Disadvantages: The binary weighted digital-to-analogue converter, the analogue output voltage is the

weighted sum of the individual inputs, and that it requires a large range of precision resistors within its
ladder network, making its design both expensive and impractical for most DAC’s requiring lower levels
of resolution
Digital-to-Analogue Output Voltage Equation
Where the denominator value of 16 corresponds to the 16 (24) possible combinations of inputs to the 4-
bit R-2R ladder network of the DAC.

We can expand this equation further to obtain a generalised R-2R DAC equation for any number of
digital inputs for a R-2R D/A converter as the weighting of each input bit will always be referenced to the
least significant bit (LSB), giving us a generalised equation of:

Generalised R-2R DAC Equation

R-2R DAC equation: Where: “n” represents the number of digital inputs within the R-2R resistive ladder
network of the DAC producing a resolution of: VLSB = VIN/2n.

Clearly then input bit VA when HIGH will cause the smallest change in the output voltage, while input bit
VD when HIGH will cause the greatest change in the output voltage. The expected output voltage is
therefore calculated by summing the effect of all the individual input bits which are connected HIGH.

Ideally, the ladder network should produce a linear relationship between the input voltages and the
analogue output as each input will have a step increase equal to the LSB, we can create a table of
expected output voltage values for all 16 combinations of the 4 inputs with +5V representing a logic “1”
condition as shown.
Advantages:

1 Conversion time is very small.

2 Conversion time is constant and independent of the amplitude of the analog input signal VA.

Disadvantages:

1 Circuit is complex.

2 The conversion time is more compared to flash type ADC.

Parameters of DAC:

1) Resolution:-
Resoluiton of a DAC can be defined in two different ways:-
i) Resolution is the no. of different analog o/p voltage values that can be provided by a DAC. For
a n-bit DAC ------ Resolution =2n
Hence the resolution of a 4-bit DAC is 24=16
and that of a 3-bit DAC is 23=8
Hence resolution increases with the increase in no. of bits.

ii) Resolution is also defined as the ratio of change in analog o/p voltage resulting from a change
of 1 LSB at the digital i/p. For an n-bit the
resolution = VFs / 2n−1
Where VFs = Full scale o/p voltage corresponding to the digital i/p with all digits 1
Resolution can be treated as the smallest change in the analog o/p voltage. Resolution will
improve with reduction in the smallest change in the o/p voltage

2) Accuracy: - It is a comparison of actual o/p voltage with expected o/p. It is expressed in

percentage. Ideally, the accuracy of a DAC should be, at worst +, - 1/2 of its LSB.
If the full scale o/p voltage is 10.2 V then for an 8-bit DAC accuracy can be given as
Accuracy = VFS / 2(2n−1) = 10.2/2×255 = 20mV

3) Linearity:- The relation between the digital i/p and analog o/p should be linear. Practically it
is not so due to the error in the values of resistors used for the resistive networks

4) Setting time: - The time required to settle the analog o/p within +,- 1/2 LSB of the final value,
after the change in digital i/p is called a settling time.

5) Conversion time:- It is a time required for conversion of analog signal into its digital
equivalent. It is also called as settling time. It depends on the response time of the switches and
the o/p of the amplifier.
0 – 2.55 V