cotton, nylon, etc.
spun in opposite directions. These kinds of yarn are used particularly in woven constructions.
c. Core-spun yarns: This kind of yarn has a spandex yarn core covered by non-elastic fibre,
such as cotton, wool, acrylic, polyester, etc. In the form of spun yarn it is made on a ring
spinning frame by feeding the spandex core into the web of drafted fibres at the nip of the last
pair of the drafting rollers. The emerging combination will thus have a spandex yarn covered by
a spun yarn of non-elastic fibre. Core-spun yarns are used for making woven and knit goods.
Glass manufacturers make several types of glass with different compositions. Each type
is suitable for specific end uses. The primary ingredients of glass are silica sand (silica) and
limestone (calcium carbonate); other ingredients such as soda ash (sodium carbonate), potash
(potassium carbonate), aluminium hydroxide or alumina (aluminium oxide), magnesia
(magnesium oxide) or (boric oxide) are often included in varying quantities. Glass fibre is
therefore defined as a fibre made of mixed silicates. Textile glass fibres are usually made from
glass of two different compositions. One type is called ‘E’ Glass and the other is called ‘C’ Glass.
E-Glass contains less silica and soda but more lime and alumina than C- Glass.
[2] Staple-fibre glass, in woven form, it is used as filtration cloth for gases and liquids in
many industrial operations.
[3] Lamp wicks and ropes may be made of glass fibre.
[4] Glass fibre is used extensively as insulation material for electrical, thermal and
acoustical insulation purposes. It is used as insulation in electrical goods like motors,
transformers, switchgear, wire, cable insulation, Glasswool, insulation for steam pipes,
sound insulation in recording studios etc.
[5] The biggest single use for glass fibres is as reinforcement fibre in plastics, Glass fibre
reinforces plastics the same way as steel reinforces concrete. Applications include boat
hulls, car bodies, aircraft, radio and television cabinets, hot-air ducts (large pipes), flexible
tubing, petrol or chemicals storage tanks, building paneling, translucent steel, furniture, etc.
[6] Continuous filament glass yarns are used as reinforcement in radial tyres for
automobiles and in transmission and conveyor belting.
[7] Glass fibre fabric is used in traditional textile applications such as fire proof curtains,
tablecloths etc., in theatres, restaurants and other public buildings. Glass fibre is also used
for making apparel fabrics in special applications such as car racing suits and suits for
astronauts due to its flameproof properties.
[8] The most recent application of special glass fibre is in optic fibre cables (OFC) for the
telephone and telecommunication industry. The special kind of glass filaments used in OFCs
is made of quartz glass and has many advantages compared with copper cables that have
been used traditionally for years.
Carbon fibre may be defined as a fibre that contains at least 90% of carbon obtained by
the controlled pyrolysis of appropriate precursor fibres. Pyrolysis means heat treatment for
extended periods of time under specific conditions. Precursor fibre means a fibre that acts as
the starting material for the production of carbon fibres. Acrylic or viscose fibres or pitch have
been used for this.
6. Specific Gravity: This is in the range 1.77 to 1.96. Carbon is thus the second heaviest
textile fibre.
7. Moisture Regain: Carbon fibres have zero percent moisture regain.
8. Effect of Heat: Carbon fibres do not melt. It oxidizes slowly at temperatures above
300°C.
9. Chemical Properties: The fibres have excellent resistance to acids and alkalis even at
high temperature. Strong oxidizing agents will degrade the fibre. They are inert to all
common solvents but sensitive to hypochlorite. They cannot be dyed.
[10] Microbiological, Light and Abrasion Resistance: The fibres have excellent resistance to
microbiological organisms, aging and sunlight. Like most stiff fibres, they have poor
resistance to abrasion.
1. Gold zari: is usually a red or orange dyed continuous silk filament yarn around which
gold foil in the form of a ribbon is uniformly wound. Because both silk and gold are costly, so
gold zari is also costly. Gold is a noble metal, so it does not tarnish with use. It has
excellent resistance to chemicals that can damage textile fibres.
2. Silver zari: This is similar to gold zari except that a ribbon of silver foll is used instead of
gold. To make silver zari cheaper still, red-dyed nylon continuous fiament yarn has been
used as the core yarn instead of silk. Silver tarnishes with use due to atmospheric oxidation
and appears blackish. This is a disadvantage with silver zari, though it is available at a
much lower price. Further, its resistance to chemicals is not as good as that of gold.
3. Artificial zari: This is the cheapest or all types of zari. It consists of any common
continuous filament yarn, typically nylon, wrapped with aluminium foil (for a silvery
appearance ) or with gold-coloured aluminium foil (for a golden appearance.) This type of
zari is the cheapest of all and not as durable as the above two types.
In the production of this type of metallic fibre, a thermoplastic adhesive is applied to both
sides of a sheet of aluminium 0.01 mm thick. The adhesive may or may not be coloured. The
coated foil is heated to about 90ºC and then passed through a set of rollers along with two
sheels of plastic film in such a way that the aluminium sheet is in the middle. The laminated
sheet is taken up as usual. It is then slit (cut) into ribbons of uniform width (or 0.2 – 3 mm) for
use as metal monofilaments.If the adhesive is colourless, silver coloured filaments result. By
using an orange-yellow dyestuff or pigment, a gold coloured filament can be produced. Similarly
using the appropriate dyestuffs or pigments will produce metal filaments of any desired colour.
b) Aluminium powder coated plastic covered with plastic film: This is simply a plastic film
that has been vacuum-plated with vaporised aluminium and then laminated suitably. Polyester
or other plastic film is first coated with colourless or coloured aluminium powder. The metal-
coated side is then covered with a sheet of the same plastic. The composite sheet is then slit
(cut) into ribbons of the required width.